Nigeria

Answers
UPDATE: 2015 Presidential election won by Muhammadu Buhari.
• First time ever that ruling party lost and election
• Buhari’s party is the All Progressives Congress (APC)
• Buhari took control of Nigeria in the 1983 though a coup and was then ousted in another
coup in 1985
• After losing 4 straight presidential elections, he won in 2015 (even though claims of
election fraud were made, Jonathon accepted defeat)
• BUHARI RE-ELECTED 2019, 2ND TERM (wins 19 of 36 states; defeats Abubakar of
PDP)
Nigeria’s political traditions include strong democratic movements coupled with what?
• Military rule

Even though Nigeria has vast oil reserves, what is the condition of the population?
• 60% of its 170 million people live in poverty with a PPP of $2,500 a year

What is the greatest challenge Nigeria faces and identify the two major splits which divide the nation?
• The greatest challenge is a lack of a coherent national identity which binds people together
• The two major splits are religion and ethnicity
• The country is split among the Christian south and Muslim north and people identify more
with their traditional ethnic group, religion and region than they do in being Nigerian

Compared to the election of 2007, what was the sign of hope shown in the 2011 election?
• While the 2007 election was one of the dirtiest and most corrupt ever (and most were), the
election in 2011 was relatively clean and the hope is that democracy is slowly taking root
• The cleanest presidential elections ever were held in April, 2011: Jonathon won with a simple
majority (more than 50%) and obtained the required 25% of the vote in at least 2/3 of the
states
• Buhari then wins in 2015 in a somewhat peaceful/clean election, then again in 2019

Even though Nigeria earned its independence in 1960 what is the “national question” which remains
and how are problems typically solved?
• The major question is how the country should be governed or whether it should even remain
as one nation
• Regional disagreements are numerous and problems are solved typically by military force or
authoritarianism rather than mutual agreement

What has happened with respect to constitutions since the first one was created in 1914?
• There have been 8 since that first one and all have been heavily amended, suspended or
ignored to serve the desires of each president

What is constitutionalism?
• The acceptance of the constitution as a guiding set of principles for governing a nation

Nigeria’s tendency to fragment/fall apart is based on what 3 major factors?

• Ethnicity, region and religion

Although many generals from the military have used coup d’états to gain power, what is one benefit
of the military?
• It’s the only truly national organization in Nigeria and a source of stability, which explains
why military generals have often taken control of the nation
Who is the current president of Nigeria who took office in 2010, who did he replace and what makes
both men different from past presidents?
• Goodluck Jonathon, who replaced Yar’Adua who died in office
• They are different than past presidents because neither came from the military
• Buhari wins 2015 presidential election, then again in 2019

Why is the legitimacy of the government so low today and provide two examples?
• Citizens have little to no trust in their leaders ability to run a trustworthy state
• Leaders are highly corrupt and pay no attention to rule of law

Explain the influence of sharia law in the north.

• Sharia law has traditionally been important in the north, where it became strict public law in
1999, enforced by the Hisbah
• In 2008, the government’s federal police force cracked down in an effort to promote
secularism in the north
• Today, sharia law is much more pragmatic than fundamentalist and focuses on better
education, recycling, etc…

What are the 3 historical political tradition periods in Nigeria?

• Pre-colonial era (800-1860) with many centralized non-Nigeria states in the north
• Colonial era (1860-1960)
• Independence (1960-present)

What is the difference in the geography of the north compared to the south?
• The north is mostly flat savannah land while the south is mostly jungle

Elaborate in the 5 features of the pre-colonial era (trade connections, Islam, Kinship politics, Complex
identities and democratic impulses)?
• Trade connections (Niger river and the Sahara allowed trade and contact with other
civilizations/people like the Berbers)
• Islam (Hausa trading brought Islamic influence gradually to the north, which included
authoritarian leaders, sharia law and women being subordinate to men)
• Kinship-based politics (especially in the south, organization stayed at village level and states
did not form like in the north)
• Complex political identities (there was no Nigeria or defined borders but rather a mix of the
above and other kingdoms and states)
• Democratic impulses (southern region rulers in pre-colonial era were supposed to be
responsible for governing in the interest of their community and representing their peoples
interests and would be removed from office if they failed to fulfill their duties)

