Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes B.Pharma 1Sem | HAP Notes | Noteskarts B.Pharma 1Sem Notes HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-I Unit-1 Introduction to human body * Definition and scope of anatomy and physiology, levels of structural organization and body systems, basic life processes, homeostasis, basic anatomical terminology. Cellular level of organization © Structure and functions of cell, transport across cell membrane, cell division, cell junctions. General principles of cell communication, intracellular signalling pathway activation by extracellular signal molecule, Forms of intracellular signalling: a) Contact-dependent b) Paracrine c) Synaptic d) Endocrine Tissue level of organization © Classification of tissues, structure, location and functions of epithelial, muscular and nervous and connective tissues. For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Introduction to human body Definition and scope of anatomy and physiology, levels of structural organization and body systems, basic life processes, homeostasis, basic anatomical terminology. Anatomy: Anatomy is a branch of science in which deals with the internal organ structure is called Anatomy. © The word “Anatomy” comes from the Greek word “ana” meaning “up” and “tome” meaning “a cutting”. © Father of Anatomy is referred as “Andreas Vesalius™ Physiology: In the physiology we deal with the working principle of different body systems and interaction between each other. In the physiology we will discuss about metabolic pathway of body system and their activities. Scope of Anatomy and Physiology: A. Branch of Anatom « Development biology/Embryology. ¢ In this branch of Anatomy. we deal with the. structural changes and structural. development of sexual gametes and embryo development. Sequential development of embryo is— Gamete formation—Fertilisation—Fallopian development of fertilise egg—Implantation—Embryo formation—Foetus development. 2. Cell biology. © In the cell biology we will study about structural changes and structural development of cell during cell division or cell development. © Cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit — of living things. For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes 3. Histology. © Histology is the study of structural changes and structural development of Tissues. A group of cells having similar structure and act together to perform specific person is Called tissue. It is four types. > Epithelial tissue. > Connective tissue. » Muscular tissue. > Nervous tissue. |. Gross anatomy. In the gross anatomy we deal with the structure of the body that are visible to naked eye.so it is also called Macroscopic Anatomy . Topographic anatomy. In this branch we discuss about layering structure of body part, projection present on skin, and interconnecting structure of muscle, nerves and Arteries. It is also called as surface Anatomy. . Radiographic anatomy. Study of Anatomical structural by using radiographic technique is known as radiographic Anatomy. In this procedure x-ray are used for the structural representation of three-dimensional object in two-dimensional image. 7. Systemic anatomy. © In the systemic Anatomy we deal with Eleven different body system of our body. Integumentary/Exocrine system Endocrine system Nervous system Lymphatic/Immune system Muscular system Skeletal system Respiratory system Circulatory system Digestive system Urinary system Reproductive system VVVVVVVVVVY For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes B. Branch of physiology. 1. Cell physiology. © Study of cells functions, working principle and interaction of cells with cach other is called cell physiology . Endocrinology. Study of hormonal substances and their functions, how to control our body is known as Endocrinology . Neurophysiology. Study of nerve cell and their functions is called Neurophysiology. It is also known as messenger physiology. . Immunology. Study of defensive mechanism in our body against disease causing agent or during disease conditions is called Immunology. . Cardiovascular physiology. Study of working principle/ functions of heart and blood vascular system is known as cardiovascular physiology. . Respiratory physiology. Study of working principle/functions of lungs and air passageway is known as Respiratory physiology . Renal physiology. Study of working principle/functions of the kidney, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra is considered as renal physiology . Pathology. Study of functions change during the disease conditions and aging is called pathophysiology. For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Levels of structural organization and body systems. The human body is made up of four levels of structural organization: > Cells > Tissues > Organs > Organ systems. Cells: © Cells are the basic unit of life, They are the smallest living things and can only be seen with a microscope. Cells are made up of many different parts, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane. Tissues: Tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure and function. There are four main types of tissues: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. Organs: © Organs are groups of tissues that work together to perform a specific