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Metrology and Instrumentation
Practical Applications for Engineering and Manufacturing
Samir Mekid
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
This edition first published 2022
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Mekid, Samir, author.

Title: Metrology and instrumentation : practical applications for
engineering and manufacturing / Samir Mekid.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2021. | Series: Wiley-ASME Press series |
Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021034345 (print) | LCCN 2021034346 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119721734 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119721727 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119721710 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Metrology. | Measuring instruments.
Classification: LCC QC88 .M38 2021 (print) | LCC QC88 (ebook) | DDC
620.0028/4—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021034345
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021034346
Cover image: Courtesy of Abderrahman Mekid

Cover design: Wiley
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Chennai, India

v
Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
About the Author xvii
1 Fundamental Units and Constants in Metrology 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Current Definitions of the Main SI Units 6
1.3 New Definition of Seven Base Units of the SI 6
1.4 Derived International System (SI) Units 7
1.5 SI Conversion 7
1.6 Fundamental Constants 8
1.7 Common Measurements 9
1.8 Principles and Practices of Traceability 10
1.8.1 Definition of Traceability 10
1.8.2 Accreditation and Conformity Assessment 11
Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 12
References 12
2 Scales of Metrology 13
2.1 Introduction to Practical Metrology across All Scales 13
2.2 Nanometrology 14
2.2.1 Introduction and Need in Industry 14
2.2.2 Definition of Nanometrology 15
2.2.3 Importance of Nanometrology in Science and Technology 15
2.3 Standards 18
2.4 Micrometrology 22
2.4.2 Definition of Micrometrology 22
2.4.3 Examples of Micrometrology of Microparts 22
2.5 Macroscale Metrology 23
2.5.1 Standards 25
2.6 Large-Scale Metrology and Large-Volume Metrology 29
2.6.2 Definition 30
2.6.3 Verification Standards 32
vi Contents
2.7 Instruments Techniques 34

2.7.1 Large Coordinate Measuring Machines 35
2.7.2 Laser Trackers 35
2.7.3 Theodolite 35
References 37
3 Applied Math and Statistics 39

3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Scientific and Engineering Notation 39
3.3 Imperial/Metric Conversions 40
3.4 Ratio 41
3.5 Linear Interpolation 42
3.6 Number Bases 42
3.7 Significant Figures, Rounding, and Truncation 43
3.8 Geometry and Volumes 44
3.8.1 Perimeter 44
3.8.2 Volume and Area 44
3.9 Angular Conversions 44
3.10 Graphs and Plots 45
3.11 Statistical Analysis and Common Distributions 47
3.11.1 Definition of Measurement Data 47
3.11.2 Statistical Measurements 47
3.11.3 Statistical Analysis of Measurements 47
3.11.4 Probability 48
3.11.5 Sample and Population 49
3.11.6 Formulation of Mean and Variance for Direct Measurements 49
3.11.7 Mean and Variance Based on Samples 50
3.11.8 The Standard Deviation of the Mean 51
3.12 Formulation of the Standard Uncertainty and Average of Indirect Measurements 52
3.12.1 How to Determine the Measured Value and Random Error? 52
3.12.2 Repeated Measurements of One Single Quantity 52
3.12.3 Normal Distribution 53
3.12.4 Student’s t-distribution 55
4 Errors and their Sources 61

Introduction 61
4.1 Definition of the Error and Their Types 61
4.1.1 Systematic Errors 62
4.1.2 Random Errors 63
4.1.3 Components of Motion Error Assessment 63
4.2 Measurement Characteristics 63
4.2.1 Characterization of the Measurement 63
4.2.2 Resolution, Error Uncertainty, and Repeatability 64
4.2.3 Model of Measurement 67
Contents vii
4.3 Propagation of Errors 69

4.4 Sources of Errors 73
4.4.1 Static Errors and Dynamic Errors 73
4.5 Error Budget 77
4.5.1 Components of the Error Budget 77
4.5.2 Example of Error-Budget Table 78
4.6 Error Elimination Techniques 79
4.6.1 Methods 79
4.7 Model of Errors in CNC Using HTM 81
4.8 Case Study of Errors Budget 87
4.8.1 Description of the Designed System 87
4.8.2 Error Modeling and Experimental Testing 88
4.9 Solved Problems 96
References 97
5 Measurement and Measurement Systems 99

5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 What Can Be Standard in a Measurement? 101
5.3 Definitions of Key Measurement Components 102
5.3.1 Measurement System 102
5.3.2 Measurement System Analysis 103
5.3.3 Measurement Process 103
5.4 Physical Measurement Process (PMP) 103
5.5 Difference between Number and an Analysis Model 104
5.6 Measurement Methods 105
5.6.1 Metrology and Measurement 105
5.6.2 Metrological Characteristics of Measuring Instruments 108
5.7 Instrumentation for Measurement 109
5.7.1 Background 109
5.7.2 Measurement Instrumentations 109
5.7.3 Digital Measuring Device Fundamentals 109
5.8 Non-Portable Dimensional Measuring Devices 110
5.8.1 Laser Interferometry, Application to CNC Machines 110
5.8.2 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) 118
5.9 Metrology Laboratory Test for Students 140
References 146
6 Tolerance Stack-Up Analysis 149