Compared to Mexico, when did Nigeria obtain independence and why has this been a problem for the
country?
• Mexico obtained independence in 1821 and Nigeria in 1960, so Nigeria has had much less
time to develop a national identity and political stability
Britain introduced rule of law to Nigeria during the colonial period. Elaborate on the impact of the 5
other influences it also planted (authoritarian rule, interventionist state, individualism, Christianity
and intensified ethnic clashes)?
• Authoritarian rule (made chiefs stronger and accountable only to British interests and not their
own people)
• Interventionist state (chiefs expected to fulfill Britain’s economic goals with no individual
rights to clan/community members, or checks against the chiefs)
• Individualism (chiefs began to focus on their own gain, not the well being of their
community)
• Christianity (primarily in the south and west which led to a spilt with Muslims in the north)
• Intensified ethnic clashes (Britain pitted Hausa-Fulani, Igbo and Yaruba groups against each
other for its own gain by offering bureaucratic jobs and education to those who supported its
policies; independence leaders further intensified ethnic clashes as they tried to gain their own
followers in movements for independence)

Elaborate on the 6 main traditions of the independence era (parliamentary to presidential, growing
ethnic conflict, military rule, corrupt leaders, federalism and economic dependence on oil)?
• Parliamentary system (1960-1979) to presidential (initial government modeled after Britain
but changed because no majority party could be formed due to ethnic and religious divisions;
presidential system also has problems because no strong checks and balances exists)
• Growing ethnic conflict (Hausa-Fulani from north united with Igbo of southeast to form a
majority but this angered the Yaruba in the west; eventually the Igbo seize power and
establish military rule)
• Military rule (Igbo leader killed in coup d’état, after which Igbo sought independent state of
Biafra, which led to a civil war from 1967-1970)
• Corrupt personalized rule (leaders ruled for their own gain and not the interests of Nigeria)
• Federalism (power sharing arrangement between federal and state governments to try and
reduce ethnic tension was attempted but the state remained highly centralized)
• Economic dependence on oil (corrupt leaders take profits and Nigeria has not diversified its
economy)

Why did Nigeria change from a parliamentary system to a presidential system in 1979, what nation
did they base the system on and what was the hope?
• Ethnic divisions made it impossible to create a majority party for PM to rule
• Presidential system copies the US in theory with 3 branches but the reality is a strong
executive
• The hope was that a nationally elected president could unite the nation

What was the Biafra Civil War about from 1967-1970?

• The Igbo fought for independence from Nigeria after their military coup leader was killed in
another coup

What is the theory and reality with federalism in Nigeria?

• Idea was to reduce ethnic and religious tensions by creating a federal system of power sharing,
like the US
• Reality is state stayed unitary with presidents holding all power and ethnic/religious tensions
remain strong
What are some of Nigeria’s problems that relate to being so dependent on oil?
• Leaders have become very corrupt and use revenue for themselves
• Other parts of the economy were ignored for development
• When oil prices fall, so does the economy

Elaborate on the 5 characteristics of the political culture of Nigeria (Prebendalism, state control v. rich
civil society, tension between modernity and tradition, religious conflict and geographic influence)?
• Prebendalism (patron clientelism type corruption based on ethnicity and region that benefits
only those who are included)
• State control v. rich civil society (under British and military rule, state sought to control
people’s lives but civil society was and remains very strong)
• Tension between modernity and tradition (present values conflict with those from pre-colonial
times)
• Religious conflict (primarily between Muslims and Christians)
• Geographic influences (170 million people from various ethnic groups and high growth rate)

Identify the main ethnic groups from the northwest, southwest and southeast and their religion.
• Northwest - Hausa-Fulani (Muslim)
• Northeast - Kanuri (Muslim)
• Middle Belt – Muslim and Christian mix
• Southwest - Yaruba (Christian 40% Muslim 40% and others)
• Southeast - Igbo (Christian, Catholic)

xWhy has it been difficult for Nigeria to build a modern state?

