2 ECOSYSTEMS Meaninc Anb Types Encyclopaedia Britannica has defined Ecosystem as: “A unit that includes all the organisms (biological factor) in a given area interacting with the environmental (physical factors) so that a flow of energy leads to a clearly defined trophic (nutrient requiring) structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (e., exchange of materials between living and non-living sectors). Thus ecosystem is a term applied to a particular relationship between living organism and their environment. ‘An ecosysterh has two main components : (a) abiotic, and (b) biotic. All the non-living components of environment present in an ecosystem are known. as abiotic components. These include the. inorganic and organic components and climatic factors. On the other hand, the living organisms of an ecosystem are known as its biotic components which include plants, animals and micro- organisms. The major components within the ecosystem are the lithosphere (solid earth), the atmosphere, the hydrosphere (water) and the biosphere. There is also the cryosphere (of ice and snow). The ecosystems are classified into two major types : (a) the aquatic, and (b) the terrestrial. 1. Aquatic ecosysTEM The aquatic, ecosystem relates to the following : Freshwater : The freshwater ecosystems are highly productive with rich biological diversity. In India, wetlands cover a vast area and are of various categories, namely, tanks and reservoirs, saline track: etc, They have a wide range of habit tailored according to the nature of the ecosystem. Marine : The open sea and wetlands include the continental shelf, estuarine backwaters, continental slopes, exclusive economic zone of India, sandy beaches freshwater lakes, marshes, style of the population is © scanned with OKEN Scannerjeory and Management ; and are restricted to i ductive ‘ and mangroves. The coral reefs are highly pro ue piological diversity. Ong tropical shallow waters of the sea and harbour ri + asses. winich play aq ofthe unique features of the ecosystem is ihe & dd productivity. The open important role in maintaining the biodiversity an is the least explored as yet. : 0 km. There are. 1g oce: eal tin Ind, we have fairly vast ae on on ‘Andhra Pradesh, , engal, + maritime states in the country, namely, Wes! harashtra and Gujarafl f Ma Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Kerala, Kafnataka, Goa, fobarastirs snd Solana In addition, there are two groups of Islands, Lakshadweep saliz stem which supports Nicobar. The coastal zones representa very Peete w these have direct unique flora and fanaa. The develope ee che main activities in thid impact on the life style of the people. Some o d recreational activities region are shipping, fishing, oil and gas exploration and recreation a For coastal zones, an appropriate monitoring system is very essential, especially keeping in view the threat of frequent natural calamities, possible sea level tise and the increasing migration of population from the rural areas to urban areas, and particularly the coastal areas. The efforts of the Departments of Space and Ocean Development are important in this regard. A scientific biological monitoring system also needs to be evolved. The coastal zone is an ‘unique interface of land, sea and the atmosphere. Mangroves : Mangroves are specialized communities inhabiting intertidal Zones of sheltered, low-lying, tropical and subtropical coasts. They are of two ‘ypes : (i) swampy mangroves which occur below the level of high tides and 8: Environmental Economies : Thi 2 Terrestrry, Ecosysreny The deserts, the m i ountaiy E i ™PortaNt constituents thea! the hills, the forests and - Deserts ; ia C terrestrial ecosystems the Srasslan, d are the ‘Omprise the gen : constitar Mi : ofWw i of the total ‘ajas land mass and © scanned with OKEN ScannerEcosystems : 9 Gviarat and the Alpine cold desert of the Himalayas. They are characterised py variations in temperature, low precipitations and high velocity winds and have different types of sand dunes and unique plant and animal species. Sand dune stabilization through biomass is one of the high priority tasks, Cold desert : The cold desert located in the innermost ranges of the Himalayas at higher altitudes has very rich flora and fauna having almost 3000 species of seed plants and a relatively unexplored lower group of plants The diversity in the animal population in the cold desert is very rich containing come unique species of wild sheeps and goats, Tibetan wild ass, etc. and about =0 endemic insect fauna and migratory birds. Mountains : A large part of the forest area of the country and watershed region is included under this category. There are 10 types which represent major formations and biomes. These are the tropical wet evergreen, semi- evergreen, moist, and dry deciduous, subtropical evergreen, temperate, Himalayan and sub-alpine forests. Itis estimated that these ecosystems harbour 50,000 species of plants and 72,000 animals and also a large number of unknown insects, microbes, etc. Forests : The forest ecosystem is most important for humankind. The tropical forests on the earth’s surface comprise a precious ecosystem of varying habitats, species and individual groups of plants interacting with each other. The world has witnessed a major erosion of the forest ecosystem due to deforestation in tropical Asia, Africa and Latin America. It is estimated that as many as 25% of the species on the earth in the mid 1980s would disappear by 2025 if the current deforestation rate continues. The forest ecosystem is a source of continued biological productivity and important for climatic stability. More than 500 million people inhabit in these areas. The forests contribute to food security, fibre, medicine, and industrial products. But the most important contribution is in the form. of genetic diversity. The closed tropical forests all over the world cover only about 7% of the earth’s land surface, but contain at least half and probably upto 90% of the world species, We still lack adequate knowledge of this natural wealth. Only about 10% of all the tropical species have been described, The current estimate indicates that half of all the vascular plants and vertebrate species occur in the tropical forests, There is a striking difference between the tropical and the temperate forests in terms of their diversity. Miller and