6.1 Introduction 149
6.1.1 Importance of Tolerance Stack-Up Analysis 149
6.1.2 Need for Tolerance Stack-Up Analysis in Assemblies 151
6.1.3 Manufacturing Considerations in Engineering Design 151
6.1.4 Technical Drawing 152
6.1.5 Definitions, Format, and Workflow of Tolerance Stack-Up 153
viii Contents
6.2 Brief Introduction to Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) 156

6.2.1 Notation and Problem Formulation 156
6.2.2 Dimension Types 157
6.2.3 Coordinate Dimensioning 158
6.2.4 Tolerance Types 160
6.2.5 Characteristics of Features and Their Tolerances 162
6.3 Tolerance Format and Decimal Places 164
6.4 Converting Plus/Minus Dimensions and Tolerances into Equal-Bilaterally Toleranced
Dimensions 165
6.5 Tolerance Stack Analysis 167
6.5.1 Worst-Case Tolerance Analysis 169
6.5.2 Rules for Assembly Shift 169
6.5.3 Worst-Case Tolerance Stack-Up in Symmetric Dimensional Tolerance 171
6.5.4 Worst-Case Tolerance Stack-Up in Asymmetric Dimensional Tolerance 173
6.6 Statistical Tolerance Analysis 173
6.6.1 Definition of Statistical Tolerance Analysis 173
6.6.2 Worst-Case Analysis vs RSS (Root-Sum Squared) Statistical Analysis 175
6.6.3 Second-Order Tolerance Analysis 176
6.6.4 Cases Discussions 176
6.6.5 Understanding Material Condition Modifiers 178
Appendix A from ISO and ASME Y14 Symbols 188
References 189
7 Instrument Calibration Methods 191

7.2 Definition of Calibration 191
7.3 Need for Calibration 192
7.4 Characteristics of Calibration 193
7.5 Calibration Overall Requirements and Procedures 195
7.5.1 Calibration Methods/Procedures 195
7.6 Calibration Laboratory Requirements 197
7.7 Industry Practices and Regulations 198
7.8 Calibration and Limitations of a Digital System 199
7.9 Verification and Calibration of CNC Machine Tool 201
7.10 Inspection of the Positioning Accuracy of CNC Machine Tools 202
7.11 CNC Machine Error Assessment and Calibration 207
7.12 Assessment of the Contouring in the CNC Machine Using a Kinematic Ballbar
System 219
7.13 Calibration of 3-axis CNC Machine Tool 221
7.14 Calibration of a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) 225
7.14.1 CMM Performance Verification 225
7.14.2 Accreditation of Calibration Laboratories 226
Section 1: Scope and Description 231
Section 2: Calibration Requirements 232
Section 3: Preliminary Operations 232
Section 4: Calibration Process 233
Contents ix
Section 5: Data Analysis 234

Section 6: Calibration Report 234
References 235
8 Uncertainty in Measurements 237

8.1 Introduction and Background 237
8.2 Uncertainty of Measurement 238
8.3 Measurement Error 238
8.4 Why Is Uncertainty of Measurement Important? 239
8.5 Components and Sources of Uncertainty 239
8.5.1 What Causes Uncertainty? 239
8.5.2 Uncertainty Budget Components 240
8.5.3 The Errors Affecting Accuracy 240
8.6 Static Errors and Dynamic Errors 241
8.7 Types of Uncertainty 241
8.8 Uncertainty Evaluations and Analysis 242
8.9 Uncertainty Reporting 243
8.10 How to Report Uncertainty 245
8.11 Fractional Uncertainty Revisited 247
8.12 Propagation of Uncertainty 247
References 252
9 Dimensional Measurements and Calibration 255

9.1 Length Measurement 255
9.2 Displacement Measurement 255
9.3 Manual Instruments 260
9.3.1 Caliper 260
9.3.2 Vernier Caliper 261
9.3.3 Micrometer 262
9.3.4 Feeler Gauge 262
9.3.5 Liner Measurement Tool 263
9.3.6 American Wire Gauge 263
9.3.7 Bore Gauge 263
9.3.8 Telescopic Feeler Gauge 264
9.3.9 Depth Gauge 265
9.3.10 Angle Plate or Tool 265
9.3.11 Flat Plate 266
9.3.12 Dial Gauge 266
9.3.13 Oil Gauging Tapes 267
9.3.14 Thread Measurement 267
9.3.15 Planimeter 267
9.4 Diameter and Roundness 269
9.4.1 How to Measure a Diameter? 269
9.4.2 Roundness 270
9.5 Angular Measurements 276
x Contents
9.5.1 Line Standard Angular Measuring Devices 277

9.5.2 Face Standard Angular Measuring Devices 277
9.5.3 Measurement of Inclines 279
9.5.4 Optical Instruments for Angular Measurement 280
9.6 Metrology for Complex Geometric Features 282
9.6.1 Edge Detection Techniques Using a CCD Camera 282
9.6.2 Full Laser Scanning for Reverse Engineering 283
9.7 Measurement Surface Texture 285
9.7.1 Geometry of Surface 285
9.7.2 Surface Integrity 286
9.7.3 Specification of Surfaces 286
9.7.4 Sampling Length 287
9.7.5 Instruments and Measurement of Roughness 290
References 291
10 Mechanical Measurements and Calibration 293