function. There are many different organs in the body. including the heart, lungs, stomach, and brain. Organ systems: Organ systems are groups of organs that work together to perform a major function. There are 11 major organ systems in the body, including the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, digestive system, and nervous system. Basic life processes All living things share certain basic life processes. These processes include: © Metabolism: The process by which cells convert food into energy and other substances needed for life. * Growth: The increase in size and number of cells. * Development: The process by which cells and tissues change to form new structures and functions. «Reproduction: The process by which living things create new offspring, * Excretion: The removal of waste products from the body. © Regulation: The process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment. aeNoteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Homeostasis: Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment, This is done by controlling the body's temperature, blood pressure, and other important functions. Homeostasis is essential for life and is maintained by a complex system of feedback loops. « Negative feedback mechanism—it is one to which the system reacts in such a way as to arrest the change or reverse the direction of change. Ex- secretion of thyroxine, maintenance of water balance. © Positive feedback mechanism— It is the one to which the system reacts in such a way as to increase the intensity of the change in the same direction. Ex- coagulation of blood, parturition. I terminology 1. Symmetry related terms used in the anatomy. « Asymmetrical—When the body parts not divided into equal half by cutting any plane. Radial symmetry—When the body parts divided into two equal halves by cutting any radial plane. © Bilateral symmetry—When the body parts divided into two equal halves by cutting any one radial plane otherwise not. 2. Abdominal quadrants and including organs in anatomy. © Right Upper Quadrants (RUQ)—Gall bladder, major parts of liver, minor parts of stomach, small intestine, parts of pancreas. Left Upper Quadrants (LUQ)—Tip of liver, Spleen, major parts of stomach, parts of pancreas. Right Lower Quadrants (RLQ)—Ascending colon, caecum, appendix, right ovary, small intestine, uterus. Lefi Lower Quadrants (LLQ)— Descending colon, sigmoid colon, left ovary, small intestine, urinary bladder, anus. 3. Abdominal region and including organs in anatomy Right Hypochondriac Region—some part of liver, right kidney, gall bladder, parts of large/small intestine. Epigastric Region—major parts of liver. stomach, adrenal gland, some parts of pancreas, spleen, duodenum. Lefi Hypochondriac Region—liver tips, stomach, spleen, pancreas, some part of left kidney, large/small intestine. Right Lumber Region—gall bladder, ascending colon, small intestine, right kidney. a For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Unit-1 Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes © Umbilical Region—transverse colon, small intestine (duodenum), umbilicus (navel). Left Lumber Region—descending colon, left kidney. Right Iliac Region—appendix, caecum, starting of ascending colon Hypogastric Region—urinary bladder, sigmoid colon, reproductive organs, rectum, anus. Left Iliac Region—descending colon. 4. Different positions in anatomy. * Anatomical position—The body is erect the head facing forwards arms by the side and palms of the hand facing forward is known as anatomical position. Supine position—when a person laying on his/her back arms by the side palm facing upwards and feet put together is known as supine position, Prone position—when a person laying on his/her face and chest arms by the side palm facing upwards and feet put together is known as prone position, Lithotomy position—When a person laying on his/her back and legs are temporarily fit supported by stripe is known as lithotomy. This position mostly used in delivering of baby 5. Different plane/cut section in anatomy © Mid sagittal plane—this plane divides our body in left and right parts. © Coronal plane—Coronal plane divide our body into front and back. © Transverse plane—It is a horizontal imaginary plane which divide our body superior and inferior parts. 6. Definitions of various term used in anatomy. ¢ Anterior/ventral—Direction towards front of the body * Posterior/Dorsal—Direction towards back of the body. ¢ Superior/Cranial— Towards the head or upper/highest most point of the body of the body proper. Example — Head, Neck. Inferior/Caudal—Away from head or lower/lowest most point of the body of the body proper. Example- feet Proximal end—Starting end of the joint or attachments. Distal end—Ending end of the joint or attachments and most distant region of proximal end. For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Unit-1 Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Cellular level of organization—Structure and functions of cell, transport across cell membrane, cell division, cell junctions. General principles of cell communication, intracellular signalling pathway activation by extracellular signal molecule, Forms of intracellular signalling: a) Contact-dependent b) Paracrine c) Synaptic d) Endocrine, CELL. © The cell has been variously defined as the unit of structure and function in animals and plants. © The smallest living unit capable of independent existence as a small mass of living matter containing a nucleus or nuclear material, History of cell was first discovered and named by Robert Hook (1665) and first Saw living cell by - Leeuwenhoek cell theory proposed by Schwann — 1839, Electron microscopic structure of cell ¢ All the cells are made up of protoplasm a viscid granular substance which consist of water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates. ¢ The protoplasm remains differentiated into an outer cytoplasm and the denser inner nucleus. Surrounding the cytoplasm there is covering called Cell Membrane. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Plasma membrane vacuole Chromatin For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Unit-1 Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Cell membrane. Cell Membrane is thin clastic and has highly complex structure composed of proteins and lipids. It is a semi — permeable membrane, containing “pores” that allow the passage of water, oxygen, co2 & some solutes in and out of the cell and plays a vital role in maintaining the homeostatic balance of the cell. Cytoplasm. © Ibis the region lying between the cell membrane and nucleus, The cytoplasm contains Cell organ like ~ Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, Mitochondria, Endoplasmic reticulum. © These are scattered in cytoplasm. They are two types of endoplasmic reticulum depending upon the presence or absence of ribosomes which are responsible for protein synthesis. © Endoplasmic Reticulum is two types— A. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum without the presence of ribosomes. They found Lipid B, Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: - Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum with the presence of ribosomes, They found Protein Lysosomes. They are minute structures containing enzymes that digest or remove the particles which are useless or may be harmful to the cell. - * Lysosomes produce hydrolysing enzymes such as phosphatase acid ribonuclease: Golgi bodies * They are the double membranous vacuolar channels which traverse the cytoplasm. The membrane appears to be formed of phospholipids, proteins, and a number of enzymes © Golgi bodies act as a sort of intercellular pump that regulates the movement of fluids in the cell and expulsion of secretary products from the celll * Golgi bodies synthesise polysaccharide part of glycoprotein secretion. Mitochondria. © Itis largest cytoplasmic organelles and energy house of the cell as it consists of enzymes which convert chemical energy of the food nutrients into usable energy from (T.P.) which is internally available for cellular activity, It is also known as Power house of the cell. Mitochondria is discovered by Albert von Kolliker a For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Unit-1 Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes © It appears like filamentous structure or rod shaped. It consists of oxidative enzymes which convert chemical cnergy of the nutrients into form of A.TP. and this energy is available for cellular activity, The mitochondria supply 95% of cell energy and so called power house of the cell. ATP synthase particles inter membrane space es Inner membrane ‘Outer membrane Centrosome © This lies close to the nuclear and is made up of two centrioles, small structures that play a major role in initiating cell division, It is enveloped by a porous nuclear membrane that separates it from the surrounding cytoplasm. During cell divisions. it breaks up and soon after the mitosis it is reconstituted. Nucleus Itisa vital centre of the cell. * Itcontrols both chemical reactions and reproduction of cell. Chromosome © They are minute threads like structure within the nucleus and appear as a mass of darkly-staining material called chromatin, - © Chromosomes determine the specific characteristics of the cell and hereditary characters pass from one generation to the next generation. Cell junctions and transports across membrane. Cell junction. ¢ Tight junction. Adhering junction. © Gap junction. For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes 1. Tight junction: Adjacent plasma membranes are joined tightly together * This help to stop substances from leaking © It is permeable in for many ions © Pass the ion through diffusion or active transport. 2. Adhering junction: © It performs cementing keep neighbouring cells. Adhering junction is defined as a cell junction whose cytoplasmic face is linked to the actin cytoskeleton. Protein forms the encircling bands and attach to the extracellular material * It stabilizes the surface of epithelia. 