HANDOUT ON STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTOLOGY (PET 411) DEFINITIONS Stratigraphy is the study of the composition, relative positions, etc., of rock strata in order todetermine their geological history. Sedimentology studies sand, mud (or silt) and clay, and the various ways they are deposited. Using these studies, sedimentologists apply their understanding of modern processes to ancient rock, to try to understand how it formed. Most of the rocks on earth are sedimentary rocks, and it is in these kinds of rocks you find fossils and many of theother historical markers. Sedimentary rocks are also where petroleum deposits are found. Sedimentology is tied to stratigraphy, which studies the relationships between rock layers and how they can shift and move. This also affects where petroleum deposits can be found, as well as how the extraction of petroleum affects the sediment around the deposit. Sedimentology explores the origin, transport, deposition and diagenetic alterations of the materials that compose sediments and sedimentary rocks. Stratigraphy investigates how those types of rocks are accumulated and distributed in space and time. The two disciplines are core components to other fields of geoscience research including paleobiology, geobiology, tectonics,paleoclimate, petroleum geology, Earth history, geochronology, thermochronology, deep time paleoceanography, and basin analysis. We use fields, sites and/or subsurface basins as our natural laboratories. Salient areas of sedimentology and stratigraphy that currently of concern includes: (i) mechanistic understanding of sediment formation, deposition, and lithification (particularly of carbonates and other chemical sedimentary rocks); (ii) analysis of terrestrial paleoenvironmental records to document and constrain the evolution of Earth's ancient climates and landscapes; and (iii) integrated analysis of the regional sedimentology and sequence stratigraphy of petroleum system and reservoirs, particularly deep-water margins and unconventional resources.DESCRIPTION OF STRATIGRAPHIC FEATURES USING STRATIGRAPHIC COLLUMN A stratigraphic column is a representation used in geology and its subfield of stratigraphy to describe the vertical location of rock units ina particular area. A typical stratigraphic column shows a sequence of sedimentary rocks, with the oldest rocks on the bottom and the youngest on top. In areas that are more geologically complex, such as those that contain intrusive rocks,faults, and/or metamorphism, stratigraphic columns can still indicate the relative locations of these units with respect to one another. However, in these cases, the stratigraphic column must, either be a structural column, in which the units are stacked with respect to how they are observed in the field to have been moved by the faults, or a time column, in which the units are stacked in the order in which they were formed.. Stratigraphy is a branch of geology that concerns the order and relative position of geologic strata and their relationship to the geologic time scale. The relative time sequencing requires the analysis of the order and position of layers of archaeological remains and the structure of a particular set of strata. The columns can include igneous and metamorphic rocks, however, sedimentary rocks are important geologically because of Classical Laws of Geology and how they relate to the accumulation of sediments and the formation of sedimentary environments. LAWS AND PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY Principle of Uniformitarianism: defined in the authoritative Glossary of Geology as "the fundamental principle or doctrine that geologic processes and natural laws now operating to modify the Earth's crust have acted in the same regular manner and with essentially the same intensity throughout geologic time, and that past geologic events can be explained by phenomena and forces observable today; the classical concept that 'the present is the key to the past’. Law of Original Horizontality: sedimentary rocks are always deposited as horizontal, or nearly horizontal, strata, although these may be disturbed by later earth movements. This law wasproposed by Nicolaus Steno inthe mid-17th century. Law of Superposition: general law upon which all geologic chronology is based: In any sequence of layered rocks, sedimentary or extrusive volcanic, that has not been overturned, the youngest stratum is at the top and the oldest at the base; i.e., each bed is younger than the bed beneath, but older than the bed above it. The law was stated by Steno in 1669. Cross-cutting relationships: cross-cutting relationships are a principle of geology that states that the geologic feature which cuts another is the younger of the two features. It is a relative dating technique used commonly by geologists. ROCK CYCLE AND WEATHERING Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the surface of the Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all agents of weathering. Once a rock has been broken down, a process called erosion transports the bits of rock and mineral away. There are three types of weathering: biological, chemical, and mechanical. Rain is actually mildly acidic, and therefore slowly eats away at rocks - this is an example of chemical weathering. Plants and animals also cause rocks to erode - this is an example of biological weathering. Weathering is the breakdown oftrocks at the Earth's surface, by the action of rainwater, extremes of temperature, and biological activity. It does not involve the removal of rock material. Biological weathering occurs when Plants break up rocks with roots or root exudates .Mechanical weathering occurs during freeze thaw and exfoliation and Chemical weathering during solution, carbonation etc. Biological weathering Biological weathering occurs when plants break up rocks with toots or root exudates. The process is slow, but may strongly influence landscape formation. Biological weathering occurs when plants break up rocks with roots or root exudates. The process is slow, but may strongly influence landscape formation. Biological weathering increases with soil thicknessuntil optima for biotic activity are reached, but decreases when soils get thicker