10.1 Importance of Mechanical Measurements 293
10.2 Mechanical Measurements and Calibration 293
10.3 Description of Mechanical Instruments 294
10.3.1 Mass Measurements 294
10.3.2 Force Measurements 295
10.3.3 Vibration Measurements 295
10.3.4 Volume and Density 296
10.3.5 Hydrometers 298
10.3.6 Acoustic Measurements 298
10.4 Calibration of Mechanical Instruments 300
10.4.1 When Is Equipment Calibration Needed? 300
10.4.2 When Is There No Need for Calibration? 301
10.4.3 Process of Equipment Calibration 301
10.5 Equipment Validation for Measurement 301
10.5.1 Is There a Need of Equipment Validation? 302
10.5.2 Features and Benefits of Validation 302
10.5.3 Process of Validation of Equipment 302
10.6 Difference between Calibration and Validation of Equipment 303
10.7 Difference between Calibration and Verification 303
10.8 Calibration of Each Instrument 304
10.8.1 Mass Calibration 304
10.8.2 Force Calibration 304
10.8.3 Pressure Calibration 304
10.8.4 Vibration Measurements 306
10.8.5 Volume and Density 307
10.8.6 Hydrometers 308
10.8.7 Acoustic Measurements 308
References 308
Contents xi
11 Thermodynamic Measurements 309

11.1 Background 309
11.2 Scale of Temperature 309
11.2.1 Ideal Gas Law 310
11.2.2 Vacuum 310
11.2.3 Gas Constants 310
11.3 Power 312
11.4 Enthalpy 312
11.5 Humidity Measurements 312
11.6 Methods of Measuring Temperature 313
11.7 Temperature Measured through Thermal Expansion Materials 314
11.7.1 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer 314
11.7.2 Bimetallic Thermometer 314
11.7.3 Electrical Resistance Thermometry 315
11.7.4 Resistance Temperature Detectors 316
11.7.5 Examples for Discussion 318
11.7.6 Thermistors 320
11.8 Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement or Thermocouples 321
11.8.1 Basic Thermocouples 321
11.8.2 Fundamental Thermocouple Laws 322
11.9 Thermocouple Materials 323
11.9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouple Materials 324
11.9.2 Thermocouple Voltage Measurement 325
11.10 Multi-Junction Thermocouple Circuits 326
11.11 Thermopiles 327
11.12 Radiative Temperature Measurement 327
References 329
12 Quality Systems and Standards 331

12.1 Introduction to Quality Management 331
12.2 Quality Management 332
12.2.1 Total Quality Management (TQM) 332
12.2.2 Quality Management System (QMS) 333
12.2.3 TQM Is Essential to Complete TQS 333
12.2.4 ISO-Based QMS Certification 333
12.3 Components of Quality Management 334
12.3.1 Quality System (QS) 334
12.3.2 Quality Assurance (QA) 335
12.3.3 Quality Control (QC) 335
12.3.4 Quality Assessment 335
12.4 System Components 336
12.4.1 Quality Audits 336
12.4.2 Preventive and Corrective Action 336
12.4.3 Occupational Safety Requirements 337
12.4.4 Housekeeping Practices 338
xii Contents
12.5 Quality Standards and Guides 338