• Ethnic and religion based conflicts and personalized, corrupt leadership block development

Changed occurred in the northern savanna areas through cultural diffusion; define cultural diffusion
and give an example.
• Cultural diffusion is change which occurs through contact and spread of customs and beliefs
from one people to another
• An example would be Islam which occurred gradually in Hausa

What role have the Fulani played in Nigeria in 1808 and what happened to them?
• Through a jihad, they established a Muslim state (Sokoto Caliphate) in 1808 in the upper
parts of the country with a central government based on Islam; they were later colonized by
the British

Compared to the peoples of the north, how did people in the south live and how did geography play a
role in their contact with Europe?
• Communally with kinship community based relations
• These groups were most affected by the Atlantic slave trade because they were close to the
ocean when Europeans arrived and introduced Christianity

What is indirect rule, where did the British primarily establish it and what was its primary purpose?
• Indirect rule is when the British trained mostly southern natives to fill a European style
bureaucracy from 1860-1960, the primary purpose of which was to export natural resources
from southern ports for British benefit

Why did the British allow the northern part of the country to retain its government structures?
• Because the northern areas were already highly organized around Islamic traditions
What was the effect of British political change on chiefs and north/south views in Nigeria?
• The changes gave elites/chiefs greater power which they then began to use more for personal
gain than community needs or interests
• Changes emphasized in negative ways the differences between north and south

What were some of the effects of the British introducing Western style education to Nigeria?
• Benefit was more people became literate
• Bad thing was that it created a cleavage between elites and people, as elites got the education
• Elites began to think of themselves as different and better than others
• Because most schools were in the south, a further rift was created between north and south
and southerners began to look down on northerners

What was the primary cause of the first coup (1966) after independence?
• Ethnic rivalries to gain power, this because there was/is no unifying Nigerian identity

STOP AT THE ABOVE QUESTION

What are some characteristics of each of the 3 presidential elections (1999, 2003, 2007) since moving
to a presidential system in 1979?
• Fraud
• Violence
• Military leaders win most every election except in 2007 (which Yar’Adua won) or come to
power through coups

Identify some examples of how corruption has been institutionalized with the political elite in the
modern era.
• Political elite maintain foreign bank accounts, stealing money from the state (Babangida
1985-1993 and Abacha 1993-1998)
• State funds given to elite through patron client system
• 60% of profit from oil sales in Persian Gulf War stolen by elites

In 1993, Abiola won the presidential election but what happened?

• Babangida, incumbent general who took power in a coup, annulled the election but was
overthrown in another coup by Abacha in 1994
• Abacha then died mysteriously in 1998 and was replaced by another general, Abubakar

What are 4 major societal problems which make democracy a challenge for Nigeria?
• 60% in poverty
• Huge gap between rich and poor (high .43 GINI coefficient rate)
• Health issues like AIDS
• Low literacy rate of 68%, particularly for females 60%

Nigeria’s literacy rate is the lowest of the 6 nations covered; why is the literacy rate is so low for
women?
• Traditional roles and values
What are 5 major cleavage issues in Nigeria today that fragment the society greatly and make it
almost impossible to form an agreement on how to govern?
• Ethnicity (hundreds with their own customs, languages and religions)
• Religion (50% Muslim north, 40% Christian south, 10% native religions)
• Region and north v. south (Northwest, Southeast, Southwest ethnic division and North v.
South religious division)
• Urban/rural (urban areas have access to information, interest groups and political
organizations, all of which rural areas lack)
• Social class (great division between elites and ordinary people)

What ethnic conflict do Russia and Nigeria have in common that has challenged the legitimacy of the
state?
• Ethnic-based civil wars
• Russia – Chechnya
• Nigeria - Biafran Civil War 1967-1970

Why was the capital moved from Lagos to Abuja?

• To attempt to build a neutral zone in the center of the country

What is the status of civil society in Nigeria?

• Even though the government viewed people more as subjects than participants and tried to
control them, trade unions, religious groups and other interest groups are emerging
• Even military regimes have allowed a free press to exist and it often criticizes the government

Explain what is meant by Nigeria’s form of patron clientelism, known as prebendalism.