3. Gap junction: ‘© Gap junctions facilitate the cells to communicate with each other, share nutrients & transfer chemical / electrical signals © Proteins form holes between adjacent animal cells allows various ions and molecules to pass freely between cells. Abundant in cardiac muscle and smooth muscle where they transmit electrical activity Assembly of six proteins that create gap between two plasma membranes called Conn exons. © Regulation of gap junction communication > Intra Cellular Calcium > pH > Voltage > Extracellular signals. Cell membrane. * Cell Membrane is the universal structure present in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes © Cell membrane possess lipid, Protein and carbohydrates © Cell membrane contain lipid bilayer which is directly attached to protein layer * Total thickness of cell membrane is 75A. Transportation through cell membrane. Passive transport. Active transport. Endocytosis. Exocytosis. « Passive transport. © Many molecules can move across the membrane without any energy requirement © Molecule transport higher concentration-> Lower concentrationNoteskarts Unit-1 Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes © Water transport through membrane called diffusion ¢ Some carrier protein also helps in the transportation and it is called facilitate diffusion. 2. Active transport. © Few molecules’ ions can move across the membrane by using the Energy (A.T.P). * Molecule move from lower concentration-> Higher concentration * Example-> Sodium potassium pump (Na+/K+ Pump). 3. Endocytosis. In this procedure bulk amount of solid & liquid material transports. ¢ Bulk structure is formed vesicles or bag like structures. ¢ Easily diffuse to cell membrane. 4. Exocytosis. Removal of waste material from Cell through plasma membrane © Maintain the Electrolytic balance. Cell division. © Cell division is a very important process in all living organism. Itis induced due to disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and cytoplasm, The sequence procedure follows by the cell and eventually divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle. During the cell division DNA replication and cell growth also takes place. On the basis of chromosome number, cell divisions occur in two pathways. * Mitosis © Meiosis Mitosis. The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases. 1. Inter Phase 2, M Phase / Mitosis Phase For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes [> Inter Phase =p Inter Phase ——> inter Phase] ——> —> Inter Phase M-phase (mitosis phase). Cellis metabolically active Cell growth also takes place Also called synthesisphase because DNA synthesis or replication takesplace innucleus Centriole duplicatein cytoplasm Mitosis preparation phase. Protein synthesized during this phase During M-Phase equal distribution of chromosome occurs in progeny cells M- phase divided in Four Stage (On the basis of Chromosomal arrangement), Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Prophase Initiation of condensation of chromosomal material. © Centrosome move towards opposite poles of cell & radiates out microtubules called asters. © End of Prophase Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear envelope disappears. For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Metaphase. Easily study the morphology of chromosome Chromosome made up of two sister chromatids and join together by the centromere. Small disc shaped structure present on the centromere called kinetochores. Spindle fibre attaches to the kinetochores and arranged the chromosome at equator and forms the metaphase plate Anaphase. © Centromere split and chromatid separate with each other * In the microscope single chromatid chromosome structure appear on the opposite poles. Telophase. © Chromosome lost their identity and form the cluster of chromatin © Nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex reform * Also called opposite of prophase, Cytokinesis. © Afier the distribution of genetic material all form the furrow in the plasma membrane. © The furrow gradually deepens and ultimately divide the cell into two daughter cells, Mitosis Mitosis ee s Human Cell Daughter cell Chi =46 — Chromosome =46 For Notes Regular Visit our Website: www.noteskarts.comNoteskarts Unit-1 Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Meiosis. © Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half results in the production of haploid daughter cells. © Into phase of this division some as mitosis division M- phase of this division divided into two parts * Meiosis-I * Meiosis-II Meiosis-I— further divided into four parts- a) Prophase- I It is divided into 5-steps. © Leptotene © zygotene © Pachytene © Diplotenc © Diakinesis In this stage crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of the homologous chromosomes. Site of crossing over form the x-shaped structure is called chiasmata. b) Metaphase- I c) Anaphase- I 4d) Telophase- I Meiosis-II— Further Meiosis-II start after cytokinesis. If is also divided into four stages. OQ Meiosis Human Cell Chromosome =46 ‘Only germ cell Daughter cell Chromosome = 23 For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes General principle of Cell communication. Signal Molecule Generate (Hormone, Neural effect) Attach to the cell membrane receptors ‘ Transducer -> Activate transcription Factor Activate the Gene , Finally response generate (Protein Synthesis) All cells have some ability to sense and respond to specific chemical, Neural signals. Signal transmitted through chemical messenger and receptor which are located on the surface of cell. ‘Two main types of chemicals signals generate in the cells- Cytoplasmic connection between cells ¢ Hormones communication Receptors Receptors are molecule generally made up of protein, that receives the signal for cell. Chemical messenger is bind to the