Barber have pointed out that species loss through extinction is not anew phenomena in nature. The 10 million species on the earth today are the survivors of the safe population that evolution has produced since life began. In the history of the planet, there have been many mass extinctions. The last mass extinction was 65 million years ago. Since then, the global bio- © scanned with OKEN Scanner10 : Environmental Economics : Theory and Management II time high. versity has reoriented and is almost close to an a r Grasslands : The grassland ecosystem occupies about 7 pee ; ‘earth's surface which includes tropical and temperate Brass an TE tie, ‘and the nutrients present in the soil and en env a producers bs. The pri / int ses and small trees and shru rs NRT EeAMtTAlsa, shew, goats, deer, rabbits and other si while secondary consumers are animals like foxes, jackals, snakes, frogs, lizards a binds ete, 3. ECOLOGICAL GOODS AND SERVICES ~ Tthas so happened over the years _and free services from the biodiversity in! t : atthe local, regional and global levels. The services are exemplified by | maintenance of gaseous quality of the atmosphere which regulate the clim and biosphere processes. Apart from carbon dioxide absorption by pla some species and ecosystems emit trace gases such as methane which acts: greenhouse gas for regulating the atmospheric temperature. The es ecosystems have a direct influence on the precipitation and the water that infiltrates the soil. The groundwater flexes are controlled by the plant Earthworms, for example, influence the water storage capacity of the gro water profile and infiltration rates. Evapotranspiration by vegetation is single largest water flux from the biosphere to the atmosphere. Regulation o oe and droughts is also a free ecological service rendered by forests and ten of rd a nd anor help in the protection of coastal pate Staten F : es. In fact, mangroves act as buffer RENDERED BY THE ECOSYSTEMS hat human beings have derived di herent in these ecosystems. These Ecosystems ma y be affect . and long run natural chi fected by anthropogenetic factors. It also fac an, i SUCh a5 climatic chanpes pero sed from both within and Outside the s examples, anges: Let us explain the functions of ecosyste: © scanned with OKEN ScannerEcosystems : 11 ea Ecological Goods and Its Functions Services rendered by Ecosystems 1. Gas regulation Regulation of atmospheric chemical composition. 2. Water supply Storage and retention of water. 3. Raw materials Portion of gross primary production and Food production extractable as raw materials and food. 4. Erosion control Retention of soil within an ecosystem sediment retention. 5. Genetic resources Sources of unique biological materials and products. 6. Disturbance regulation Damping and integrity ‘of ecosystem response to environmental fluctuations. 7. Nutrient cycling Storage, internal cycling, processing and acquisition of nutrients. 8. Recreation Providing recreation opportunities for tourism. 9. Climate regulation Regulation of global temperature. 4, IMPACT OF HUMAN INTERVENTION ON THE FUNCTIONING OF THE ECOSYSTEM Human induced interventions have a direct effect on the ecological services rendered by the ecosystem. Some of the causative factors are + changes in land and water use, which in turn have a direct impact on habitat destruction and overexploitation of the resources and indirect impact on the composition of the atmosphere and the climate, both directly affecting the biodiversity. Change in biodiversity modify the functions of the population, ecosystem and landscapes. There are serious consequences when the changes occur in the land and water use, particularly major threats to forest ecosystems due to conversion of forests into agricultural lands, urbanization, overexploitation, overgrazing, shifting cultivation and biological invasion. The changes in atmospheric composition take place due to anthropogenic activities such as energy production and use, ‘and deforestation coupled with disruptions in the biogeo-chemical cycles, Various human induced activities relating to Jand and water use and ‘atmospheric changes ultimately result in climate change, The human induced disturbances have reduced the global species and genetic diversity and have had adverse impact on ecosystem functioning. Loss of species and genetic diversity are irreversible with new © scanned with OKEN Scanner12: Environmental Economics : Theory and Management evolutionary processes taking very long. But the changes in atmos} and water uses are reversible. ‘The impact of human induced disturbance: are not only evident from the fact that all kin subcontinent are threatened, but also by the magnitude of species loss. For example, 2000 plant species, about 146 higher animals and a large number of insects are threatened. The threatened domesticated diversity includes 3 breeds of cattle, 7 breeds of sheeps, 5 breeds of goats, 5 breeds of camels, 4 ane of horses and all breeds of poultry and thousands of major food crops art other domesticated plant species." c ; However, a Pee peoea rather than a policing role would be desirable. While it is important to have legal tools for the protection and sustainable use of ecosystems, itis all the more necessary to create awareness in society and have a conservation-loving and conservation-based society committed to the inciples of sustainable development. For this, accelerated R & D efforts mo oi and rewards and incentives should be instituted with more and ‘ore involvement of voluntary agencies, non-governmental organisations and ‘ople at the grassroot level. ~ The scientific management of ecosystems encompasses : (a) better understanding of ecosystems and patterns in biological diversity; (b) restoring and promoting natural ecological processes; (c) ensuring integrity of ecosystems; and (d) advocating the sustainable use of natural resources. This is a dilemma before humankind on how to meet the growing demands n natural resources while checking the loss of the species and population. sphere, land at the local and regional levels .ds of ecosystems in the Indian EXERCISE 1. Define Ecosystem. Discuss its rel 2. What is Ecosystem? What are affect its functioning? levance in natural resource economics. its functions? How human activities 1. For details Tefer to chapter on Blodiversity Crisi is. © scanned with OKEN Scanner