• A system where all public offices are treated as personal fiefdoms
• Exists in all levels of society and is highly corrupt but does represent a form of political
participation in Nigeria for those who get to participate

Outline the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP).
• Founded by Ken Saro-Wiwa, the movement is both a centripetal and centrifugal force which
tries to ensure environmental protection by Western oil companies and economic benefits for
Ogoni people in the Niger Delta (centripetal in that it unites people to protect the environment
and centrifugal in the sense that it focuses on only Ogoni people)
• MOSOP shows that civil society groups are strong and active in Nigeria

What are some problems with political parties and elections Nigeria?
• There are many and they are fluid with most formed around charisma of party candidates
• Most elections fraudulent, corrupt and often canceled

Even though voting rates may seem high, why are they questionable?
• They are questionable because of fraud, things like stuffed boxes or misreporting of results

What major function does Transparency International undertake, how does it view Nigeria and what
positive thing happened in the 2010 Corruption Perception Index (CPI) report?
• Transparency international compiles statistics about corruption and ranks Nigeria as one of
the most corrupt nations in the world
• In 2010, Nigeria moved ahead of Russia and Iran (but that might have had more to do with
those countries getting worse than Nigeria getting better, but could also have been due to the
fact that President Yar’Adua was not a former general)
What is the CPI and how is it measured?
• It is the Corruption Perception Index and ranges between 1 and 10, with 10 being the best
indicator of being corruption free

Corruption is a part of the political culture with bribes and favors expected in all 6 countries studied
except?
• The United Kingdom,
• CPI is low in patron client states such as China, Mexico and Nigeria
• In all states but the UK, corruption is part of the political culture

Even though Yar’Adua was viewed as a clean president, what questionable thing did he do with the
Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC)?
• He fired its clean and corrupt free head, Ribadu, most likely because Ribadu arrested one of
his major campaign donors and a member of the ruling People’s Democratic Party, James
Ibori

What is a popular target for movements which have grievances and what has been the response of
those targeted?
• International oil companies, especially in the Niger Delta
• Since 2006, there has been a great deal of violence against foreign oil companies from people
who want job benefits and environmental protection
• Some oil companies have left Nigeria feeling the government is not stopping the problems

What is the informal rule for alternating the presidency, why is this done and what happened in 2010
with President Jonathon?
• The informal rule it to alternate the presidency from north to south to counter the
ethnic/religious cleavage
• In 2010, protests broke out in the north because Jonathon came from the south and had
already partially served a term as president after Yar’Adua (northerner) died in office and
vice-president Jonathon took over
• North felt it was their turn to have someone from their region as president

What is Boko Haram and what have they been doing?

• They are an extremist Islamic group from the north that wants sharia law for all of Nigeria
and have carried out attacks in the north and against Christians in the south

xHow are women represented in the government and what is the likely reason?
• 4-6% representation in House and Senate but 22% bureaucrats are women
• The likely reason for such low representation is traditional roles and values

What have the IMF and Word Bank required Nigeria to do in order to receive loans?
• Restructure the economy (privatize para-statals, cut spending, balance budget…)

Why are linkage institutions highly fluid in Nigeria today?

• Democracy is not so strong so linkage systems have not developed

Political parties in Nigeria are most always based on what?

• Region, ethnicity and personality
Compare Mexico’s one party system to Nigeria’s situation.
• The PRI ran Mexico as a one party state, but this allowed for stability
• In Nigeria, factionalism has led to so many parties that a coherent party system has not been
possible
• Multiparty system in Nigeria reinforces ethnic and religious cleavages
• Parties appear then disappear or reorganize frequently around individuals

What are 3 notable political parties?