cell receptors and perform the fanction, Mainly three types of Receptors are present on the cell. 1. Jon-Channel linked receptors/Ligand gated ion channels Inotropic receptors: Receptors, Dp FO Hormone Cytoplasmic Connection For Notes Regular Visit our Website: www.noteskarts.comNoteskarts Unit-1 Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Receptors are directly bound with legend (Specific) Then receptors are activated (Conformational change) | Then signal molecule bind with the receptor Finally signal reaches to cell nucleus 2. G-Protein linked receptors Signal molecule bind to the receptor To Activated receptor bandito the G-Protein Then G-Protein also activate and conformational change occurs Then Signals receiver by cell Nucleus and give response For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Unit-1 Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes 3. Enzyme linked receptors Initially two receptor domains are separated to each other When signal molecule comes to contact then it forms dimer | And finally conformational change occurs (activated enzymes) Then signal receive by cell nucleus and give response Form of intercellular signalling. In the cell communication intracellular signalling is known as very important expect for living organisms. ‘There are four basic types of signalling found in the organisms. Paracrine signalling. Autocrine signalling. Endocrine signalling. Direct contact signalling. Paracrine signalling— In this signalling, cell is coordinated with the neighbouring cell by generating the potential gradient and altering the behaviour of those cells. Chemical which are involved in the signalling process is known as paracrine factors and it is transfer by diffusion process. Once a signalling molecule binds to its receptor it causes a conformational change in it that results ina cellular response. The same ligand can bind to different receptors causing different responses (c.g. acetylcholine). On the other hand, different ligands binding to different receptors can produce the same cellular response (e.g., glucagon, epinephrine). Example - Nerve and muscle signalling. a For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Autocrine signalling— It is also called as sclf-signalling. Cell secretes the chemical known as autocrine factors which co-ordinate the self-cell and give the response. Example - Growth factors. Endocrine signalling— Hormone is required for this signalling. Hormones are binding to the cell receptors and give the response Direct contact signalling— Cell is fuse to each other by the plasmodesmatal connections in plant and transfer the signal from one cell to another cell. It is mainly found in the plants. > Paracring signalin) 4 “Franuytt 6 signal v Target Signabing oy cull Been. oe SD dixact contact signotin Hoymons signaling - salina ona ane Hovmont 00° % e.8, For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes su Tissue is defined as collection of cells which are similar in origin structure and function/A group of cells having the same origin, similar shape and specific common general function is known as Tissues/Cell is the structural and functional unit of the body and group of cells which is similar in origin structure and function called tissue/Group of Tissues which perform the special function is known as organ/Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism/Tissues are the group of similar cells and perform a similar function and interconnected by the non-living intercellular material or matrix. > Study of tissue is called Histology. > The word Histology was given by Mayr (1891). > Father of Histology is Marcello Malpighi > The term tissue was coined by the Bichat. Classification of tissue— there are four types of tissue. Epithelial tissue. Muscular tissue. Connective tissue. Nervous tissue. Epithelial tissue— Epithelial tissue provides the protective covering to the other tissue. Basically, all types of epitheliums consist of the cells with minimum intercellular space and so help in protection absorption, excretion and secretion. ¢ Duc to presence on outer surface, it does not contain blood vessels or capillaries. It absorbs nutrients from the lymph vessels or connective tissue. Epithelial tissue is present on the basal membrane and lower the basal membrane connective tissue are present. Due to involvement of the junction cell communicate with each other. The word epithelial was introduced by the Ruysch. It is developed by three primary germinal layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) aeNoteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Classification of epithelial tissue. Epithelial Tissue Simple Epithelial Tissue Compound Epithelial Tissue 1 Squamous Epithelium 1. Transitional Epithetum 2. Columnar Epithelium 2. Stratified squamous corified epithelium 3, Cuboidal Epithelium 3. Satfied squamous Noncorified epithelium 4. Ciliated Epithelium 4. Stratified columnar Epithelium Simple epithelium tissue— The Simple Epithelium a single layer of cell called Simple Epithelium Tissue. It divided into four. 1, Squamous epithelium. © Itconsists of one layer of flat cell, nucleus usually placed in the center of the cells. It is generally situated on basement membrane. These are present in the alveoli of the lungs. Henle’s loop of the