and biotic activity has less influence on weathering. Biological weathering refers to processes mediated by microorganisms, which can contribute to the breakdown of rocks or can enhance surface stabilization. Physical / mechanical weathering Physical weathering, also called mechanical weathering, is a process that causes the disintegration of rocks, mineral, and soils without chemical change. The primary process in physical weathering is abrasion (the process by which clasts and other particles are reduced insize). The processes of physical weathering include: @ Abrasion; when weathering-forces such as wind and water cause rocks to breakdown into smaller pieces Exfoliation when rocks expand and break as pressure is released from unloading. Frost wedging. Salt crystallization. Thermal expansion. Biological activity/root wedging. Physical weathering occurs when physical processes affect the rock, such as changes in temperature or when the rock is exposed to the effects of wind, rain and waves. Water can get into cracks in a rock and, if it freezes, the ice will expand and push the cracks apart. Frost wedging-rocks break as water freezes and expand. Physical weathering is the breaking of rocks into smaller pieces. This can happen through exfoliation, freeze-thaw cycles, abrasion, root expansion, and wet- dry cycles.Freeze-thaw occurs when water, continually seeps into cracks, freezes and expands, eventually breaking the rock apart. Mechanical weathering occurs when water drips or flows over rock for prolonged periods; the Grand Canyon, for example, was formed to a large degree by the mechanical weathering action of the Colorado River. Chemical weathering Chemical weathering is a process that causes erosion or disintegrationof these particles by means of chemical reactions. These chemical reactions include carbonation, hydrolysis, acidification, oxidation, and lichens, which alter the chemical composition of the minerals that compose it. Water causes both mechanical weathering and chemical weathering. There are different types of chemical weathering processes, such as solution, hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation, oxidation,reduction, and chelation. Chemical weathering involves the breakdown of rock caused by changes in its chemical composition. For example, some rocks consist of minerals that dissolve in water. Minerals are dissolved and washed away when it rains, breaking down the rock. This is known as dissolution weathering. Chemical weathering occurs when water dissolves minerals in rock, producing new compounds. This reaction called hydrolysis. Hydrolysis occurs, for example, when water comes in contact with granite. Feldspar crystals inside the granite react chemically, forming clay minerals. The clay weakens the rock, making it more likely to break, Water also interacts with calcites in caves, causing them to dissolve. Calcite in dripping water builds up over many years to create stalagmites and stalactites.In addition to changing the shapes of rocks, chemical weathering from water changes the composition of water. For example, weathering over billions of years is a big factor in why the ocean is salty. Oxygen can cause chemical weathering by reaction with rocks. Oxygen is a reactive element. It reacts with rocks through a process called oxidation. One example of this type of weathering is rust formation, which occurs when oxygen reacts with iron to form iron oxide (rust). Rust changes the color of the rocks, plus iron oxide is much more fragile than iron, so the weathered region becomes more susceptible to breakage. Acid can also cause chemical weathering. When rocks and minerals are altered by hydrolysis, acids may be produced. Acids may also be produced when water reacts with the atmosphere, so acidic water can react with rocks. The effect of acids on minerals is an example of solution weathering. Solution weathering also covers other types of chemical solutions, suchas basic rather than acidic ones. Living organism and human activities can also cause chemical Weathering. Living organisms perform chemical reactions to obtain minerals from soil and rocks. Many chemical changes are possible. Lichens can have a profound effect on rock. Lichens, a combination of algae and fungi,produce a weak acid that can dissolve rock. Plant roots are also an important source of chemical weathering. As roots expand into rock, acids can change the minerals in the rock. Plant roots also use carbon dioxide, thus changing the chemistry of the soil. New, weaker minerals are often more brittle; this makes it easier for plant roots to break up the rock. Once the rock is broken up, water can get into the cracks and oxidize or freeze. Frozen water expands, making the cracks wider and further weathering the rock. Animals can also effect geochemistry. For example, bat guano and other animal remains contain reactive chemicals that can affect minerals. Human activities also have a major impact on rock. Mining, of course, changes the location and condition of rocks and soil. Acid rain caused by pollution can eat away at rocks and minerals. Farming changes the chemical composition of soil, mud, and rock. One common acid is carbonic acid, a weak acid that is produced when carbon dioxide reacts withwater. Carbonation is an important process in the formation of many caves and sinkholes. Calcite in limestone dissolves under acidic conditions, leaving open spaces. Processes of Chemical Weathering When a rock is brought to the surface millions or billions of years after it has formed, the original minerals that were crystallized deep in the crust under high pressures and temperatures are unstable in the surface environment and eventually break down. The primary agents in chemical weathering are water, oxygen, and acids. These react with surface rocks to form new minerals that are stable in, or in equilibrium with, the physical and elomical conditions present at the earth's surface. Any excess ions left over from the chemical reactions are carried away in the acidic water. For example, feldspar minerals will weather to clay minerals,releasing silica, potassium, hydrogen, sodium, and calcium, These elements remain in solution and are commonly found in surface water and groundwater. Newly