References 340
13 Digital Metrology Setups and Industry Revolution I4.0 341

13.1.1 What Is a Digital Measurement? 341
13.1.2 Metrology and Digitalization 341
13.1.3 Implementation Strategy 343
13.2 Data Acquisition 343
13.3 Setup Fundamentals for Measurement and Data Acquisition 344
13.3.1 Length Measurement in Open Loop 344
13.3.2 Thermal Measurement and Data-Acquisition Considerations 345
13.3.3 Data Transfer to Cloud 349
13.3.4 Internet of Things (IoT) Metrology 349
13.3.5 Closed-Loop Data Analysis- (In-Process Inspection) 350
13.4 Digital Twin Metrology Inspection 352
References 354
Index 357
xiii
Preface
This book is conceived for engineers and technicians operating in various industrial fields. It is also
for students of mechanical, production, and other related disciplines in engineering to facilitate
understanding of fundamentals of measurements, instruments and governing rules followed by
learning various shop-floor required measurement techniques.
The book introduces basic needs from math, statistics, and measurement principles. It discusses
errors and their sources in manufacturing while describing the various measurement instruments.
Simple physical parameters such as force, torque, strain, temperature, and pressure are explained.
The subsequent chapters cover tolerance stack-ups, GD&T, calibration principles in various aspects
of manufacturing, and quality standards. ASME and ISO are cited according to needs and to cor-
responding knowledge throughout the book. Each chapter ends with a set of MCQs with answer
tables to help prepare technicians and engineers for various qualification diplomas and certificates.
The book adopts an illustrative approach to explain the concepts with solved examples to support
understanding.
Chapter 1 of the book introduces the fundamental units and constants needed in metrology sup-
ported by the international vocabulary of metrology and international standards.
Chapter 2 emphasizes metrology that covers all scales, starting from nanoscale to large scale. Dif-
ferences and relationships between scales are introduced to understand the differences and possible
complementarity, while Chapter 3 introduces basic math and science background mainly to refresh
memories and be a reference in case there is a need to check information. Math and science are of
great importance when dealing with measurement since the inception of humanity.
Chapter 4 defines the error and its various possible sources: how error propagates in measure-
ment, errors associated with motion, error classification, and error elimination. An estimation of
error, or uncertainty analysis, is a tool for determining the performance capability of machine tools
and highlighting potential areas for performance and cost improvement.
In Chapter 5, the measurement and quantification are the fundamental concepts of metrology,
including the measurement system characteristics. This considers explicit and internationally
accepted definitions, principles, and standards. The purpose of any measurement system is to
provide the user with a numerical value corresponding to the variable being measured by the
system. What are the international related standards? Examples of length measurement, parts,
and machine inspection with reverse engineering are provided.
One of the most significant chapters is Chapter 6 as it introduces the tolerance stacks analy-
sis methods. This chapter establishes uniform practices for stating and interpreting dimensioning,
tolerancing, and related requirements for use on engineering drawings and in related documents
under ASME Y14.5.1. A brief introduction to geometric dimension and tolerancing is followed by
xiv Preface
tolerance stacks. This is to assign the right tolerances and to make sure that no unnecessary tight
tolerance is selected, leading to costly manufacturing.
Chapter 7 introduces the principles and fundamentals of calibration under the international stan-
dards definitions and agreements. It tackles real calibration of machines and instruments in detail
for understanding of the process.
Chapter 8 discusses the uncertainty based on the international standards and recent develop-
ments followed by the propagation of error with real-world examples. The doubt surrounding this
measurement is the uncertainty of measurement. The background and fundamental definition of
uncertainty and error will be discussed later based on international standards with all aspects in
general practice.
Mechanical measurement for length and others are discussed in two chapters.
Chapter 9 covers some of the instruments used for displacement and length measurements. From
length measurement and calibration of instruments such as micrometers, calipers, gages, or tape
measures, to high-tech optics-based scales and comparators. The industrial leading dimensional
instrument calibration capabilities are available and well designed to reduce risk and inaccuracy
in measurements. Chapter 10 covers mechanical instruments measuring other than length mea-
surands. The chapter discusses calibration-related techniques. These are fundamental basis instru-
ments that may be needed by any engineer at any time.
Thermodynamic properties of any material or solution are treated in Chapter 11. They are valu-
able not only for estimating the usefulness of the material or the feasibility of reactions in solution,
but they also provide one of the best methods for investigating theoretical aspects related to the
material or solution structure. Thermal properties of materials can be measured directly or indi-
rectly. This includes temperature, developed pressure, calorimetry, and thermal conductivity.
Chapter 12 covers quality management and metrology since they are important components in
metrology labs and manufacturing enterprises. This chapter introduces the definition of most com-
ponents of quality with the related international standards with an overall organization of the lab
requirement.
Contemporary digital metrology is discussed in Chapter 13. Digital metrology and its relationship
to manufacturing and I4.0 are introduced. This chapter covers the digitalization, automation, and
measurements that are becoming extremely important in this era of digital manufacturing and dig-
ital twins metrology (DTM). The measurement system is a combination of real-time control system
and system for data transmission. Digital computing is the tool for data processing. The technology
readiness for most measurement instrumentation exists together with virtual instruments capable
of building further the DTM. Since several apps for smart phones have been developed, the last
appendix gives a short presentation of 38 apps.
About the Website Materials

This book has an online appendices extension covering smart phone Apps related to various metrol-
ogy aspects discussed in the book and found in Appendix A, and a technical terms glossary in
Appendix B. The link is www.wiley.com\go\mekid\metrologyandinstrumentation.
xv
Acknowledgments
This book is like a vessel of time and knowledge since much of it has been dedicated to compiling
information and data, verifying and checking numerous experiments, and ensuring that knowledge
is delivered in a simple manner that can be easily captured by readers.
Several specialist companies in the area of metrology and manufacturing have contributed
directly or indirectly to this book; hence, I am very thankful to all of them.
I acknowledge the courtesy of Fotofab (Chicago, USA), Leica (UK), and Renishaw (UK) to use
some of their materials.
I am thankful to Otila Prian and Nina Fernandez from CREAFORM (AMETEK) for their reverse
engineering samples; Ross Snyder, Application Engineer from Sigmetrix (Michigan, USA) for his
stack-up analysis contribution. I would also like to thank Mr. Nicolaus Spinner from SPINNER
Werkzeugmaschinenfabrik GmbH in Sauerlach (Germany) for providing me with the calibration
results of his machines.
My thanks are extended to my Managing Editors: Gabriella Robles and Sarah Lemore from John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
I would also like to acknowledge my MSc student Usman Khan and our departmental secretary
Mino Thankachan for the hard work of formatting the chapters. Not to forget Abderrahman Mekid
and Khawla Mekid for their editing and revisions.
The author would like to acknowledge the support of King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals (KFUPM) through the Deanship of Research Oversight and Coordination (DROC) for
their support in research and resources made available to this book under BW#191006.
October 1, 2021 Professor Samir Mekid

xvii
About the Author
Samir Mekid is professor of mechanical engineering at KFUPM and chartered engineer registered
with IMechE (UK) and ASME member. Prior to joining KFUPM, he was assistant professor at
UMIST (UK) and The University of Manchester (UK). He has worked with Caterpillar in the design
department and has been an expert EU evaluator for various countries to several European Frame-
work Projects Programs, e.g., FP6, FP7. He was member of the Scientific Advisory Board of the
Centre of Excellence in Metrology for Micro and Nanotechnology (CEMMNT) in the UK. His
area of research includes machine design, manufacturing instrumentation, metrology, mechatron-
ics, smart materials, and sensors design. He has published over 180 publications in professional
journals and international conference proceedings and edited three books. He holds more than
30 patents.
During his ongoing career, he taught several courses for undergraduate and graduate students
including: metrology, sensors and actuators, together with machine design. He has trained approx-
imately one hundred engineers through short courses on tolerance stack-ups, GD&T, manufactur-
ing systems, and materials selection. He is currently the Founding Director of the Interdisciplinary
Research Center for Intelligent Manufacturing and Robotics at KFUPM.
1
Fundamental Units and Constants in Metrology
“When you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers, you know
something about it.”
—Lord Kelvin (1883). Source: Public Domain.
1.1 Introduction
Metrology is the science of measurement with various applications. It is derived from the Greek
words metro – measurement and Logy – science. The BIMP (Bureau of Weights and Measures in
France) defines metrology as “the science of measurement embracing both experimental and the-
oretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in any field of science and technology.”
Five pivots define the functions of metrology:
1) To establish the units of measurements;
2) To replicate these units as standards;
3) To guarantee the measurement uniformity;
4) To develop measurement methods;
5) To investigate the accuracy of methods-related errors.
Based on this, the objectives of metrology are:
1) Selection of proper measuring instrument;
2) Proper measuring standards;
3) Minimizing inspection cost;
4) Defining process capabilities;
5) Standardization;
6) Maintaining accuracy and precision during inspection or as component of an instrument over
time of use [1].
Therefore, two types of metrology exist:
1) Deterministic, or industrial, metrology.
2) Legal, or scientific, metrology.
Measurement is the process of revealing a single or multiple values to the characteristics of an
object or property by conducting experiments to determine the value of this particular property.
These properties may be physical, mechanical, or chemical, such as length, weight, force, strain,
volume, angle, and molls.
2 1 Fundamental Units and Constants in Metrology
Object to
measure Unit System?
▪ Dimensional
▪ Time
▪ Mass Principle of
Measurand? Measurement ▪ Force measurement-
Standards? ▪ Electricity techniques
▪ Temperature
Measurement ▪ …more
procedure?
Identify related
▪ Principle
▪ Method Calibration?
▪ System
Uncertainty?
Measurement
results
Figure 1.1 Simplified methodology producing measurement results.
Metrology also includes precision, repeatability, and accuracy, which refers to how accurate
the measured value is. It establishes a well-known understanding of the measuring process
and the related units that are critical in connecting various human activities and ensures that
these measurements are linked to reference standards, which is commonly referred to as trace-
ability. For as long as civilization has existed, measurements have been taken. It is necessary for
a country’s economic and social development. It provides precise measurements that have an
impact on the economy, health, safety, and general well-being. It could also be a legal problem.
As a result, the topic is always in demand.
This chapter will introduce the fundamental units and constants in metrology through conver-
sions between units and systems. To put measurements into context, a complete methodology of
the act of measurement beginning with the object to measure and ending with the result that con-
stitutes the information needed for the object is required. The complete process is summarized in
Figure 1.1. The figure depicts a simplified methodology for producing measurement results with
minimal conditions such as the units to be known, the calibration of the measurement instruments,
and the uncertainty of such measurements. This is to cast the majority of the aspects that engineers
conducting measurements must be aware of. A dimension is a non-numerical measure of a physical
variable. The unit is used to associate a quantity or measurement with a dimension.
Example 1.1 The mass of an object is a primary dimension, while 15 kg is associated with the
quantity 15 of mass with the unit of kg. We need a comparison with some precise unit value to
measure the quantity of anything. Body parts (Figure 1.2) and natural surroundings were used by
early humans to provide suitable measuring instruments. Elementary measures became essential
in the primitive human societies for tasks such as building dwellings, making clothing, bartering
for food, and exchanging raw materials.
1.1 Introduction 3
Flemish Ell Yard

Cubit English Ell
Span French Ell
Fathom
18 Handbreadths
6 Feet
Figure 1.2 Vitruvian man by Leonardo da Vinci showing nine historical units of measurement.
Source: Wikimedia Commons
– According to early Babylonian and Egyptian transcripts, length was first measured with the fore-
arm (cubit), hand (palm and span), and finger (digit).
– The cycles of the celestial bodies such as the sun, moon, and others were used for time measure-
ments.
– Plant seeds were used for the sake of establishing volume measurement, while with the expan-
sion of scales for weighing, seeds and stones became standards. As sample, the carob seed was
the base measure for the carat, which is still used as a mass unit in the gemstone industry.
As trade and commerce expanded, it became necessary to standardize measurement systems
across many countries. This decreased the possibility of disagreements arising from measurement
system misunderstandings.
The international system of units, known as the SI (from French “Système International”) unit
system, distinguishes physical units into two classes as shown below:
1) Base or primary units; and
2) Derived units.
These two categories cover the most commonly used units, such as time, temperature, length,
mass, pressure, and flow rate. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) [2] intro-
duced the SI units, which can be found at this hyperlink: SI units (https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/
Units/). For more information on the SI units, visit the website of the international standards orga-
nization known as the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM).
Table 1.1 Primary units.
Measurement Units Symbol Description
Unit of length meter m One meter is equal to the length of the path travelled by light
in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299792458 of a second.
Unit of mass kilogram kg One kilogram is equal to the unit of mass presented by the
international prototype of the kilogram in Figure 1.2. Since
2019, the new definition based on Planck’s constant has
been used.
Unit of time second s One second is equal to the duration of 9192631770 periods of
the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two
hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.
Unit of electric current ampere A One ampere is defined as follows: the constant current if
maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite
length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 meter
apart in vacuum, will produce between these conductors a
force equal to 2 × 10−7 newton per meter of length.
Unit of thermodynamic kelvin K One kelvin is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature temperature of the triple point of water.
Unit of amount of mole mol One mole is the amount of substance of a system containing
substance as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012
kilogram of carbon-12.
When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be
specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other
particles, or specified groups of such particles.
Unit of luminous candela cd One candela is the luminous intensity within one direction, of
intensity a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency
540 × 1012 hertz and having a radiant intensity of 1/683 watt
per steradian in that direction.
As will be demonstrated later, each measurement unit has a primary quantity that is used by
convention. Each primary quantity has only one primary unit. As a result, every primary unit can
be decomposed or recomposed further. Table 1.1 shows primary units of different kinds of physical
quantities, symbols, and their descriptions. Figure 1.3 depicts the kilogram prototype safely con-
served in Paris as a reference unit of kg kept constant in quantity for comparison. The following
section discusses derived units, which are shown in Table 1.2.
Figure 1.3 The standard kilogram for mass.

1.1 Introduction 5
Table 1.2 Derived units.
Derived quantity Si derived new unit Symbol SI units SI base units
Force newton N mkgs−2

Pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2 m-1 kgs−2
Energy, work, joule J Nm m2 kgs−2
quantity of heat
Power watt W J/s m2 kgs−2
Electric charge coulomb C sA
Electromotive force volt V m2 kgs−3 A−1
Electric capacitance farad F C/V m−2 kg−1 s4 A2
Electric resistance ohm Ω V/A m2 kgs−3 A−2
Electric conductance siemens S A/V m−2 kg−1 s3 A2
Velocity meter per second m/s
Angular velocity radian per second 1/s
Mass flow rate kilogram per second kg/s
Flow rate liter per second l/s
Figure 1.4 The platinum-iridium meter bar reference. Source: Wikimedia Commons
The International Prototype Meter bar, shown in Figure 1.4, is made of 90% platinum and
10% iridium alloy and served as the SI (metric system) standard of length from 1889 until 1960,
when the SI system switched to a new definition of length based on the wavelength of light emitted
by krypton-86. The practical length of the meter was defined by the distance between two fine lines
ruled on the central rib of the bar near the ends measured at the freezing temperature of water.
The bar was given an X (Tresca) cross-sectional shape to increase its stiffness-to-weight ratio and
improve its thermal accommodation time so the graduation lines could be located on the “neutral”
axis of the bar where the change in length with flexure is minimum. The prototype was made in
1889, its length made equal to the previous French standard “Meter of the Archives.” At the same
time, twenty-nine identical copies were made, which were calibrated against the prototype and
distributed to nations to serve as national standards and possibly for comparison after a few years.
1.2 Current Definitions of the Main SI Units

The current definition of the base and primary units are shown in Table 1.1.
1.3 New Definition of Seven Base Units of the SI

Seven base units of the SI are known to be the second, meter, kilogram, ampere, kelvin, mole, and
candela. Some have been based on physical constants for a long time. Since 1983, the meter has
been defined as the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum over a time interval of 1/299
792 458 s. However, the four that metrologists have agreed to redefine recently were previously
based on something—i.e., an object, experiment, or phenomenon—implying that their value is
not universal.
As a result of this decision [3], all seven SI units are currently defined in terms of physical con-
stants.
The meter, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value
of the speed of light in vacuum, c, to be 299792458 when expressed in the unit m•s−1 , where the
second is defined in terms of the cesium frequency Δ𝜈 Cs . The meter may be expressed directly in
terms of the defining constants (Eq.(1.1)):
9 192 631 770 c
1m = (1.1)
299 792 458 ΔvCs
Previously, one meter was defined as the length traveled by light in 3.335641 × 10−9 s (based on
the speed of light in a vacuum). It was also defined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the
orange red line of the spectrum of krypton-86.
Most affected is the kilogram, which is currently fixed by a 143-year-old platinum alloy cylinder
known as the “Le Grand K” and kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)
in Paris. The kilogram is now defined by Planck’s constant, h, recently measured with extraordinary
precision. Its agreed value is set at 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 kg m2 s−1 when expressed in the unit J s,
which is equal to kg m2 s−1 , the meter and second being defined in terms of c and Δν. This means
that the kilogram is defined in terms of Planck’s constant instead of the mass of a cylinder of metal
called International Prototype Kilogram.
Meanwhile, the ampere is determined by the elementary electric charge, e, which is given as
1.602 176 634 × 10−19 when expressed in coulombs. The kelvin is determined by the fixed numerical
value of Boltzmann’s constant, k, which is 1.380 649 × 10−23 when expressed in units of J K−1 , and
the mole is determined by Avogadro’s constant (N A ), which contains exactly 6.02 214 076 × 1023
1.5 SI Conversion 7
atoms or molecules. This number is the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, N A , when
expressed in units of mol−1 .
1.4 Derived International System (SI) Units

A derived SI unit is a measurement unit that is devised for a derived quantity different from primary
units shown previously. Derived units combine different base units as described in Table 1.2. These
derived units are obtained by simple mathematical transformations.
The Imperial unit system now includes the customary units of the United States in North Amer-
ica. The British Weights and Measures Act of 1824 established the Imperial unit system. Following
that, the system was made official throughout the United Kingdom. It should be noted that some
units are used in the United States but not in the United Kingdom, and vice versa. The differences
are found in the following:
i) British fluid ounce = 0.961 US fluid ounce;
ii) US fluid ounce = 1.041 British fluid ounces;
iii) British Imperial gallon = 1.201 US gallons;
iv) US gallon = 0.833 British Imperial gallon.
1.5 SI Conversion
Converting SI units is very common when considering the SI unit and its related prefix described
in Table 1.3.
This system comprises 7 base quantities (common) and 16 prefixes that designate the amount.
The base unit and prefixes can be combined to produce the desired result.
Example 1.2 A car’s weight can be written as 2000 kg, but it is better expressed in tons. It is no
longer appropriate to write the results in grams. The possibilities for combining are limitless. It is
Table 1.3 SI Units and prefixes.
Prefix Abbreviation Meaning Example
tera T 1012 1 terameter (Tm) = 1012 m

9
giga G 10 1 gigameter (Gm) = 109 m
mega M 106 1 megameter (Mm) = 106 m
3
kilo k 10 1 kilometer (km) = 103 m
deci d 10−1 1 decimeter (dm) = 10−1 m
−2
centi c 10 1 centimeter (cm) = 10−2 m
milli m 10−3 1 millimeter (mm) = 10−3 m
−6
micro μ 10 1 micrometer (μm) = 10−6 m
nano n 10−9 1 nanometer (nm) = 10−9 m
−10
angstrom Å 10 1 angstrom (Å) = 10−10 m
pico p 10-12 1 picometer (pm) = 10−12 m
-15
femto f 10 1 femtometer (fm) = 10−15 m
critical to present the measurement results in a clear and easy-to-understand figure. Based on the
previous table:
1 g = 0.001 kg, which can be better presented as 1 g = 10−3 kg;
1 nm = 0,000000001 m, which can be better written as 1 nm = 10−9 m.
Or 1 000 000 mm = 1 km.
When converting using SI units, the prefix is very important if the user knows the ranking
right away.
Example 1.3
567 m = 0.567 km (dividing by 1000 since 1 km = 1000 m)
30 s = 0.5 min (since 1 min = 60 s).
1.6 Fundamental Constants

As a general definition, a fundamental constant refers to a dimensionless physical constant. They
are usually assumed to be universal and have constant quantitative values. The numbers are con-
stant and do not involve any physical measurement.
a) The gravitation constant
This is an empirical constant involving gravitational effects and used in Newton’s law of univer-
sal gravitation, which states that all objects attract each other with a force that is proportional
to the product of their masses (m1 and m2 ) and inversely proportional to the square of their
distance, as shown in Eq.(1.2).
F1 = F2 = G (m1 × m2 )∕r2 . (1.2)
Where G = 6.67430(15) × 10−11 with the unit m3 kg−1 s−2 in SI units.
b) The speed of light
The speed of light is a constant, denoted by c, and is equal to 299 792 458 m/s (approximately
300,000 km/s, or 186,000 mi/s) in vacuum. It is defined as a universal physical constant that is
important in many areas of physics. This constant is exact since the international agreement on
the meter was defined as the length of the path traveled by light in the vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299 792 458 s. This constant also features in Einstein’s equation of mass-energy
equivalence, E = mc2 .
c) Planck’s constant
Planck’s constant, h, can be found in problems classified as quantum physics. It is a physical
constant representing the quantum of electromagnetic action, relating the energy carried by
a photon to its frequency. The product of Planck’s constant by the frequency of a photon gives
its energy.
In quantum mechanics, Planck’s constant is of fundamental importance. It serves to define
the kilogram in metrology. The value of Planck’s constant is exact, with no uncertainty and is
given as h = 6.626 070 × 10−34 J s (or J Hz−1 ). Planck’s constant may be used in the SI unit
of frequency, and hence the so-called reduced Planck’s constant is used instead, defined as
ℏ = h/2π (ℏ is pronounced “h-bar”).
The Planck length, denoted 𝓁 P , is a unit of length describing the distance traveled by light in
one unit of Planck time in a perfect vacuum. The Planck length 𝓁 P is defined as 𝓁 P = sqrt
1.7 Common Measurements 9
(ℏG/c3 ). This has been considered as the approximate equivalent value of this unit with respect
to the meter:
𝓁 P = 1.616229(38) × 10−35 m, (1.3)
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, G is the gravitational constant, h is the reduced
Planck’s constant, and the two digits enclosed by parentheses are the standard uncertainty.
This length is about 10−20 times the diameter of a proton.
The Planck mass, denoted by mP , is the unit of mass in the system of natural units of Planck
units. It is roughly equivalent to 0.021 milligrams (mg). For example, it is roughly the size of a
flea egg. It is of the order of 1015 (a quadrillion) times larger than the highest energy available to
contemporary particle accelerators. It is defined as: mp = sqrt (ℏ c/G), where c is the speed of
light in a vacuum, G is the gravitational constant, and ℏ is the reduced Planck’s constant.
1 mp = 2.176435(24) × 10−8 kg. (1.4)
The Planck time (tP ) is the unit of time in the system of Planck units in quantum mechanics
as expressed in Equation 1.4. A Planck time unit is the time needed for light to travel a distance
of one Planck length in a vacuum. This time is approximated as 5.39 × 10−44 s.
tp = sqrt (ℏ.G∕c5 ), (1.5)
Where ℏ = h/2π is the reduced Planck’s constant (sometimes h is used instead of ℏ in the
definition), G = gravitational constant, and c = speed of light in vacuum.
Many other fundamental constants are discussed in their related areas toward the end of
this book.
d) The standard acceleration for gravity
The standard acceleration for gravity, known as g, varies depending on location and is equal to
9.809 m s−2 in USA.
e) Avogadro’s number
Avogadro’s number refers to the number of units in one mole of any substance, which is also
known as the molecular weight in grams. It is defined as L = 6.02214199 × 1023 . The unit of this
depends on the nature of the substance. It can be electrons, atoms, or molecules.
1.7 Common Measurements
The International System of units (SI) is used as a comparison framework for the most commonly
used measurements in inspection and testing. It establishes seven fundamental units:
i) Meter [m] - length;