nephron, the inner lining of the heart and inner wall of blood vessels etc. These cells help in the filtrations, exchange of gases from blood and protect the internal organs. Squamous, epithelia! cells Basement membrane Connective" wssue Squamous epithelium For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes 2. Columnar epithelium. * They are composed of single layer of tall and slender cells and height is more than its breadth. Their nuclei are located at the base. Free surface may have microvilli It is found in lungs and duct of glands. It also found in the lining of stomach and intestine and help in secretion and absorption. membrane Connective. issue Columnar epithelium 3. Cuboidal epithelium. © These cells protect the organ and help in the secretion. © Itis formed of one layer of cubical cells which has the same dimension from each side. This is commonly found in ducts of glands and tubular parts of nephron in kidneys and its main functions are secretion and absorption it also found in bronchioles. salivary glands, thyroid etc. The proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) of nephron in the kidney has microvilli. For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Cuboidal epithelial cells Basement membrane Connective Cuboidal epithelium 4, Ciliated epithelium. © These cells consist of 12-15 hairy structure called . These are usually present in respiratory tract, fallopian tubes, etc. There function is to move particles or mucus in specific directions over the epithelium. ‘These help in the flow of mucous, and prevent the entry of Ciliated epithelium bacteria, particles ete. Compound epithelium tissue— It is divided into four. 1. Transitional epithelium. © Itconsists 3-4 layer of cells. These are known transitional because its nature is migrating from simple to stratified epithelia cells. For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Unit-1 Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes © They are found in the pelvis of kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, urethrae. These are helpful in protection of the organ. These also prevent reabsorption of excreted material back to the system. Transitional epithelium ied squamous cornfield epithelium. It consists of many layers of squamous epithelial cells modified into keratinized cells due to deposition of keratin. They are found in the skin, nails, and palms. These provide protection against atmospheric and mechanical pressure and injury etc. 3. Stratified squamous non- cornfield epithelium. ¢ They are similar in the structure as Stratified squamous cornfield epithelium except they do not contain the keratinized cells. These are found in various mucous membranes. ¢.g. mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and vaginal mucosa. These cells also provide protection and helpful in secretion of mucus ete ied squamous non- cornfield epithelium. It consists of multiple layers of cells which has more height than the breath. These are present in conjunctiva, pharynx and mucosa. These are helpful protection and secretion of various substances. For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Connective tissu Connective tissue is the type of primary tissues which provide the binding and supportive function and provide the framework of the body. Connective tissues are most abundant and widely distributed in the body of multicellular organisms. It is stored the fat and mainly present beneath the skin. In all connective tissue except blood, the cells secrete fibers provide strength, elasticity and flexibility to the tissue. These cells also secrete modified polysaccharides, which accumulate between cells and fibers and act as matrix (ground substances). On the basis of fibers arrangement, it divided into two parts. Loose connective tissue: - Cells and fibers loosely arrangement in a semi-fluid ground substance. It contains the fibroblasts (fibers producing cells), microphages and mast cells. Dense connective tissue: -Cells and fibers are compactly packed in this tissue. Example—Tendons (join bone to muscle). Connective tissue can be diyided into following groups: Areolar tissue Adipose tissue Fibrous tissue Elastic tissue Lymphoid tissue Reticular tissue Cartilages Bone Blood Lymph . Areolar tissue— It consist loosely arranged tissue and usually present throughout the body. These are present in subcutaneous sub mucous between muscle and nerves. . Adipose tissue— They are also known as dosing tissue and present in subcutaneous tissue. They usually contain cells containing free fat inside oe For Notes Regular Visit our Website: www.noteskarts.comNoteskarts Unit-1 Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes the cell. The excess of nutrients which are not used immediately are converted into fats and are stored in this tissue. The cells are generally large rounded or oval in shape. . Fibrous tissue— Fibrous tissue is also known as white “Fibrous” tissue as they are composed of mainly white Fiber of collagen cells like fibroblast, histiocytic, basophils, mast cells. Deprived the strong to the tissue and from the ligaments and tendons, diameter and neural canal. Its function is to connect the different tissues and the different part of the body to provide mechanical protection against stretch and pressure. . Elastic