deposited sediments are often cemented by calcite or quartz that is precipitated between the sediment grains from calcium- and silica bearing water, respectively. How quickly chemical weathering breaks a rock down is directly proportional to the area of rock. surface exposed. Thus, it is also related to mechanical weathering, which creates more exposed surface area by breaking the rock down into pieces, and those pieces into smaller pieces. The greater the number of pieces, the greater the total amount of surface area exposed to chemical weathering. Water Chemical weathering is most intense in areas that have abundant water. Different minerals weather at different rates that are climate dependent. Ferromagnesian minerals break down quickly, whereas quartz is very resistant to weathering. In tropical climates, where rocks are intensely weathered to form soils, quartz grains are typically the only component of the rock that remains unchanged. Alternatively, in dry desert climates, minerals normally susceptible to weathering in wet environments (such as calcite) can be much more resistant. Acids are chemical compounds that decompose in water to release hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen atoms frequently substitute for other elements in mineral structures, breaking them down to form new minerals that contain the hydrogen atoms. The most abundant natural acid is carbonic acid, a weak acid that consists of dissolved carbon dioxide in water. Rainwater usually contains some dissolved carbon dioxide and is slightly acidic. The burning of coal, oil, and gasoline releases carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and sulfur into the atmosphere, which react with rainwater to form much stronger carbonic, nitric, and sulfuric acids that damage the environment (acid rain).Other acids that can affect the formation of minerals in the near surface weathering environment are organic acids derived from plant and humus material. Strong acids that are naturally occurring in the environment are rare-they include the sulfuric acids and hydrofluoric acids released during volcanic and hot spring activity, Solution weathering is the process by which certain minerals are dissolved by acidic solutions. For example, calcite in limestone is dissolved easily bycarbonic acid. Rain that percolates through cracks and fissures in limestone beds dissolves calcite, making wider cracks that can ultimately develop into cave systems. Oxygen: Oxygen is present in air and water and is an important part of many chemical reactions. One of the more common and visible chemical weathering reactions is the combination of iron and oxygen to form iron oxide (rust). Oxygen reacts with iron-bearing minerals to form the mineral hematite (Fe20), which weathers rusty brown. If water is included in the reaction, the resultant mineral is called Limonito (Fe203 nH20), which is yellow-brown. These minerals often stain rock surfaces a reddish-brown to yellowish color. ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING PROCESSES Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in the augmentation and concentrations of some valuable ores of manganese, aluminum, iron, and copper, etc. which have a great significance in the economy of the country. Weathering provides particles that eventually form sedimentary rocks like limestone and sandstone, plus, chemical weathering helps in reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide. If weathering did not exist, the earth would consist of bare toeks unable to support flora and fauna. Weathering refers to the various natural actions of weather and climate on the composition of the earth. There are multiple processes that affect the earth such as disintegration of rocks by agents like wind, water, temperature etc. These processes can be collectively called as weathering. Weathering is one of the geomorphic process. Significance of weathering: @ Breaking up of rocks Formation of soil Produces materials such as clay Augmentation of minerals Facilitates activities such as mining and quarrying Weathering is an essential process for life on earth. The vegetation such as forest covers also depend upon weathering. Human economic activities like agriculture and mining are also dependent on weathering.Thus the resource is thade available by the process of weathering. Mechanical weathering is the breakdown of rock without any changes in its chemical composition. An example of mechanical weathering is freeze-thaw. Freeze-thaw weathering occurs when the temperature alternates above and below freezing. Carbonation weathering is another form of chemical weathering. The process involves slightly acidic rainwater reacting with minerals, causing them to dissolve, breaking the rock down. As atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations increase, the climate gets warmer. The warmer climate speeds up chemical weathering, which consumes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and mitigates the greenhouse effect, thus leading to a climate cooling. Even in areas of well-developed agriculture, both in temperate and tropical regions, the weathering release of nutrient elements is of major importance in soil fertility and crop production. It is found that the inherentfertility of soils is related to their mineral contentBiological weathering involves rock being broken down by living things. An example of this involves plant roots breaking down rocks by growing in cracks and splitting them apart. The very process of weathering creates the soil, allowing life to flourish on Earth. It is important to note that minerals cannot be accumulated in the soil; hence, no nutrients will be available for plant and animal consumption 21 THE CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Natural processes tend to separate the various products of weathering and, after erosion and transportation, deposit sand, mud, and carbonates in many different environments. Thus sediments are grouped and segregated spontaneously on the earth's surface. Sediments are turned into rock, first the allochthonous sediments (those that are transported into a sedimentary basin), and then the autochthonous sediments (those that form within a basin). It is important to understand how the various sedimentary rocks are named and classified. First, effective communication requires a uniformity of nomenclature. Secondly, in a particular study, it is often necessary to differentiate, compare, and contrast rock types. The following section describes first the problems of sediment classification in general, and then the classification of the allochthonous rocks in particular. Sediment is "what settles at the bottom of a liquid; dregs; a deposit". This definition is itself unacceptable to most geologists since it would exclude, for example, eolian deposits and biogenic reefs from the realm of sedimentology. Similar dilemmas will be encountered with most other descriptive terms applied tosedimentary petrography. Essentially, five main genetic classes of sediment can be recognized: chemical, organic, residual, terrigenous, and pyroclastic. The chemical sediments are those that form by direct precipitation in a subaqueous environment. Examples include evaporites such as gypsum and rock salt, as well tufa and some lime muds. The organic sediments are those composed of organic matter of both animal and vegetal origin. Examples include skeletal limestones and coal. The residual sediments are those left in place after werthoring, and examples olude the laterites and bauxites. The terrigenous sediments are those whose particles we ornally derived from the earth, and include the mudrocks, siliclelastic (as opposed to carbonate) sands, and conglomerates. Pyroclastic sediments are the product of voleanic activity. Examples include ashes, tufts, volcaniclastic sands, and agglomerates. Additional terms to introduce at this point are clastic, detrital, and fragmental. These all tend to be used in the same way describing a rock as formed from the lithifaction of discrete particles a sediment no loss. Residual 22) The five genetic classes previously defined are untenable when closely scrutinized. For example, are gypsum sand dunes chemical or terrigenous deposits? Are phosphatized bone beds chemicals, organic, or residual deposits, and so on? These five main genetic classes of sedimentary rocks can be divided into two separate types: the allochthonous and the autochthonous deposits. The allochthonous sediments are those that are transported into the environment in which they are deposited. They include the terrigenousand pyroclastic classes, together with rare reworked (allodapic) carbonates. The autochthonous sediments are those that form within the environment in which they are deposited. They include the chemical, organic, and residual classes. Table 1 shows the relationship between these various terms. Table 1: Classification of sedimentary rocks Group |. Autochthonous sediments (a) Chemical precipitates-the evaporites: gypsum, rock salt, etc. (b) Organic deposits-coal, limestones, etc. (c) Residual deposits-laterites, bauxites, etc. Il. Allochthonous sediments; (d) Terrigenous deposits-clays, siliciclastic sands, and conglomerates (e) Pyroclastic deposits-ashes, tuffs, volcaniclastic sands, and agglomerates. The end-member concept is one of the most useful ways of classifying rocks. Sediments containing three constituents can be classified in a triangular diarrem in which each apex represents 100% of one of the three constituents (Fig. 1), Four- componeht sediment systems can be plotted in three dimensions within the faces of a tetrahedron (Fig. 2). Because sedimentary rocks contain many components, neither of these systems is entirely satisfactory. Table ALLOCHTHONOUS SEDIMENTS CLASSIFIED The allochthonous sediments, as previously defined, consist of the origenous and pyroclastic classes. The quartzose terrigenous sands are sometimes termedsiliclelastic" to differentiate them from the bioclastic and pyroclastic detrital sediments. The pyroclastic sediments, those derived from volcanic activity, are included for the sake of completeness. They are not a volumetrically significant part of the present sedimentary cover of the earth and are not described in detail. The allochthonous sediments may conveniently be classified using the end-member triangle shown in Fig. 3. The scheme attempts to reconcile the inconsistency that the nomenclature of sedimentary rocks is founded on two irreconcilable parameters: grain size and composition. It is interesting to see the different.emphasis placed on sediment nomenclature in modern and ancient deposits. Studies of modern sediments are primarily concerned with the hydrodynamics of transport and deposition.. Sediment description predominantly emphasizes grain size and texture rather than mineral composition. Hence a scheme similar to that in Fig. 4 is generally used. In ancient sediments, however, emphasis is placed much more on composition and this is reflected by the abundance of rock names that stress composition ther than texture (e.g, arkose, tuff). The four main types of allochthonous sediments are now described. These may be grouped conveniently, if illogically, into the mudrocks (composed dominantly of clay minerals), the pyroclastics, the sandstones, and the rudaceous rocks. TABLE MUDROCKS The term "mud' is ill defined and loosely used. In Recent deposits,sediments referred to as mud are wet clays with a certain amount of silt and sand. Its lithified equivalent is termed "mudstone." More rigidly defined, however, are clay and silt in the Wentworth grade scale. Clays are sediments with particles smaller than 0.0039 mm. Silts have a grain size between 0.0039 and 0.0625 mm. Their lithified equivalents are claystone and siltstone, respectively. Shale is another term applied to fine-grained sediment. It is ill defined and does not differentiate silt from clay- grade sediment. Shaley parting, on the other hand, is valid description for fissility in fine sediment Other major constituents of mudrocks include clay minerals, detrital grains, organic matter, and carbonates. The detrital grains consist of fine angular particles of quartz, micas, and heavy minerals such as zircon and apatite. Organic matter in mudrocks is chemically very complex and the nomenclature organic mudrocks is not rigidly defined. Essentially mudrocks can be named with reference to an end-member triangle whose apices represent pure organic matter, pure lime, and .pure clay minerals (Fig. 5). Mudrocks composed largely of admixtures of various clay minerals can be termed "claystones, or more pedantically, "orthoclaystones,’ to indicate their purity. With increasing line content claystones grade into marls and on into micrites, which are pure lime mudrocks. TABLE pressure. Dewatering also occurs in many clays as a spontaneous process termed "synaeresis', forming small desiccation cracks at the mud water. The compaction ofolay at shallow depths has been intensively studied by engineering geologists. This is because it is critical to know the physical properties of clay if it is to be a-foundation for civil engineering projects, such as the building of high-rise blocks, motorways, and dam sites. Clays and Clay Diagenesis: Summary The compaction and consolidation of clays at shallow depths is of significance to the engineering geologist. The changes that occur in clays as they change to claystones t greater depths are of interest to the petroleum geologist because this may be relevant to theories of petroleum genesis and migration. Similarly, mining geologists have considered that low- temperature ore bodies may have been derived from the residual fluids of compacting clays aided by brines acting as transporting media. PYROCLASTIC SEDIMENTS (sandstones) Allochthonous sediments are divisible into the claystones (defined by their grain size and clay mineral composition), the siliciclastic sands of terrigenous silica minerals, and the volcaniclastic sediments. The volcaniclastic sediments are relatively rare by. volume in the earth's crust, but deserve mention for the sake of completeness. Many minerals of volcanic rock are unstable at surface temperatures and pressures. For this reason, therefore, detritus derived from volcanic activity is commonly only preserved interbedded with lava flows and can seldom survive detrital transportation far from the volcanic center from which it came. The volcaniclastic sediments can be classified into three groups according to their particle size. Agglonerates are the counterpart to conglomerates. Sand-grade volcaniclastic sediment is of two types,Erosional volcaniclastic sands are produced by normal subaerial or subaqueous processes acting on eruptive rocks. The pyroclastic sediments in contrast are ejected into the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions. Pyroclasts include, therefore, "bombs" which fall close to the vent, Sands which fall around the vent for a distance of kilometers, and dust which may be carried into the upper atmosphere and transported around the world. In many cases it is impossible to distinguish whether ancient volcaniclastic sediment was produced by normal erosion of lavas or by pyroclastic action. Large clasts cannot normally be transported far from their source. Pumice provides an exception to this because it floats. Pumice can be transported across whole oceang. Fine-grained volcanic ash tends to undergo intensive postdepositional alteration. This may give se to the montmorillonitic bentonites and kaolinitic tonsteins discussed in the previous section. Palagonite is a mineraloid produced by the alteration of basalt glass. It is sometimes sufficiently abundant in the Pacific to make sediment termed palagonite mud, and also occurs lithified in Pacific volcanic islands. Traces of volcanic ash are a common constituent of modern pelagic sediments. SANDSTONES 33 Specifically, it is concerned with the quartzoSe or siliciclastic sands as distinct from the volcaniclastic and carbonate sands. About 30% of the land's sedimentary cover is made of terrigenous sand and sandstone. This group of rocks is a fruitful topic for study both for itself and to aid the exploitation of economic materials within sandstones. Because they are often highlyporous, sandstones are frequently major aquifers and petroleum reservoirs. They are more uniform in stratigraphy and petrophysical character than carbonates and it is, therefore, easier to predict their geometry and reservoir performance. The following account discusses the problems of sandstone nomenclature and classification, summarizes the features of the more common sandstone types, and concludes by discussing the effect of diagenesis on sand porosity and permeability. Nomenclature and Classification of Sandstones The nomenclature and classification of sandstones has always been a popular academic pursuit. It is important that sandstones be named with a terminology that is tolerably familiar to, and agreed on by, practicing geologists. Any nomenclatural system has to have arbitrary bounding parameters that separate one rock type from another. These bounding parameters are most useful when based on some underlying concepts of sand genesis. The basie problem of classifying sands is that they can be grouped according to their physical composition (.e., grain size and matrix content) or according to their chemical composition (i.e., mineralogy). There are more textural and mineralogical components deemed to be significant in sandstone nomenclature than can be conveniently represented in an end-member triangle or tetrahedron, Sandstones The quartzites, arkoses, and wackes are described in the following subsections. Quartzites Sands that are mature in texture and mineralogy are broadly referable to as the quartzites or quartz-arenites. Various authors have proposed the minimum percentageof quartz necessary for a sand to qualify. The term quartzite has been used in metamorphic; geology for any sand, regardless of composition, which breaks across grains rather than around grain boundaries. Among sedimentary petrographers, however, a quartzite generally refers to quartz-rich sand irrespective of its degree of lithifaction. Quartzites have less than 25 % feldspar and less than 15 % matrix. The quartzites are generally arbitrarily divisible into the protoquartzites which contain some feldspar and matrix, and the orthoquartzites, which are almost pure silica. The quartzites are, therefore, by definition, sands that are mature in texture and mineralogy. Typical quartzites are white, pale gray, or pink in color. They range from unconsolidated to splintery in their degree of lithifaction. Grain size is variable, but sorting is