• Peoples Democratic Party (PDP)
• Yar’Adua’s and Jonathon’s party which also controls National Assembly (bicameral)
and has attracted voters from both north and south, though fraud was claimed in the
2007 election
• Tries to be a truly national party that includes north and south
• Controls both legislative houses (lost Senate majority in 2015; APC now holds most
seats but does not have a majority)
• Congress for Progressive Change (CPC) AND/OR All Progressives Congress (APC)
• Northern interest party founded in 2009 for the 2011 presidential election, where its
candidate (former general Buhari) lost and challenged the election result.
• Action Congress of Nigeria (ACN)
• Presidential candidate Abubakar disqualified by INEC in 2007 then reinstated by
Supreme Court. He lost in the election, as did the ACN candidate (Rubari) in 2011
• Has second largest number of seats in legislative houses

What is one positive trend with political parties since 1999 and how does the PDP best show this?
• That some are showing signs of getting support from many parts of the country and not just a
specific region (they are becoming more national)
• PDP best shows this because even though it’s a Muslim northern party, its presidential
candidates have come from both north and south

What is the requirement to run candidates for national legislative and presidential candidates?
• A party must earn at least 5% of the votes in 2/3 of the states in local elections in order to run
candidates for national elections (president must win at least 25% vote in 2/3 states to win
along with a simple majority-over 50%)
• This 1998 requirement drastically reduced the number of political parties to 3 main ones now

What is the criticism of the Independent National Election Commission (INEC) and what is a positive
trend from the 2011 elections?
• That it’s also corrupt, like helping Obasanjo keep Abubakar from running in the 2007
election
• The Supreme Court overturned the INEC and Obasanjo’s effort to stop Abubakar but
Yar’Adua won the election
• One positive thing is that Jonathon placed a trusted academic to oversee the INEC (Jega) and
the elections were quite clean in 2011

What was the plan with Jega’s open secret ballot plan in the 2011 election and did it work?
• The “open secret ballot” plan called for voters to register and remain at voting booths on
election day and stay until all votes were counted to ensure that multiple votes did not take
place and it was considered successful
• Jega also updated voter registration lists to get rid of fraudulent voters and had ballots
printed overseas to reduce chance of counterfeiting
STOP AT THE ABOVE QUESTION
Citizens vote for candidates at what levels?
• Local, state and national

What national representatives do citizens vote for?

• President, House of Representative members and Senators

How does one win the presidential election in Nigeria and how long is a presidential term?
• If a candidate gets a simple majority (more than 50%) in round 1, he wins
• If no candidate earns a simple majority a second round takes place (run-off, top 2 candidates)
• Must also receive 25% of the vote in 2/3 of the states to win (effort to reduce regionalism)
• President has a 2 term limit and the goal is to rotate the presidency among leading regions

Why must a presidential candidate earn 25% in 2/3 of the states to win?
• Attempt to unify the people and ensure a purely regional candidate won’t win

How are legislative elections held?

• 109 senators (3 senators from each of the 36 states elected by direct vote and 1 from Abuja)
• 360 House of Representative members elected by direct vote (FPTP/plurality/winner takes all
in single member districts and no run-offs)
• APC holds most seats in both houses (in 2015 & 2019) but not 2/3 majority in either
• Strong presidency means they have little power

On what level are elections fraudulent: local, state or national?

• All of them even though 2011 was relatively clean

What were some voting problems in the 2007 election?

• Ballot box theft, shortage of ballots, delays, no privacy when voting, names of candidates
missing, stuffed boxes with dead and fraudulent voters, underage voting, no serial numbers on
ballots
• Abubaker was disqualified from running by the INEC and later allowed to by Supreme Court
• Obasanjo, the incumbent, tried to amend the constitution so that he could run for a third term
in office, but his effort was blocked by the legislative branch
• Still, 2007 was the first time a civilian president won

Even though Jonathon won 59% of the vote in the 2011 election, how was regionalism shown to be a
major issue?
• He did not win in any of the 12 northern states and violence broke out when people claimed
the results were fraudulent (Jonathon from the Christian south)
• Main contender Buhari from CPC party won only 25% of the vote in southern states
• Buhari wins 2015 presidential election by defeating Jonathon; Buhari wins again in 2019

Labor unions were independent and politically powerful until Babangida did what?
• Limited their previously independent and powerful influence by establishing a corporatist
system with a central labor union that replaced previous unions and only candidates supported
by Babangida could be labor leaders
• Independent labor movement is not completely dead though as 2003 protest against oil prices
shows
• Nigeria Labor Congress held national strikes in 2007; this shows power is returning to unions
• Business and human rights groups also active in fighting for their interests
What is notable about the mass media in Nigeria and what is the most common source of information
for the people?
• That it is well developed and independent even when generals held power like Abacha who
closed many down in 1994
• Although it can be highly critical of the government, the media also reflects ethnic divisions
with southern papers criticizing people in the north and vice versa
• Radio is the primary source of information for most Nigerians (TV and papers in cities)

Even though Nigeria is a federal system in theory, copied from the US, what is the reality for the
executive and state/local governments?
• An executive/strong president who is not checked by the legislature or judiciary who can
appoint officials without legislative approval
• State and local governments are totally dependent on the central government so Nigeria is a
unitary system in reality where true federalism has not taken place

What is patrimonialism in Nigeria?

• Patron client system where president gives jobs like cabinet positions, bureaucracy chiefs and
others to his close supporters (patronage/patrimonial system)

What are some key points with respect to the bureaucracy?

• Introduced by the British, there are many civil servants in Nigeria
• Considered corrupt, too big/bloated and inefficient today just like Mexico
• Bribery is common and jobs awarded through patron client system (prebendalism and
patrimony)

What are para-statals?

• Corporations owned by the state designed to provide commercial and social welfare services
• Examples include public utilities, public transportation, agriculture subsidies, steel, petroleum,
defense industries
• Function as a form of state corporatism and link people to government but government
always has the controlling upper hand

What are some key points on the bi-cameral National Assembly in terms of term limits, how they are
elected and their actual power?
• Serve 4 year renewable terms, all elected by plurality/FPTP/winner takes all
• Includes both the Senate (109 seats) and House of Representatives (360 seats)
• Historically no real power as executive dominates, but refusal to allow Obasanjo to run a third
term shows it has some power

How has the judiciary changed from the early years of independence?
• It was quite independent and objective in 1960, the time of independence, and based on a
combination of common, traditional and sharia law, and theoretically has the power of judicial
review
• Military rulers reduced power of courts as leaders ruled by decree, cancelled court decisions
or ran their own tribunal courts
• Judicial review suspended and president’s friends appointed as judges
• Current judges not well versed in law and decisions manipulated by government but courts
did set up tribunals to investigate 2007 election fraud claims and rule of law taking hold
slowly
How did Babangida protect his authority with respect to military leaders who thought military should
stay out of government and what is the single greatest benefit the military has provided to Nigeria?
• Constantly moved leaders around and used patronage system to appoint senior officials
• Military has been heavily involved in politics with coups, but remains one of the few stable
national organizations in Nigeria

What is the loyalty pyramid?

• A patron client system whereby senior officials are supported by a broad base of junior
officials and everyone involved is corrupt
• Wealth of Nigeria has been squandered/stolen by those in the loyalty pyramid

How has oil been a great source of weakness and corruption for Nigeria?
• Nigeria is too dependent on oil as a source of revenue, oil price fluctuations can greatly
affect the nation and leaders steal oil profits

How do people feel in the south about the revenue sharing plan the government proposed?
• People in the south do not want to share their oil revenue with people in the north who have
none
• Even if a revenue sharing plan could be implement, most citizens think government leaders
will just take the money for themselves anyway

Elaborate on how Nigeria is a rentier state and how do Nigerians behave in this system.
• The money made from oil is known as rents, as Nigeria obtains revenue from foreign
companies it allows to dig for oil in Nigeria (Nigeria is a member of OPEC along with Iran)
• Rents obtained are really the only source of income for the state which does not have a
diversified economy
• Individuals, groups and communities then act in a rent seeking behavior, in order to obtain
some of that rent; those who benefit are often part of the patron client system
• Since many Nigerians cannot get rents, they resort to working in the informal economy and
do not report what income they make to the government

What is the situation with the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND).
• The group has used violent methods, including kidnapping and siphoning up to 10% from oil
pipelines, to try and get oil companies to give more money to the people in the region
• Such efforts have reduced oil production by 25% and some oil companies have left the
country

Why did Nigeria have to turn to the World Bank and IMF in the 1980’s for loans and what did they
require in return?
• The price of oil fell then national debt increased
• World Bank and IMF sought structural adjustment to diversity the economy so it would not be
so dependent on oil (results not very positive)
• Nigeria also required to reduce spending and privatize para-statals, both with little success

How did the global economic crisis of 2008 affect Nigeria?

• Sharp drop in oil prices hurt the nation, currency devalued and tourism greatly decreased but
Nigeria was hurt less than other nations because it had paid a lot of its debt off
• Banks had been restructured so they did not really suffer and the agriculture sector remained
strong
What are some benefits of federalism in theory and drawbacks in reality?
• Benefits
• Ensures all people will be represented
• Ensures power will be shared
• Allows citizens more contact points with government for truer democracy
• Drawbacks
• Legislative members view themselves in competition with ethnic groups from other
states for political and economic benefits and not nation as a whole
• Bureaucracy is too bloated and civil servants feel compelled to serve ethnic regional
issues over national interests

How do southerners feel about federalism and what about northerners?

• They are for it and think the government should give/devolve more powers to state and local
governments, like controlling the police force
• Southerners also would rather control the revenue from oil, mostly in south, than allow the
federal government to do so
• Northerners are against federalism because they obtain revenue benefits from oil in the south

What are some positive changes which have occurred since 1999 when the last military regime left, in
terms of privatization, public wages, financial reserves and money stolen from past presidents?
• Some privatization happening, thus limiting government control over some business
• Public wages increased, so possible chance of less corruption by public officials
• Financial reserves have grown from oil price increases
• Money stolen by Abacha has been returned from foreign banks

What are some positive signs that democracy may be taking hold with respect to legislative checks
and balances, Supreme Court decisions, civil society, the media, succession of power and Freedom
House scores?
• Some checks and balances occurring in government, like legislative branch refusing to allow
Obasanjo’s to run a 3rd term
• Some independent decisions in the courts like Supreme Court overruling Obasanjo’s attempt
to block Abubakar from running for presidency
• Revival of civil society that openly criticizes the government
• Independent media that openly reported election fraud in 2007 without being punished by
government
• Peaceful succession of power in 2007 and a clean election in 2011 and 2015
• Freedom House now ranks Nigeria a 4 out of 7 (where 1 represents most free)

In theory, can the president be impeached from office and why or why not?
• In theory yes by legislative branch because Nigeria copied the US presidential system
• Note: the Russian president can theoretically be impeached by the legislative branch

(7th Edition Update)

Identify some things which took place regarding the 2015 presidential election.
• Government said election was postponed from February to March because of insurgent
groups and poor distribution of voting cards throughout nation
• Opposition claimed government was trying to delay election so Jonathon could try and
increase his support and lessen that for Buhari
• Jonathon lost election (first time ever an incumbent lost) and Buhari’s All Progressives
Congress party picked up seats in both houses
• 2019 ELECTION DELATED BY 1 WEEK AND 50+ PEOPLE KILLED IN
VIOLENCE
(8th Edition Update)
NO SIGNIFICANT UPDATES

Significant PM’s/presidents of Nigeria

• 1976 Obasanjo ( took power in coup and but allowed peaceful transition in 1979)
• 1979 Shagari (elected)
• 1983 Buhari (coup to get rid of Shagari)
• 1985 Babangida (coup to get rid of Buhari)
• Abiola wins 1993 elections but Babangida annuls election result
• 1993 Abacha (coup and dies in office)
• 1998 Abubakar (general placed in office after Abacha’s death)
• 1999 Obasanjo ( former general in 1976 coup wins election)
• 2007 Yar’Adua (PDP) - civilian elected in corrupt election and dies in office
• 2011 Jonathon (PDP) - civilian who replaced Yar’Adua is elected
• 2015 Muhammadu Buhari (APC) defeats Jonathon
• 2019 Muhammadu Buhari (APC) defeats Abubakar PDP (different Abubaker from the
one who ruled in 1998)

(Explain some ways the Nigerian electoral system accommodates different ethnic groups).
• Broad electoral support for presidential candidates required through 5% minimum thresholds
across 2/3 states and/or regions
• Broad party support across states, regions or both
• Requirement of three senators from each state