tissue— They are mainly consisting elastic fibers and present in the walls of arteries and in the air tubes of respiratory track and some ligament. They provide supportive muscular strength and help in the maintaining the erect position of the spine. . Lymphoid tissue— Lymphoid tissue contains lymph, lymph gland, lymphatic vessels and present in small intestine, pharyngeal tonsils etc They supply lymphocytes to the blood and provide the protection against bacterial infections. . Reticular tissue— They are similar to the arcolar tissue except lymphocyte cells presents ina very large number and forms the bulk of tissue. They are present in spleen, liver, lymph gland, bone etc. . Cartilage— Cartilage is a connective tissue and elastic in nature. It contains large quantity of matrix. They are usually found at the joints between the bones. These are covered by a membrane perichondrium. Cartilage is present in the tip of nose, outer ear joints, between adjacent bones of the vertebral column, limbs and hands in adults. The cartilage are three types. Hyaline cartilage Fibrocartilage Elastic cartilage 8. Bone— Bones are the hardest connective tissue which consistent the skeleton. It contains ground substance and bone cells. Calcium salts are present in the ground substance. Bones provided the frame work of the body and help in protection and locomotion. Bones cells are three types- © Osteoblast © Ostcoclasts © Osteocyte aeNoteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Bone can also divide into two types- A. Compact bone (¢.g,, long bones)— Compact bones consists of Haversian canals runs longitudinally. It contains blood and lymph capillaries and nerves. Surrounding this canal layer of bones deposited in concentric circles and space between two layers called lacunae contain lymph and bone cells (Osteocytes). . Cancellous bone (Spongy bones)— Canaliculi is present between lacunae and Haversian lymph carrying the nourishing material through these canaliculi . Blood— Blood is a fluid connective tissue distributed in blood vessels and pumped by heart. The ground substance of blood is watery fluid called plasma and various types of cells are suspended in it. These are: - © Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells) * Leucocytes (White Blood Cells) * Blood platelets. Leucocytes are various types ¢.g., Neutrophils, acidophilus, monocytes and lymphocyte etc. Blood is helpful in transportation of gases ¢.g., 02, COs. Transportation of nutritive substance and hormones etc. 10. Lymph— Lymph is modified tissue containing 94% water and 6% solids and only lymphocytes are’present in the form of cells. Lymph is providing the protection against infection. Muscular tissue—Each muscle is made of many long, cylindrical fibers arranged in parallel manners. These fibers are composed of numerous fine fibrils. called myofibrils. * Muscle fibers contract (shorten) in response to stimulation, then relax (lengthen) and return to their uncontracted state in a coordinated fashion © Muscle tissue plays an active role in the movement of the body Muscle tissue divided into three types— © Skeletal muscle tissue. ¢ Smooth muscle tissue. * Cardiac muscle tissue. For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Unit-1 Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Skeletal muscle tissue— These tissues are closely attached to skeletal bones. In a typical muscle such as the biceps, striated (striped) skeletal muscle fibers are bundled together in a parallel fashion. i pace Smooth muscle tissue— Smooth fibers taper at both ends and do not show striations. Smooth muscle as involuntary as their functioning cannot be directly controlled. The wall of internal organs such as blood vessels. stomach, and intestine contain this type of muscle tissue. Cardiac muscle tissue— It is only present in the heart. It is also an involuntary tissue and itis self-regulated. Cell junctions fuse the plasma membrane of cardiac muscle cell and appear like striped muscle. For Notes Regular Visit our Website:Noteskarts Subscribe & Visit our Website For Notes Nervous tissue: * They are specialized tissue for reception discharge of stimuli and transmission, Nerve Tissue consists the nerve cells and nerve fibers. Neurons. the unit of neural system are excitable cells. The neuroglial cell which constitutes the rest of the neural system protect and support neurons. Cell body—The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell organelles and nucleus and also. certain granular bodies called Nissls granules which are helps in the stimulus conduction. © Nerves system is composed three types. Nerve cell- Each nerve cell has a nucleus highly specialized protoplasm. The body of the nerve cell gives rise to nerve fibers. * Axon ~ It is the main fiber when arises from the body of each nerve cell. Impulses pass through the axon in one direction only. Dendrites — These are short fibers arising from the body of the nerve cell. They conduct impulses towards the cell body synopses is the junction between axon of one neuron end dendrites of another called dendrites. Cell body— The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell organelles, nucleus, and certain granular bodies called Nissls granules. Syapse Structure of neuron For Notes Regular Visit our Website: