IB Amr's Notes (HL) (1) 2

Study Guide
Chemistry for the IB

Diploma
Higher Level (HL)
Dr. Amro Shetta

Chemistry-HL Study Guide Dr. Amro Shetta
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1
TOPIC 1 2
STOICHIOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS (SL) 2
TOPIC 2 6
ATOMIC STRUCTURE (SL) 6
TOPIC 3 10
PERIODICITY (SL) 10
TOPIC 4 13
CHEMICAL BONDING AND STRUCTURE (SL) 13
TOPIC 5 17
ENERGETICS/THERMOCHEMISTRY (SL) 17
TOPIC 6 20
CHEMICAL KINETICS (SL) 20
TOPIC 7 23
EQUILIBRIUM (SL) 23
TOPIC 8 26
ACIDS AND BASES (SL) 26
TOPIC 9 28
REDOX PROCESSES (SL) 28
TOPIC 10 31
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (SL) 31
TOPIC 11 36
MEASUREMENT AND DATA PROCESSING (SL) 36
TOPIC 12 39
ATOMIC STRUCTURE (HL) 39
TOPIC 13 41
PERIODICITY (HL) 41
TOPIC 14 43
CHEMICAL BONDING AND STRUCTURE (HL) 43
TOPIC 15 45
ENERGETICS/THERMOCHEMISTRY (HL) 45
TOPIC 16 47
CHEMICAL KINETICS (HL) 47
TOPIC 17 49
EQUILIBRIUM (HL) 49
TOPIC 18 51
ACIDS AND BASES (HL) 51
TOPIC 19 53
REDOX PROCESSES (HL) 53
TOPIC 20 55
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (HL) 55
TOPIC 21 57
MEASUREMENT AND DATA PROCESSING (HL) 57
1
Topic 1
Stoichiometric relationships (SL)
2
The particulate nature of matter States of matter
Solid Liquid Gas
Particles Close together Further apart Far apart
Shape Fixed Not fixed Not fixed
Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
Movement Vibrates Sliding Random
Energy Lowest Higher Highest
Speed Slowest Faster Fastest
Attraction Strongest Weaker Weakest
Figure
Changing states of matter
Element Made up of same type of atoms (H2 – Na)
Compound Ade up of group of atoms that are chemically
bonded (H2O)
Mixture Made up of two or more substances that are
physically bonded (salt in H2O)
Homogenous Made up of one phase and has uniform
mixture composition throughout mixture (salt/H2O)
Vaporization
Heterogenous Made up of more than one phase and does at surface of liquid at temperature below BP
mixture not have uniform composition throughout the Boiling
mixture (oil/water) throughout the liquid at temperature at or above the boiling point
3
Heating curve Mole’s (n) formulas
Mole: The amount of substance that contains the same number of
specified particles as there are atoms in 12g of Carbon-12
$%&& (() (%& -*+.$/(0$! )
!= !=
$*+%, $%&& 22.7
$*+/4.+/ 5*
!= ! = 4*!4 8 &*+.:;*! -*+.$/ (0$! )
6.02 8 10"!
Empirical formula calculations
A- From mass or %
Change mass to Simplify (divide by
Calculate moles
during a state change there will be no increase or % (same value) the smallest n)
decrease in temperature
B- Combustion of hydrocarbon without oxygen
Physical and Chemical Changes n Carbon = n Hydrogen =
Simplify
physical change chemical change CO2 mass/44 2 x H2O mass ÷ 18
no new substances are new chemical substances
produced are formed C- Combustion of hydrocarbon containing (O)
Melting of ice development of an odor
m Carbon = m Hydrogen =
12.01 x CO2 mass ÷ 44 1.01 x 2 x H2O mass ÷ 18
Chemical reaction
A chemical reaction is a change that takes place m oxygen =
when one or more reactants) form one or more product continue as (A)
msample – (mC +mH)
D- Water of crystallization
ncompound = Mass of anhydrous n H2O =
Simplify
Types of formulas compound ÷ Mr H2O mass ÷ 18
Empirical contains smallest ratio of atoms CH2
Limiting reactant
Molecular contains actual No of atoms C2H4 • Calculate n for each reactant
Structural shows bonds between atoms • Divide by coefficient àThe smallest value is the limiting reactant
4
Gas laws
Law Boyle’s law Charles’s law Gay-Loussac’ law Avogadro’s law
Definition The volume is inversely The volume is proportional The pressure is proportional The volume is proportional
proportional to pressure at to temperature at constant to temperature at to mole number at
constant temperature pressure constant volume constant pressure/temp
Equation <= >= = <? >? >= >? <= <? >= >?
= = =
@= @? @= @? A= A?
Graph
Moles number
Combined law
B= C= B? C?
= T: (kelvin)
D= D?
Ideal gas law
BC=EFD P: (Pa) V: (m3) n: Number of moles T: (kelvin) R: 8.31 J.K-1.mol-1
Dilution formula Percentage yield Concentration in ppm
!! "! !" "" '$&2', *+",- ;<== >? =>@ABC (<= F>@A:C
!"#$"%&'(" *+",- (%) = × 677 89: = × 67! = × 67!
= &3"4#"&+$', *+",- ;<== >? =>@ABD>E 'DG F>@A:C
#! #"
Atom Economy Percent by mass
"#"+, $+-- #. /&-01&/ 21#/3'"- +<B?C: ?@AA D ;E?=89 BF @<B?A
!"#$ &'#(#$) = × 677 289:8;< => ?@AA = × 677
"#"+, $+-- #. +,, 21#/3'"-/1&+'"+("- $BG@9 ?@AA BF :B?HBE;I
5
Topic 2
Atomic Structure (SL)
6
Subatomic particles Rutherford’s experiment
• He shot alpha particles straight towards a sheet
of gold foil that surrounded by florescent
screen that would flash when alpha particles
hit the screen
• A small percentage of particles were deflected
and scattered back
• This showed that:
1- The atom was mostly empty space
2- The atom had a nucleus
Particle Mass Charge
Protons 1.67 x 10-27 kg +1
Neutrons 1.67 x 10-27 kg 0
Electrons 9.11 x 10-31 kg -1 Emission spectrum of hydrogen
• When the electron absorbs energy moves to higher energy level
• The electron emits photos as it drops to a lower energy level
A = mass number = Proton No + Neutron No
Z = atomic number = Proton No
Neutron No = A – Z
Electron No = Z - charge Series Drop to emits
Layman series level 1 Ultraviolet
Atom Cation Anion Balmer series level 2 visible light
No e loss/gain e-loss e-gain Paschen series level 3 Infrared
P=e P>e P<e
7
Continuous versus line spectrums Isotopes
Continuous spectrum Line spectrum • Isotopes are atoms of the same elements
Contains all colours Contains (wavelengths) of
(wavelengths) specific colours Þ Same proton number (same Z)
Þ Different neutron number (different A)
Convergence
Convergence
• Emission spectrum consists of discrete lines that converge at high energy
Emission spectrum consists of discrete lines that converge at high energy
• Relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average
mass of all naturally occurring isotopes
• At the convergence limit, the lines merge to form a continuum.