generally good and individual grains are normally well rounded. Arkoses 34 The term arkose was first proposed by Broghiart (1826) for coarse sand composed of quartz and substantial quantities of feldspar from the Auvergne in France. This name is still used for rocks of that general description. Essentially the arkosea are ‘sands which are relatively mature in texture (i.e., low in clay matrix) and are immature in mineralogy as shown by the abundance of feldspar. The clay content must generally be less than 15 % and there must be more than about 25% of feldspar. Few arkoses have more than 60% feldspar because this would presuppose a source in which feldspar was more abundant than quartz. The converse is generally true and theratio of quartz to feldspar begins to rise as soon as the source rock is submitted to weathering. Arkoses, therefore, are the product of the incomplete degradation of acid igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granites and gneisses. Arkose often forms in place on granites forming a transitional weathering zone, termed “granite wash,’ in which it is hard to distinguish sediment from igneous rock, This situation is a well-site geologist's nightmare. It is very hard to distinguish arkose from granite on the basis of drill cuttings, yet the contact can easily be picked subsequently from geophysical logs. The grains of arkoses are typically angular to subrounded and there is generally a significant amount of clay matrix. For this reason arkoses seldom stay unconsolidated for long, like the quartzites. Most ancient arkoses show some degree of lithifaction due to clay bonding. In extreme cases porosity can be completely obliterated by silica or carbonate cement Wackes The wackes are, by definition, texturally immature sands with more than 15 % matrix. Chemically mature wackes, with less than 25 % feldspar, are fermed “quartz-wackes." Chemically immature wackes are the classic greywackes. The name “greywacke" comes from the German "grauewacke,’ which was applied to the Paleozoic sandstones of the Harz Mountain. The greywackes are characteristically hard, dark gray-green rocks that break with a hackly fracture. Under the hand lens, greywackes are very poorly sorted with particles ranging from very coarse sand grains down into clay-grade matrix. They have been aptly described as micro- conglomerates. Grains are commonly angular and of poor sphericity. Quartz is overshadowed byan abundance of other detrital minerals. Feldspar is present, but so also are mafic grains such as horneblende and, occasionally, pyroxenes, Some of the larger grains are lithic rock fragments, and, depending on the source, these may have been derived frone volcanics or older metasediments such as quartzite or slate. Micas are abundant and include muscovite and biotite, as well as microcrystalline diagenetic chlorite and sericite. A diverse suite of unstable heavy minerals is also typical. Diagenesis and Porosity Evolution of Sandstones The term diagenesis has been applied in varying ways to the postdepositional, yet premetamorphic processes that affect sediment. Diagenesis refers primarily to the reactions which take place within sediment between one mineral and another, or between one or several minerals and the interstitial or supernatant fluids. This definition limite diagenesis to essentially PIE chemical processes distinct from physical processes, such as compaction Porosity Loss by Cementation The previous account of porosity gradients showed how sandstones lose porosity with increasing burial depth. In sands, unlike clays, the effect of campaction is subordinate to cementation. The ways in which porosity is lost by cementation are described. Meteorie water is that of the rivers and rain. It is commonly present in the pores within the top 100 m of so of the earth's surface, but may also be preserved fossilized below unconformities. Meteoric water contains relatively low concentrations of dissolved salts. Meteoric.groundwater tends to have a positive Eh, due to dissolved oxygen, and a low pH, due to carbonic and humic acids.Connate water was originally defined as residual seawater within the pores of marine sedimento Seawater is oxidizing and neutral. It is now realized that seawater trapped in pores undergoes considerable modification as chemicals are precipitated or dissolved. The term "connate water" is retained, however, for such deeply buried fluids. The Eh and pH of connate fluids vary widely, extending from acidic and oxidizing, where they mingle with meteoric waters, to alkaline and reducing, where they are associated with petroleum accumulations. The salinity of pore fluids gradually increases with depth, going from the meteoric to the connate zone. Carbonate cements Carbonate cements in sandstones consist of calcite, dolomite, and occasionally siderite. Modern sediments have been found with cements of both aragonite and calcite. These reports indicate that carbonate cements can form at surface temperatures and pressures. Their genesis does not require high temperatures or pressures. These cements are precipitated from solutions which gained their calcium carbonate both from connate water expelled by compaction and from the dissolution of shells. In ancient sandstones aragonite is largely unknown as cement due to reversion to calcite, the stable form of calcium carbonate. Carbonate cements range from fringes of small crystals rimming detrital grains through sparite-filled pores, to single crystals, centimeters across, which completely envelop the sand fabric, SANDSTONES Clay cements Minor amounts of authigenic clay in sand inhibit the precipitation ofcarbonate and silica cements. But significant amounts of clay may not only occupy pores, but may also significantly diminish permeability (Wilson and Pittman, 1977; Guvan et al, 1980). There are four main types of clay to consider: kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite, and chlorite. Kaolinite grows as discrete crystals often with a shape like an accordian These crystals are sometimes so extended that they look like a worm (described as "vermicular" by the learned). Kaolinite cement obviously destroys porosity, but it does not do as much damage to permeability as other authigenic clays, which, though they may diminish porosity by the same amount, volume for volume, are far more destructive of permeability. Coal is a sedimentary rock formed entirely by biochemical processes. It originates from the accumulation under anaerobic conditions of vegetable detritus as peat, in swamps, marshes, meres, and pools. TABLES chemical rocks are those which form within the depositional environment. They include direct cal precipitates, such as some evaporites, and formation by organic processes, such as coal and shell lime- stones. Not all chemical sediments are syndepositional. Diagenetic processes are important in the of some evaporites, dolomites, cherts, ironstones, and phosphates. The carbonate rocks are extremely complex in their genesis, diagenesis, and petrophysics.CARBONATES Carbonate rocks are intrabasinal in origin. Unlike terrigenous sediments they are weathered and their weathering products are transported as solutes. Carbonate rocks therefore, deposited at or close to their point of origin. Most carbonate rocks are organic origin. They contain a wide spectrum of particle sizes, ranging from whole shells to lime mud of origin. These sediments are deposited with a high primary. porosity. The casbonate chemically unstable, however. This combination of high primary porosity and coupled with chemical instability, is responsible for the complicated diagenesis of rocks, and hence for the problems of locating aquifers and hydrocarbon reservoirs within The following brief account of carbonates first defines their mineralogy, then petrography and classification and concludes by showing the relationship between and porosity development Carbonate Minerals It is necessary to be familiar with the common carbonate mineral to dnderstand the complex diagenetic changes of carbonate rocks. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the dominant constituent of modern carbonates and ancient limestones, It occurs as two minerals, aragonite and calcite. Aragonite crystallizes in the orthorhombic crystal system, while calcite is rhombohedral. Calcite forms an isomorphous series with magnesite (MgCO3): A distinction is made between high- and low-magnesium calcite, with the boundary being arbitrarlly set at 10 mol%. Ancient limestones are composed largely of low magnesium calcite, while modern carbonate sediments are made mainly of aragonite and high-magnesian calcite. Aragonite is found in many algae, lamellibranchs, and bryozoa. High magnesian calcite occurs in echinoids, crinoids, many foraminifera, and some algae, lamellibranchs, and gastropods. An isomorphous series exists between calcite and magnesite (MgC03).Skeletal aragonite and calcite also contain minor amounts of strontium, iron, and other trace elements. The relationship between carbonate secreting organisms, the mineralogy of their shells, and their contained trace elements has been studied in detail. These factors are important because their variation and distribution play a controlling part in the early diagenesis of skeletal sands. Dolomite is another important carbonate mineral, giving its name also to the rock. Dolomite is calcium magnesium carbonate (CaMg(CO3)2). Isomorphous substitution of some magnesium for iron is found in the mineral termed ferroan dolomite or ankerite Ca(MgFe) (C03) 2. Unlike calcite and aragonite, dolomite does not originate as skeletal material, Dolomite is generally found either crystalline, as an obvious secondary replacement of other carbonates, or as a primary or penecontemporaneous replacement mineral in cryptocrystalline form. The problem of dolomite genesis is elaborated on later. Siderite, iron carbonate (FeCO3), is one of the rarer carbonate minerals. It occurs, apparently as a primary precipitate, in ooliths. These "spherosiderites,’ as they areotermed, are found in rare restricted marine and freshwater environments. Spherosiderite is often associated with the hydrated ferrous aluminosilicate, chamosite, in sedimentary iron ores. Siderite also occurs as thin bands and horizons of concretions in argillaceous deposits, especially in deltaic deposits. It is not uncommon to find siderite bands contorted and fractured by slumping. Siderite clasts are also found in intraformational conglomerates. These facts suggest that siderite forms diagenetically during early burial while the host sediment is still uncompacted. Its formation is favored byalkaline reducing conditions. Table 3 summarizes the salient features of the main carbonate minerals. To conclude this brief summary of a large topic, the following points are important. principal carbonate minerals are the calcium carbonates, calcite and its unstable aragonite; and dolomite, calcium magnesium carbonate.. Modern carbonate sediments composed of both aragonite and calcite. Only calcite, the more stable variety, occurs in of forms as a limestones. Dolomite does not occur as a biogenic skeletal mineral. replacement mineral or, rarely, by primary precipitation or penecontemporaneous replacement other carbonates. Physical TABLE Components of Carbonate Rock Carbonate rocks, like sandstones, have four main components: grains, matrix, cement, and pores. Unlike sandstones, however, the grains of carbonate rocks, though commonly monominerallic, are texturally diverse and polygenetic. The various grain types, niatrix, and cement are described next. They are tabulated in Table 9.4. Table GRAINS Grains are the particles that support the framework of sediment. They are thus generally of sand grade or larger. Carbonate grains are of many types, as briefly described here. First are the detrital grains, which are of two types. They include rock fragments, or lithodasts. These are grains of noncarbonated material which originated outside the depositional basin. Quartz grains are a typical example of lithoclasts and, as they increase in abundance,limestones grade into sandy limestones and thence to calcareous sandstones. The second type of detrital grains is intraclasts. These are fragments of reworked carbonate rockwhich originated within the depositional basin. Eagly cementation followed by penecontemporaneous arosion is a common feature of carbonate rocks, and is responsible for the generation of intraclasts. Intraclasts may range from sand size, via intraformational conglomerates of penecontemporaneously cemented beach rock to, arguably, fore-reef slump blocks The most important of all grain types is skeletal detritus, individual grains of which are termed biodasts. As pointed out in the previous section, this is composed of aragonite or calcite with varying amounts of trace elements. The actual crystal habit of skeletal matter is varied too, ranging from the acicular aragonite crystals of lamellibranch shells to the single calcite crystals of echinoid plates. The size of skeletal particles is naturally very variable, ranging down from the largest shell to individual disaggregated microscopic crystals. Continued abrasion of skeletal debris by wave and current action and by biological processes, such as boring, is responsible for the very poor textural sorting characteristic of carbonate sediments. Peloids are a third major grain type (Plate 6B). These were first defined as structureless cryptocrystalline carbonate grains of some 20-60/zm in diameter. Peloids form in many different ways. Pellets are peloids of fecal origin, excreted by marine invertebrates, Pelletoids are peloids formed by the micritization of skeletal grains through the action of endolithic algae. These colonize carbonate grain surfaces, bore into them, and change theiroriginal fabric into structureless micrite. Several other processes have been proposed for peloid formation. The genesis of peloid formation is important because this grain type is sometimes a major constituent of limestone formations. Oo Peloidal deposits are especially characteristic of lagoons and other sheltered shallow inner-shelf environments. Lumps are another important carbonate grain type. These are botryoidal grains which are composed of several peloids held together. They are sometimes termed "composite grains" or grapestone. Grains such as these are probably formed by the reworking of peloidal sediment that has already undergone some lithifaction. They are thus nascent intraclasts. Last of the grain types to consider are the coated grains. These are grains that show a concentric or radial arrangement of crystals about a nucleus. The most common coated grains are ooids. These are rounded grains of medium to fine grain size which generally occutregariously in sediments termed oolites, devoid of other grain types or matrix. Ooids contain a nucleus. This is normally a quartz grain or a shell fragment. Modern poids are generally composed of concentric layers of tangentially arranged aragonite. Pisoids are coated grains several millimeters in diameter. They form in coverns (cave pearls). A rock composed of pisoids is termed a "pisolith." Vadose pisaliths form in caliche crusts beneath the weathered zones of soils ancient and modern. Oncoids are a third type of coated grain. These are several centimeters in diameter and 0 irregularly shaped. The laminae are discontinuous around the grainoOncoids are formed by primitive blue-green algae growing on a grain and attracting carbonate mud to their sticky surface. Intermittent rolling of the grain allows the formation of discontinuous lime-mud films. In contrast to ooids therefore, pisoids and oncoids are indicators of low- energy environments. A rock composed of oncoids is termed an "oncolite.” Micrite Carbonate mud is termed mierite. The upper size limit of micrite is variously taken as 0.03-0.04 mm in diameter. Micrite may be present in small quantities as a matrix within grain-supported carbonate sand, or may be so abundant that it forms a carbonate mudrock, termed "micrite" or “calcilutite" (Plate 6A), Most modern lime muds are composed of aragonite; their lithified fossil analogs are made of calcite. Several processes appear to generate lime mud. The action of wind, waves, and tides will smash shell debris and ultimately may abrade them into their constituent crystals. Fecal pellets may be similarly disaggregated. Biological action is also efficient at breaking up carbonate particles to form crystal muds Table. Nomenclature and Classification Algally encrusted grains The nomenclature and classification of carbonate rocks was once a topic of great confusion and debate. There were several good reasons for this, including the fact that so many parameters can be used to define carbonate rock types. These include chemical composition (e.g., limestone,dolomite), grain size, particle type, type and amount of porosity, degree of crystallinity, quantity of mud, and so on. Two of these articles deserve special mention because they proposed a series of terms and groupings which are widely used today. Limestones divided into four main classes (Table 5). The first two classes include rocks composed largely of grains (allochems); these he jointly termed the allochemical limestones. One class is dominated by sparite cement, the other by micrite matrix. The third class is for rocks lacking grains, termed the "orthochemical" limestones. This group includes micrite lime mud carbonates. The fourth group is for rocks made of in-place skeletal fabrics. This group, the autochthonous reef rocks, includes coral biolithite and algal stromatolites. Folk proposed a bipartite nomenclature for the allochemical rocks. The prefix defined the grain type and the suffix denoted whether sparite or micrite predominated. Thus were born words like "oosparite" and "pelmicrite." Where more than one allochem type was present, two should be used, with the major one first, as in "biooosparito." When both sparite and micrite were present, they could both be compounded with the dominant constituent first: as in "pelbiomicsparite.” Thus was born the rock name "biooointrapelmicsparite." foking apart, this is a logical and flexible scheme for classifying and naming carbonate facks.. Like Folk, he placed the in-place reef rocks in a class of their own — the boundstones: A second class was erected for the crystalline carbonates whose primary, depositional fabric could not be determined. Dunham divided the rest of the carbonates into four groups according to whether their fabric was grainsupported or mud supported. Grainstones are grain-supported sands with no micrite matrix, Paskstones are grainsupported sands with minor amounts of matrix. Wackestones are mud-supported rocks.