• Percentage abundance is determined by
Mass spectroscopy
• Beyond this point the electron can have any energy and so must be free
from the influence of the nucleus
(!1 ( %1) + ( !2 ( %2)
!" =
100
(85 ( 77) + (87 ( 23)
!" = = 85.46
100
8
Periodic table Orbital shapes
Electronic configuration • Writing electronic configuration
• Electrons in an atom are arranged in levels, sublevels, and orbitals Aufbau principle Start with the lowest energy level
Level (n) Sublevel (n) Orbitals (n2) Max No of e (2n2) Pauli exclusion principle Maximum 2 electron in any orbital
1 S 1 2 Hund’s rule Electrons have opposite spins
2 S, p 4 8
3 S, p, d 9 18 Electronic configuration
4 S, p, d, f 16 32 1S 2S 2P 3S 3P 4S 3d 4P
Example: write the electronic configuration of calcium
• Number of electrons per orbital
Extended configuration à 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2
Orbital Max No of electrons
Condensed configuration à [Ar] 4S2
S 2
p 6 Exceptions:
d 10
In case of transition metal ions, electron lose from 4S before
3d.
f 14 Cu: [Ar] 4S1 3d10
Cr: [Ar] 4S1 3d5
9
Topic 3
Periodicity (SL)
10
Definitions General periodic trends
Across a period Down a group
Group Vertical column representing Electronegativity Increases Decreases
the No of valence e Electron affinity Increases Decreases
Period Horizontal row in the periodic Ionization energy Increases Decreases
table representing No of shells Atomic radius Decreases Increases
Periodicity Recurring variation in Ionic radius increases
Group 1à3: Decreases
properties of elements with
the increase in their atomic Group 5à7: Decreases
number Melting point Group 1: â MP as
Electronegativity Ability of an atom to attract á atomic size
a shared pair of electrons and metallic
Electron affinity Energy released when one strength decreases
mole of an electron is added Group 7: á MP as
to one mole gaseous atoms á van der waal
Group 1à3: increase because the
Atomic radius half the distance between bond strength as
two identical atoms á charge and â Size à ámetallic No. of e increases.
bond strength
Group 5à8: Decreases bec they
have weak London dispersion force
Periodic trends general information forming simple molecular structure.
1- Across the period: Group 4: highest MP as they form
nuclear charge increases while No. of shells and giant covalent network
shielding effect remain the same à ∴ valence Oxide acid base Group 1, 2: basic oxide
electrons strongly attracted. character Li2O(s) + H2O(l) ➝ 2LiOH(aq)
Group 3: amphoteric oxide
2- Down the group: Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) ➝ 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
both No. of shells and shielding effect increase
Group 4 to 7: acidic oxide
while nuclear charge remains the same à
CO2(g) + H2O(l) ➝ H2CO3(aq)
∴ valence electrons weakly attracted.
Atomic VS ionic +ve ions radius < their atoms: á nuclear attraction
radius -ve ions radius > their atoms: á e – e repulsion
Cation VS anion +ve ions radius < -ve ions radius because cation has á
(same e config.) nuclear attraction as it has more protons
11
Ionization energy exceptions Electron affinity exceptions
• The minimum amount of energy needed to remove one mole of • Electron affinity generally decreases down a group
electrons from 1 mole of gaseous atom to form one gaseous ion • Going from F to Cl the electron affinity increases
• Ionization energy affected by because the decrease in electron–electron repulsion.
Nuclear charge á N.C à á attraction between nucleus
and outer e à á IE
Energy shells No. á No. à â attraction between nucleus
and outer e à â IE
Shielding effect á inner shell e à á shielding of outer e
from nucleus à â IE
• Electron affinity generally increases across the period
• Going from C to N the electron affinity decreases
because of the increase in electron–electron repulsion.
Reactivity
Range IE value Reason
H à He Increasing á Nuclear charge Group 1: reactivity of alkali metals increases down the group as
Li à Ne
Na à Ar they lose their valence electrons easily (low EA)
He à Li Decreasing á Energy shells No. 2M(s) + 2H2O(l) ➝ 2MOH(aq) + H2(g)
Ne à Na
Ar à K
Be à B Decreasing á Energy sub-shells No. Group 7: reactivity of halogens decreases down the group as
Mg à Al they lose their valence electrons difficultly (high EA)
NàO Decreasing O and S have paired e in one orbital à Cl (aq) + 2I–(s) ➝ 2Cl–(aq) + I2 (aq)
PàS repulsion àá IE Br (aq) + 2Cl–(s) ➝ no reaction as Cl is more reactive than Br.
12
Topic 4
Chemical Bonding and Structure (SL)
13
Bonding Ionic bonding
Intramolecular bonding Intermolecular bonding Definition: Electrostatic force bet. metal cation (e-loss) and
Metallic bond London dispersion non-metal anion (e-gain)
Ionic bond dipole-dipole
Covalent bond Hydrogen bonding
Metallic bonding
Definition: Electrostatic force bet. Delocalized electron and +ve nuclei
Structure: Crystalline. Structure
Structure: 3D lattice structure (Na+ surrounded by 6Cl-)
MP/BP: High (strong bond when (ácharge and âion radius)
Hardiness: Malleable & ductile: non directional bond with free electron keeps ions
Electronegativity difference: More than 1.8
MP/BP: High due to non-directional force in lattice
Hardiness: Hard but brittle as layer slip over each other due
to repulsion
Electrical conductivity: Conduct when solid/liquid (free electrons)
Solubility: react with water à alkaline solutions
Volatility: low as it has strong intramolecular bond
Alloys homogenous mixtures of metals and metals or non. metal (c) of
different sizes. They are less ductile and less malleable. the layers cannot
slide over each other Electrical conductivity: Conduct when it molten or
aqueous (free ions)
Solubility: In polar solvent only
Volatility: Low as it has strong intramolecular bond
14
Covalent bonding Lewis structure
Definition: Electrostatic force bet. shared e and +ve nuclei 1. Calculate total number of valence electrons.
(e-sharing) 2. Make single Covalent bend between central and outer atoms.
3. Saturate the outer atoms by 8 electrons (Not H)
4. Place remaining electrons on central atom
5. If central atom is not saturated, make multiple bonds with outer atoms.
Molecular Shapes
• Determined using the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory
Structure: • Electron pairs on central atom repel each other.
• Bonding and lone pairs arrange them selves to have minimum repulsion.
• lone pairs repel more than bonding pairs
• Multiple bonds are treated as singl bonds
Simple molecular Giant VESPR theory
Electronegativity difference: less than 1.8 Electron VESPR Geometry Electron Angle Hyperdization
MP/BP: low due to weak intermolecular bond except for domains domain
giant
Linear Linear 180 SP
2 AB2
Hardiness: Usually soft except for giant structures like Trigonal 120
diamond AB3 planar Triagonal SP2
3 planar
Electrical conductivity: No (no free e or ions) Bent 117
Solubility: In non-polar solvent or polar solvent AB2E
Volatility: High as it has weak intramolecular bong except Tetrahedral 109.5
for giant SP3
AB4
Polarity Triagonal 107
4 pyramidal Tetrahedral
• A bond is polar when both atoms have different EN.
AB3E
• A molecule is polar if it is non symmetric, and the Net
Bent 104.5
dipole is not zero
AB2E2
15
Giant covalent structures
Diamond Graphite Graphene Fullerene Silicon Silicon dioxide
Shape 3D network 2D layered structure Single layer of graphite sphere As diamond 3D network
Geometry Tetrahedral Each C bond to 3 C Each C bond to 3 C Each C bond to 3 C - Si with 4 O
Bond angle 109.5 120 120 - - O with 2 Si
MP/BP High Low Low - - -
Conductance No (no free e) Yes (free e) Yes (free e) Semiconductor Semiconductor -
Use Hard Soft, lubricant High tensile strength medicine delivery - -
Shape
Intermolecular bonding
London dispersion Dipole – Dipole Hydrogen bond
Dipole Instantaneous dipole Permanent dipole Permanent dipole
Molecules All molecules Polar molecules Only between H and (O, N, F)
Strength Weakest IMF increases as mass & e á Stronger than London dispersion Strongest IMF
Shape
Resonance
Molecules that can be represented by more than one Lewis structure.
They have more. than one position for the double band.
16
Topic 5
Energetics/Thermochemistry (SL)
17
Endothermic VS exothermic reactions Average bond enthalpies
Endothermic Exothermic Definition
The average energy needed to break I mol of
covalent bond in a gaseous molecule to give
gaseous atoms.
Calculation of average bond enthalpy
1- Draw the correct Lewis structures
2- Calculate the energy absorbed to break all the
bonds in the reactants ∑HR, and the energy
released by making products ∑HP
rH = ∑HR - ∑HP
Absorbs energy from Surrounding Releases energy from Surrounding
Limitations of average bond enthalpy
Temperature decreases Temperature increases 1- Is average value and not for specific Compounds
Bonds breaking Bonds formation 2- It works with gases only
The reactants ore more energetically The products ore more energetically
stable than the products stable than the reactants Temperature vs Heat
Temperature Heat
Enthalpy change rH is positive Enthalpy change rH is negative
average Kinetic energy total amount of energy
Photosynthesis, decomposition, Condensation, combustion, freezing, of all the particles of all the particles
evaporation, melting deposition
Calorimetry
• The process of measuring the amount of heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction
• The change in heat can be measured by observing the temperature of water
• Specific heat capacity (c): The energy required to raise the temperature of 1g of substance by 1K
• Several assumptions are made due heat loss and incomplete combustion (systematic errors)
1. all the heat is transferred to the water 5. all the solution has dissolved
2. The mass of the water remained constant 6. There was an unlimited oxygen source
3. The experiment was under standard conditions 7. The mass of solution is equal to its volume
4. Density of solution is equal to water density 8. Specific heat capacity of solution as water (4.18)
18
Calorimeter calculations Hess 's Law
Q = m x C x rT rH = ± Q/n Definition
m = mass (g) Q = heat quantity (J) The energy change for a reaction that happens in multiple step,Is the sum of
C = 4.18 n= L.R moles the enthalpy changes of individual steps
rT= temp difference rH = KJ/mol
Enthalpy and calorimeter
Enthalpy of Neutralization
Mix both solutions and record the temperature VS time
The mass of the solution will be the total volume. Standard conditions
Temperature = 289K Pressure = 101.3 kPa. Concentration= 1 mol.dm-3
Enthalpy of formation rHf
• the energy change when I mole of substance is formed from its
elements in their standard stales under standard conditions
• could be endothermic or exothermic
∆H reaction =∑Hf (products) - ∑Hf (reactants)
Enthalpy of Displacement reaction
Mix the two reactants and plot t VS time
The mass of the solution is the mass of CuSO4 only. Enthalpy of combustion rHC
Enthalpy of combustion
A fuel is burned, and the mass of alcohol and temp. of • the energy released when I mole of substance burns with excess
water are recorded oxygen under standard conditions
• always endothermic
∆H reaction =∑Hc (reactants) - ∑Hc (products)
19
Topic 6
Chemical Kinetics (SL)
20
Rate of reaction Collision Theory
Definition For reaction to take place particles need to:
The rate of a reaction is the decrease in the concentration of reactants with 1. Collide
time or the increase in concentration of products per time. 2. Collide with the right orientation
3. Collide with energy ≥ activation energy
The unit of rate
mol.dm-3 Catalysts and Activation Energy
The rate of a reaction can be monitored by: A catalyst speeds up chemical reaction by
Method Apparatus lowering its activation energy, mare particles will
have E ≥ Ea More frequent and successful
Measuring change in mass when a reaction produces gas Balance collisions.
Measuring the volume of gas Gas syringe
Measuring change in pH pH meter
Measuring absorbance for reactions Colorimeter
Measuring change in temperature in reactions Calorimeter
Measuring conductivity in reactions Conductometer
Rate graph
Section A
• Steepest section à Fastest rate
• max. number of particles
Section B
• Number of reactants decreases
• Less frequent collision
• Rate slows down
Section C Graphical determination of rate
1-Initial rate: Is the slope of tangent at time 0
• No more reactants
• Rate = zero 2-Instantaneous rate: Is the slope of tangent
The Rate of reaction drawn at time t.
! ∆[%] ∆[(] Average rate: total change in concentration
Rate = = over the total time
∆' ∆'
21
Factors increasing the rate of reaction Maxwell Boltzmann Curve
Factor Explanation • The graph represents the distribution of energy of all the
particles in a reaction.
Decreasing • Increasing the exposed surface area • The area under the groph represents the total number
particle Size • More frequent succsessful collisions of Particles.
Increasing • Particles have E ≥ Ea
Temperature • Particles will move faster
• More frequent succsessful collisions
• Increase of 10°C doubles the rate of reaction
Increasing • More frequent succsessful collisions
Concentration • If the reactant is limiting reagent, it will increase
both rate and yield of product Effect of temperature on Maxwell Boltzmann Curve
Increasing gas • Increasing the concentration
Pressure • More frequent succsessful collisions
Using • lowering its activation energy
Catalysts • mare particles will have E ≥ Ea
• More frequent and successful collisions
• Provide alternative route of reaction
Graph Reason Effect of Catalyst on Maxwell Boltzmann Curve
A Increasing conc/mass of
limiting reactant
B Increasing temp,
pressure, surface area,
catalyst
C Decreasing temp,
pressure, surface area,
catalyst
D Decreasing conc/mass
of limiting reactant
22
Topic 7
Equilibrium (SL)
23
Dynamic Equilibrium Equilibrium Law
Reversible Reaction is chemical reaction physical change in which # % [&]$
["]!" !"
the products can form back the reactants !#+%& ⇌()+*+ Kc = % % [(]&
[']!" !"
Physical change H2O(l) D H2O(g)
Chemical change H2O + CO2 D H2CO3
Unit of K
(mol. dm-3) (c+d)-(a+b)
Features of dynamic equilibrium Significance of Kc
1- A dynamic equilibrium is reached in a closed system K >>>> 1 K=1 K <<<< 1
2- The rate of forward equals rate of backward complete reaction P=R Reaction rarely started
3- The concentration of reactants and products ore constant
4- No change on macroscopic level but constant change of
Modification of Kc
Reverse equation Kc’ = 1 / Kc
the microscopic level. Multiply equation by x Kc’ = (Kc)x
5- Equilibrium is reached from both directions Add 2 equations Kc’ = Kc1 + Kc2
Types of Equilibrium Reaction Quotient
Substituting the concentration of reactants and products of
Homogeneous all reactants and products are present
any point in the reaction in the expression
in the same physical states
Heterogeneous reactants and products are present in [C]) x [D]* Q > Kc Q = Kc Q < Kc
Q= Backward Equilibrium Forward
different physical stares [A]+ x [B],
Equilibrium graphs
Concentration-time graphs Rate-time graphs
.
P>R R>P P=R
24
Le chatelier’s principle
When the conditions of a system at equilibrium is changed, the position of equilibrium shifts in the direction that counteract the
change.
Concentration If increasing reactant à equilibrium shifts to the products side
If increasing product à equilibrium shifts to the reactants side
Temperature If increasing temperature à equilibrium shifts to the endothermic side
If decreasing temperature à equilibrium shifts to the exothermic side
Pressure If increasing pressure à equilibrium shifts to the less gas molecules side
If decreasing pressure à equilibrium shifts to the more gas molecules side
Catalyst It has no effect on the position of equilibrium, but the equilibrium will be reached faster
Factors affecting Kc
The only factor that affects Kc value is TEMPERATURE
For example,
.245
-./01/213 ⇌ 8-549013
.75
1- Increasing temperature à endothermic side à forward side à increasing products à h Kc
2- Decreasing temperature à exothermic side à backward side àincreasing reactants à i Kc
25
Topic 8
Acids and Bases (SL)
26
Definitions of acids and bases Strong vs Weak acids & bases
Arrhenius Bronsted Lowry Strong acid Weak acid
Acid Dissociates in water to give H+ acid donates a proton Dissociation Completely Partially
HCl(aq) à H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) NH3 + HCl (acid) à NH4+ + Cl- Acid HNO3, H2SO4 RCOOH, H2CO3
Base Dissociates in water to give OH- Base accepts a proton pH Low High
NaOH(aq) à Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) NH3 (base) + HCl à NH4+ + Cl- Conductivity High Low
Reaction High Low
Conjugate acid: is the species formed when base accepts proton. rate
Conjugate base: is the species formed when an acid loses proton Enthalpy High Low
Strong acid: HCl g H+ + Cl-
HNO3 + H2SO4 à HSO4- + H2NO3+
Base Acid conj base conj acid Weak acid: CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COOH + H+
The acid-base pair differ by 1 proton Acid deposition
1- To get conjugate base: remove H+ Normal rain: acidic (pH = 5.6) à H2O+CO2 = H2CO3
2- To get conjugate acid: add H+ Types: Dry (gaseous particles), wet (rain, fog, snow)
Reactions:
Amphoteric: acts as an acid or a base (Al2O3)
NO2 + H2O = HNO2 + HNO3
Amphiprotic donates or accepts a proton (H2O)
SO2 + H2O = H2SO3
SO3 + H2O = H2SO4
pH scale pH scale comparison Production
Acid Neutral Base (1) NOx: catalytic converter, burn engines
pH <7 =7 >7 (2) SOx:
pre-combustion: wash coal and hydrosulferization
[H+] > 10-7 = 10-7 < 10-7
post – combustion: gas with CaO and Ca(OH)2
[OH-] < 10-7 = 10-7 > 10-7
impact:
1- plant: H+ replaces Mg (Photosynth.) and Al (root)
water Dissociation constant (Kw) 2- building: limestone corrosion
H2O ⇌ H+ + OH- 3- marine life: fish can’t survive below pH 4
!" = −&'( ["! ] Kw = [H+] [OH-] = 1 x 10-14 at 25 oC 4- human: irritate respiratory system
"! = +,"#$ Increasing temp à increases Kw
Acid reactions
hpH à i [H+] à basic solution Indicators Acid + metal g salt + H2
- used to differentiate between acids Acid + metal carbonate g salt + H2O + CO2
ipH à h [H+] à acidic solution and bases
Acid + metal oxide g salt + H2O
10-fold change in [H+] = 1 pH change - They show different colors in acids
and bases. Acid + metal hydroxide g salt + H2O
27
Topic 9
Redox processes (SL)
28
Galvanic (voltaic) cell
• Role: Changes chemical energy into electrical energy
• Cell potential (Ecell): Positive (spontaneous)
• Current: Conducted by electron flow in wires from anode to cathode
• Ions: movement of ions in salt bridge
• Reaction: Exothermic reaction
• Electrodes: separated
• Salt bridge: allows movement of ions bet. 2 half cells to neutralize charges
Anode Cathode
Sign Negative Positive
Reaction Oxidation Reduction
Chemical equation Zn(s) à Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu2-(aq) + 2e- à Cu(s)
Nature Highly reactive metal Less reactive metal
Mass decreases with time increases with time
• Cell notation
Electrolytic cell
• Role: Changes electrical energy into chemical energy
• Cell potential (Ecell): Negative (non-spontaneous)
• Current: Conducted by electron flow in wires
• Ions: movement of ions in electrolyte solution
• Reaction: Endothermic reaction
• Electrodes: not separated
• Salt bridge: not present
Anode Cathode
Sign Positive Negative
Reaction Oxidation Reduction
Chemical equation 2CI-(1) à CI2 (g) + 2e- 2Na+ (I) + 2e- à 2Na(l)
Battery connected to +ve pole connected to -ve pole
29
Definitions Oxidation states
Oxidation Reduction 1+ 2+ 3+ 3- 2- 1- 0
Electron loss Electron gain Na Cu Al P S Cl O2
Oxygen gain Oxygen loss Li Mg N O O H2
Hydrogen loss Hydrogen gain K Ca PO4 CO3 Br Na (s)
H Ba PO3 SO4 H Ca (s)
h Oxidation number i Oxidation number
Ag Pb S2O3 OH Cl2
Reducing agent Oxidizing agent
NH4 Zn SO3 NO3 Br2
Balancing Redox equations
Balance the following equation: Cr2O72- + Fe2+ à Fe3+ + Cr3+
1-Write half equations Cr2O72- à Cr3+ Fe2+ à Fe3+
2-Balance the atoms by adding H2O
to balance O and H+ to balance H2 14H+ + Cr2O72- à 2Cr3+ + 7H2O Fe2+ à Fe3+
3-Balance charge by adding
electrons 6 e- + 14 H+ + Cr2O72- à 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O Fe2+ à Fe3+ + e-
4-Balance electrons 6 e- + 14 H+ + Cr2O72- à 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O 6 Fe2+ à 6 Fe3+ + 6 e-
5-add both equations 6 e- + 14 H+ + Cr2O72- à 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O
6 Fe2+ à 6 Fe3+ + 6 e-
6 Fe2+ + 14 H+ + Cr2O72- à 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 6 Fe3+
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Activity series
• O2 is a non-polar molecule and has low solubility in water
• The elements high in the activity serves are strong
• Presence of organic Matter in water, decrease dissolved oxygen (DO)
reducing agents will be oxidized
• BOD= amount of DO in ppm consumed by MO over 5 days at 25 C
• If a metal is dipped in solution of less reactive metal
• Winkler Method measures BOD by redox titration of formed I2 with S2O32-
ion, it will displace it from solution.
Mg(s) + Zn2+(aq) à Mg2+(aq) + Zn(s)
nO2 = ¼ nS2O32-
30
Topic 10
Organic Chemistry (SL)
31
Homologous series (increasing C number) Functional group
1- Same general Formula / Functional group
2- Successive members differ by CH Alkane Alkene Alkyne Alcohol
3- Gradual change in their physical properties Cn H2n+2 Cn H2n Cn H2n-2 Cn H2n+1 OH
4- Similar chemical properties.
Homologous series physical properties
1- áBP as ástrength of London dispersion
2- â solubility as á molecule non-polarity
3- ávolatility as ástrength of London dispersion ©ane ©-#- ene ©-#- yne ©an-#- ol
4- Ether Aldehyde Ketone
Naming Rules Cn H2n+2 O Cn H2n O Cn H2n O
1- locate the longest chain that contain FG
2- Number chain (FG hos the smallest number)
3- List them in alphabetical order
4- Name the main chain
substitution
carbon No
(longest chain)
functional
group
©oxy - ©ane ©anal ©an-#- one
Carboxylic acid Ester Amide
Cn H2nO2 Cn H2n O2 Cn H2n-1 NH2
Substitution Carbon number ©
CH3 Methyl 1 Meth
C2H5 Ethyl
C3H7 Propyl 2 Eth
C4H9 Butyl 3 Prop
C5H11 Pentyl ©anoic acid ©yl - ©anoate ©anamide
4 But
F Fluoro
5 Pent Amine Nitrile Arene
Cl Chloro
Cn H2n+1 NH2 Cn H2n+1 CN C6H6
Br Bromo 6 Hex
I Iodo
7 Hept
NH2 Amino
OH Hydroxy 8 Oct
Numbers 9 Non
(2) di (3) tri 10 Dec ©yl amine ©ane nitrile Benzene
(4) tetra. (5) penta
32
Alkanes Alkenes/Alkynes
Combustion reaction (reaction with oxygen) Combustion reaction (reaction with oxygen)
1- Complete: forms CO2 + H2O 1- Complete: forms CO2 + H2O
2- Incomplete: forms C + CO + H2O 2- Incomplete: forms C + CO + H2O
Free radical substitution reaction
Addition reactions
Alkane + halogen à halogenoalkane + HX
!" $%&'(
Hydrogenation (Adding 2 H)
CH4 + Cl2 !⎯⎯⎯⎯# CH3Cl + HCl H H H H
Ni / 180 oC
Mechanism C C + H H H C C H
Initiation !" )*+,-
Cl2 !⎯⎯⎯⎯# 2Cl. H
alkene
H H H
alkane
Propagation CH4 + Cl. → CH3. + HCl
CH3. + Cl2 → CH3Cl + Cl. Hydration (Adding H and OH)
Termination Cl. + Cl. → Cl2 H H H H
H2SO4
C C + H OH
CH3. + CH3. → C2H6 H C C OH
CH3. + Cl. → CH3Cl H
alkene
H H
alcohol
H
Reactivity of alkanes
Alkanes have low reactivity because they are nonpolar and have Halogenation (Adding 2 X)
strong C-H and C-C bonds. H H H H
C C + Cl Cl Cl C C Cl
Fission reactions H H H H
Homolytic fission Heterolytic fission alkene dihalogenoalkane
covalent bond breaks and covalent bond breaks with
each atom taking one one atom taking both Hydrohalogenation (Adding H and X)
electron from the bond bonding electrons H H H H
C C + H Cl H C C
X Y X. + Y. X Y X+ + Y- Cl
H H H H
alkene halooalkane
Tests for unsaturation
Polymerization reaction
• Bromine water has a distinctive brown color H H H H
• Alkenes/alkynes react with bromine water due to their heat/pressure
unsaturated nature à Bromine water becomes colorless C C
intiator
C C
• Alkanes do not react with bromine water due to their H H H H
saturated nature à Bromine water color doesn’t change n
33
Haloalkanes Alcohol
Combustion reaction
Substitution Reactions
1- Complete: forms CO2 + H2O
The halogen is replaced by a nucleophile (a species that is rich in 2- Incomplete: forms C + CO + H2O
electrons and forms dative covalent band.
CH3 CH3 Oxidation Reactions
H C Cl + OH- H C OH + Cl- H O
K2Cr2O7 / H+
H H H 3C C OH H 3C C H
1ry haloalkane 1ry alcohol Distillation
H
CH3 CH3 1ry alcohol aldehyde
H C Cl + OH- H C OH + Cl- H O
K2Cr2O7 / H+
CH3 CH3 H 3C C OH H 3C C OH
2ry haloalkane 2ry alcohol Reflux
H
1ry alcohol carboxylic acid
CH3 CH3
Cl + OH- H O
H 3C C H 3C C OH + Cl- K2Cr2O7 / H+
CH3 H 3C C OH H 3C C CH3
CH3
Reflux
3ry haloalkane 3ry alcohol CH3
2ry alcohol ketone
Carboxylic acids CH3
Esterification K2Cr2O7 / H+
H 3C C OH no reaction
O O Reflux
H2SO4 CH3
H 3C C OH + HO CH3 H 3C C O CH3 + H2O 3ry alcohol
Carboxylic acid alcohol ester
Esterification Reactions
See carboxylic acid section
34
Chemical formula Heating apparatus
Structural Condensed Skeletal
H H H Reflux Distillation
H C C C H
H H H
CH3CH2CH3
Benzene
Evidence for the structure of benzene
- Benzene has 3 C=C that resonate through the structure (Kekulé structure)
- Resonance: electrons shared between three or more atoms.
Evidence from carbon–carbon bond lengths
- All bonds have the Some strength and length.
- benzene C–C bond length between single bond & double bond
Thermochemical evidence
Structural isomers
The extra stability of benzene
compared to the structure with - Structural isomers are two or more compounds that
alternating double and single have the same molecular formula but different
bonds is due to the delocalisation structural formulas
of electrons. - the atoms are joined together in different ways.
Evidence from Electrophilic Substitution Reaction
NO2
H2SO4
+ NO2+ + H 2O
Cl electrophile is a species
that forms bonds by
accepting an electron
AlCl3/H +
+ Cl2 + HCl
pair
Evidence from isomers of C6H4Cl2
Only three isomers have ever been found for C6H4Cl2 but the structure with
alternating double and single bonds suggests that there should be four. 35
Topic 11
Measurement and data processing
(SL)
36
Error types Accuracy and Precision
Random error Systematic error - Aceuracy is how close the values ore to the actual
by the instrument by the instrument or procedure volue.
reduced by repetition or NOT reduced by repetition or - Precision is how clase the repeated values are to the
precise instrument precise instrument mean value.
equal probability of value consistently higher or lower
being too high or too low than the actual value
o Changes during the o Heat loss
experiment o Losing a product
o Observer misinterpreting o Overshooting the endpoint
the reading o Reading from the top of
o Insufficient data the meniscus
o Forgetting to zero balance
Significant Figures Using graphs
1- Numbers other than 0 are significant à 423 (3 SF)
2- A 0 between two numbers is significant à 403 (3 SF)
3- Final 0 is significant in the decimal part
A- 300 (1 SF)
B- 5.00 (3 SF)
C- 0.01 (1 SF)
D- 0.100 (3 SF)
Calculating uncertainties
Index of Hydrogen Deficiency (IHD)
A B
Absolute uncertainty 25.3 ± 0.1 15 ± 1 the number of H. molecules needed to form a saturated
Relative uncertainty 0.1 / 25.3 = 0.003 1/15 = 0.066 non cyclic molecule.
Percentage 100 x (0.1 / 25.3) 100 x (1/15)
uncertainty (2()) − " − ℎ-./012 + 4 + 2
!"# =
Addition or subtraction A + B = (25.3 + 15) ± (0.1 +1) 2
= 38.3 ± 1.1 IHD Structure
Multiplication / division A x B 1 C C
Step 1 = (25.3 x 15) X (0.003 + 0.066)
= 26.8 = 30 1 Ring
Step 2 = 25.3 x 15 = 379.5 = 380 2 C C
4 Aromatic ring C15H12O = 10
Step 3 = 380 ± 30
37
Spectroscopy
Definition: it is the study of the effect of electromagnetic radiations on matter for determination the structure of a given compound.
Mass spectroscopy Infra-red spectroscopy Proton nuclear magnetic resonance H-NMR
Concept Concept Concept
Sample e +ve m/z bond wave H-nucleus ppm
Sample IR Sample RW
(Gas) beam fragments value vibration No spin change value
A non-polar molecule is IR inactive. H in different chemical environments have
different ppm values and will show chemical
shift from reference TMS (tetramethyl silane)
Spectrum Spectrum Spectrum
Characteristic peaks Characteristic peaks Characteristic peaks
The largest m/z ratio is the molecular form Each group has its characteristic peak in Each group has its characteristic peak in data
Each fragments has its characteristic peak in data booklet. booklet.
data booklet. 1- The number of peaks is the number of H.
chemical env.
2- The position of the peak (chemical shift) is
the type of H.
3- The integrated trace is the orea under the
graph and gives the ratio of the H in
different environments
38
Topic 12
Atomic Structure (HL)
39
Ionization energy Successive IE
• The minimum amount of energy needed to remove • Successive IE provide evidence for the existence of levels and sub-
one mole of electrons from 1 mole of gaseous atom levels in an atom
to form one gaseous ion • The successive IE always increases because (the more e removal,
• Ionization energy affected by the more attraction between nucleus and remaining e)
Nuclear charge á N.C à á attraction between
nucleus and outer e à á IE
Energy shells No. á No. à â attraction between
nucleus and outer e à â IE
Shielding effect á inner shell e à á shielding of
outer e from nucleus à â IE
Sodium electronic configuration is: 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S1
• The first e is removed from 3S which is furthest from nucleus à â IE
• Between 2nd e to 9th e à they are removed from 2nd shell (2S, 2P)
à á IE (all have close values)
• Between 11th e to 12th e à they are removed from 1st shell (1S) à
áá IE (closest to nucleus)
Calculating ionization energy
• When e is excited to level ∞ it will not be attracted to the nucleus
Range IE value Reason • The ionization energy could be calculated from wavelength at the
Increasing convergent limit.
H à He á Nuclear charge
Li à Ne &
Na à Ar
Decreasing á Energy shells No.
" =ℎ%= ℎ
He à Li
Ne à Na
'
h = planks constant = 6.63 x 10-34
Ar à K C = light speed = 3 x 108 m/s
Be à B Decreasing á Energy sub-shells No. # = frequency (S-1).
Mg à Al
NàO Decreasing O and S have paired e in one $ = wavelength (m). E = energy (J/atom)
PàS orbital à repulsion àá IE
40
Topic 13
Periodicity (HL)
41
1st raw d-block elements Complex ion formation
• Transition metals: are metals that have partially
filled d-sub shell in one or more of their metal ligand complex
oxidation states
• Zinc is d-block metal BUT NOT transition metal
Metal Ligand
Oxidation states Electrophile Nucleophile
Lewis acid Lewis base
• Transition metals have small difference in
successive IE between 4S and 3d +ve charge lone pairs
• All transition has at least +2 ion except Sc The bond between metal and ligand is dative covalent bond
1- Monodentate ligand: form 1 dative covalent bond
2- Polydentate ligand: form more than 1 dative covalent bond
Magnetic properties
Ferromagnetism Electrons align with or without Shape of complex: Depends on number of ligands (coordination No.)
magnetic field as Fe, Co, Ni
Paramagnetism Unpaired electrons align with
magnetic field
Diamagnetism Paired electrons repel with
magnetic field
Ferromagnetism > paramagnetism > diamagnetism
Catalytic properties Colored complex
Heterogenous Homogenous
• The splitting of d-d sub shells of transition metal into 2 sets as
Fe à NH3 production Fe à Heam when ligand bond to metal e repulsion increases.
Ni à catalytic converter Co à Vitamin B12 • When visible light pass-through transition metal, light is absorbed,
MnO2 à H2O2 decomposition and complementary color will be transmitted.
V2O5 à SO3 production • Factors affecting energy difference (∆E)
1- Metal type
2- Metal ion charge: more charge more splitting E
3- Complex shape
4- Ligand type à ( I < Br < S < Cl < F < OH < H2O < SCN < NH3 < CN <CO )
Large ∆E split occurs by stronger Ligand
42
Topic 14
Chemical Bonding and Structure (HL)
43
VESPR theory Formal Charge
Is the charge that an atom will have if the electrons
Electron VESPR Geometry Electron Angle Hyperdization were shared equally in a lwwis structure
domains domain
Triagonal 90/120 Formal charge = VE – LE – bonds number
bipyramidal Triagonal sp3d
AB5 • Used to determine the most stable lewis structure .
5 bipyramidal
See Saw 187/117 • The stable structure is the one with F.C close to
zero, or the smaller difference in F.C.
AB4E • -ve chorge should on more electronegative atom
T-Shaped 90 Cl Be Cl
AB3E2 0 0 0
Linear 180
Sigma and Pi bonds
AB2E3 • Sigma à Axial ovelap of 2 obitals
Octahedral 90 • Pi à Sideway overlap of 2 parallel P-orbitals
AB6 SP3 1 Sigma
C C
Square 87 1 Sigma + 1 Pi
pyramidal Octahedral C C
6 AB5E 1 Sigma + 2 Pi
C C
Square 90
AB4E2 planar
Delocalization of electrons
• takes place when the Pi electron clouds
Ozone and oxygen extend over three or more atoms.
• O3 has resonance ond has bond order of 1.5 while O2 has double bond. • All the bonds will have equal length & strength
• More energy needed to break the bond in O2 Compared to O3
Hyperdization
SP SP2 SP3
2 e-domains 3 e-domains 4 e-domains
Linear Bent, trigonal Tetrahedral,
planar trigonal
planar, bent
C C
C C C C
44
Topic 15
Energetics/Thermochemistry (HL)
45
Hyperdization
Term Definition Equation
Enthalpy of atomization - amount of energy to form one mole of gaseous atoms Mg (s) à Mg (g)
(∆Hatm) - endothermic and half the average bond enthalpy for non-metals ½ Cl2(g) à Cl(g)
Lattice Enthalpy - energy to change one mole of ionic compound into gaseous ions NaCl(s) à Na+(g) + Cl-(g) ∆H = +
(∆Hlatt) - endothermic or exothermic depending on the way it is written
(1) á ion size à â L.E Na+(g) + Cl-(g) à NaCl(s). ∆H = -
(2) á ion charge à á L.E
Electron Affinity - energy change when mole of electrons added to gaseous atoms O(g) + 1 e à O-(g) ∆H = -
(∆HEA) - 1st EA is exothermic & 2nd is endothermic O-(g) + 1 e à O2-(g) ∆H = +
Enthalpy of Solution - enthalpy change when I mole of an ionic compound dissolves in NaCl(s) à Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
(∆Hsol) water to give solution of infinite dilution ∆Hsol = ∆Hlatt + ∆Hhyd + ∆Hhyd
Enthalpy of hydration - Is the energy change when mole of a gaseous ion dissolves in water Mg+ (g) à Mg+ (aq)
(∆Hhyd) to form a solution of infinite dilution.
Entropy - measure of disorder in a reaction. ∆S=∑S products - ∑S reactants
(∆S) - units = J. mol-1. K-1 ∆S à (gas > liquid > solid) ∆S = +ve (more disorder)
Spontaneity - ∆G = +ve (non-spontaneous) and if -ve (spontaneous) ∆G=∑G products - ∑G reactants
(∆G) - units = KJ. mol-1 ∆G=∆H - T∆S
∆H ∆S ∆G
+ - Non spont at all temp
+ + Spont at high temp
- - Spont at low temp
- + Spont at all temp
Born Haber Cycle
∆HIE (Na) ∆HEA (Cl) The Born Haber cycle is used to calculate
the lattice enthalpy for different ionic
compounds. In the following steps:
∆Hatm (Cl) 1- Atomize metal
2- Atomize non-metal
3-Ionize metal (I.E)
∆Hatm (Na) ∆Hlatt 4- Ionize non-metal (E.A)
∆Hf ∆Hlatt = ∆Hatom + ∆HIE + ∆HEA - ∆Hf
46
Topic 16
Chemical Kinetics (HL)
47
Rate Expression Rate Expression from Experimental Data
A series of experiments will be given where the concentrations of all reactants
The rate expression of the reaction determined either will be changed, and the initial rate measured
From experimental data or From reaction mechanism
A+BàC+D 2H2 + 2 NO à 2H2O + N2
[H2] [NO] Initial rate
Rate = K [A]a [B]b Experiment 1 1 1 3
Experiment 2 2 1 6
(1) a and b are the orders of the reaction Experiment 3 1 2 12
(2) The overall order = a+ b
Rate expression: R = K [H2]a [NO]b
(3) the rate constant = K.
!"# 2 K x [H2]!" " [NO]!# 6 K x [2]!" " [1]!#
= ∴ = 2 = 2" ∴2=1
- The oder could be whole number or Fraction. !"# 1 K x [H2]$" " [NO]$# 3 K x [1]$" " [1]$#
- The unit of k is (mol. dm-3) 1-order. Time-1
!"# 3 K x [H2]%" " [NO]%# 12 K x [1]%" " [2]%#
= ∴ = 4 = 2# ∴4=2
Reaction Mechanism !"# 1 K x [H2]$" " [NO]$# 3 K x [1]$" " [1]$#
Over all order: 2 + 1 = 3
- A reaction that has more than 2 reacting species
will go in multiple steps. Rate expression: R = K [H2] [NO]2
- It is unlikely that the particles will collide with the Unit of K: (mol. dm-3) 1-3. Time-1 = mol-2. dm-6. Time-1
right geometry and energy at the Same Time
- Sum of all steps should be the Same as the
balanced equation Half-life (T1/2)
- No more than 2 species in any step. - time needed for the concentration of a reactant to reach half its initial value
- Rate expression is the same as the experimental - 1st order (constant T1/2) -. /
- 2nd order (increasing T1/2) ,!/# =
- zero order (decreasing T1/2) 0
Intermediate vs Transition State
Concentration graph Arrhenius equation
- Intermediates form in one step Zero order 1st order 2nd order A: Arrhenius constant is a Frequency
& used in another. Factor that relates the Frequency
- Transition form when bond are of collisions with the right energy
breaKing & Forming
()
!"# = !"% −
*+
48
Topic 17
Equilibrium (HL)
49
Concentration at equilibrium Calculation of Kc
- When N2 is added on the system of equilibrium, the (1) Given equilibrium concentration
equilibriun shifts to the right and the conc of
N2,and H2, decreases, ond NH3 increases subtitution in Kc expression
- Equilibrium will be reached at a new point.
(2) Given equilibrium moles and volume
convert n and V into Conc subtitution in Kc expression
(3) Given initial concentration (ICE table)
convert initial conc into
subtitution in Kc expression
equillibrium conc by ICE table
(4) Given initial moles and volume
subtitution
convert moles convert initial conc into
in Kc
to conc equillibrium conc
expression
Rate at equilibrium
Equilibrium and Gibb’s free energy
- An increase in the amount of N2 causes the rate of
the forward reaction to increase à more NH3 is - Chemical equilibrium happens when both reactions are spontaneous.
produced à rate of the backward reaction to - Gibb's Free energy decreases in both directions.
increase à new equilibrium is established - Equilibrium happens when ∆G is minimum, and entropy ∆S is maximum.
- Rate at newly established equilibrium is higher than
the original rate ∆" = −& ' () *
K>1 ∆G (-) Product
favored
K<1 ∆G (+) Reactant
favored
K=1 ∆G (0) Equal
50
Topic 18
Acids and Bases (HL)
51
Lewis Definition Buffer
- Acid: species that can accept pair of elections - It is a mixture of a. weak acid and its conjugatc base or weak base and its
- Base species that can donate a pair of elections anjugate acid
- It resists the cherge in ph when a small amount of on acid of base is added.
Types
Buffer Acidic buffer Basic buffer
Composition CH3COOH + CH3COONa NH4OH + NH4Cl
HCl HCl + CH3COONa à HCl + NH4OH à NH4Cl +
addition CH3COOH + NaCl H2O
Lewis acid Lewis base NaOH NaOH + CH3COOH à NaOH + NH4Cl à NH4OH +
Electrophile Nucleophile addition CH3COONa + H2O NaCl
Salt Hydrolysis Indicators
- A salt is made up From a cation (from the base) - An indicator is made of a weak acid (or weak base) in which the
and an anion (from the acid) Conjugate, base (or Conjugate acid) has a different color.
ACID BASE SALT pH
Strong Strong Neutral 7
Weak Weak Neutral 7
Strong Weak Acidic <7
Weak Strong Basic >7
- Salts that contain tronsition metals from complex
with water which is acidic
FeCl! + H" O → [Fe(H" O)# ]!$ + 3Cl%
[Fe(H" O)# ]!$ ⇌ [Fe(H" O)& (OH)]"$ + H $ - we can take the pH range of an indicator to be pKa ± 1.
Equations
52
Titration curves
Strong acid vs Strong base Weak acid vs Strong base Weak base vs strong acid
Titration
curve
Initial pH pH = - log [conc of acid] pH = - log √1234 2562 7 81 pH = 14 + log √91:; 2562 7 89
pH at EP pH = 7 pH > 7 pH < 7
Final pH pH = 14 + log (conc of base) pH = 14 + log (conc of base) pH = - log [conc of acid]
53
Topic 19
Redox processes (HL)
53
Topic 20
Organic Chemistry (HL)
55
Topic 21
Measurement and data processing
(HL)
57

IB Amr's Notes (HL) (1) 2

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Study Guide

Chemistry for the IB

Higher Level (HL)

Dr. Amro Shetta

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