ii) Second [s] – time;
iii) Kilogram [kg] - mass;
iv) Ampere [A] - current;
v) Candela [cd] - light;
vi) Kelvin [K] - temperature;
vii) Mole [mole] – amount of substance.
Measurements are carried out in laboratories, outdoor and in situ in plants. Proper equipment is
used to measure with a condition that has been previously calibrated.
Indirect measurements can be carried out using equations, with the outcomes being the results
of the execution of these equations.
Example 1.4
– voltage [V] = resistance [ohm] × current [A]; hence, current = voltage/resistance.
– area [m2 ]= length [m] × length [m]
– pressure [Pa] = force [N] / area [m2 ].
Accuracy in measurements is required in many fields, and because all measurements are close
approximations, great care must be taken when taking measurements.
Example 1.5 When calibrating, you must generate a known amount of the variable to be mea-
sured as well as the SI unit under test.
1.8 Principles and Practices of Traceability

The objective as introduced in this book is to learn and understand measurements and their
related calibration and standards, as well as principles and practice of traceability. This is a short
introduction.
1.8.1 Definition of Traceability

It is defined as the ability to link the results of the calibration and measurements to the related
standard and/or reference through an unbroken chain of comparisons.
The international vocabulary of metrology (VIM) defines traceability as the property of the result
of a measurement or the value of a standard that can be related to stated references, usually national
or international standards, by an unbroken chain of comparisons, all with stated uncertainties [4].
The unbroken chain of comparisons is called the “traceability chain.”
The latter is composed of a number of instruments linked together to supply measurement.
The competence and uncertainty are essential elements in the traceability according to ISO 17025
section 5.6.
Because there is always a difference in measurement between the output of the instrument and
the true value of the measurand, measurement uncertainty is used to evaluate a quantitative sta-
tistical estimate of the limits of that difference. This will be discussed in chapters 3 and 4. VIM
defines the measurement uncertainty as a parameter associated with the results of a measurement
that characterizes the dispersion of the values that could reasonably be attributed to the measurand.
The calibration is typically performed by measuring a test unit against a known standard or
reference. National measurement institutes across countries are typically a source of official
approvals and verification for the work performed of various types of measurements, such as NIST
(USA), NPL (UK), and BNM (France). The traceability has three essential components described
as follows:
– Traceable calibration requiring comparisons with traceable standards or reference materials;
– Traceable calibrations can be performed only by competent laboratories with accreditation to
ISO 17025;
– A traceable calibration certificate must contain an estimate of the uncertainty associated with
the calibration.
1.8 Principles and Practices of Traceability 11
Example of Traceability of Measurement in a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

Traceability guarantees the proper use of a CMM [5] in a quality management system. It constitutes
the most fundamental and important aspects in the operations of a CMM. The aspects of concern
are the actual physical chains by which measurement may be related to the SI unit of length. The
physical chain of traceability is described as follows:
1) Laser wavelength ref. to atomic clock frequency (4/1014 );
2) Laser displacement interferometer (2.5/1011 );
3) Calibrated line scale or step gage (2–5/108 );
4) CMM (1/106 ).
1.8.2 Accreditation and Conformity Assessment

According to the International Organization for Standardization, or ISO, [6]: “Conformity assess-
ment is the term given to different techniques that ensure a product, process, service, manage-
ment system, person or organization fulfils specified requirements. This section describes the main
conformity assessment techniques and explains how to combine them to form conformity assess-
ment schemes. The icons below depict the main conformity assessment techniques and their most
common applications. In some instances, one conformity assessment technique may encompass
another, e.g. an inspection can include a test technique, or a product evaluation may take into
account a test report or an inspection report. How these conformity assessment techniques are used
and interrelated is often prescribed in a specific mandatory or voluntary conformity assessment
scheme.”
Products and equipment must meet specifications, service, and process requirements, especially
when sold globally; thus, this business in the global market and world trade necessitates conformity
assessment. It primarily contains standard measurements based on well-known calibration and
references with certifications. As a result, we recognize the significance of international standards
in addressing the conformity assessment services provided by ISO.
– The conformity assessment needs are shown in Table 1.4, where their use under ISO standards
by first parties that are the suppliers;
– The second parties are defined as the customers, regulators, and trade organizations;
– Third parties are represented by bodies independent from both suppliers and customers.
With the increasing use of these conformity assessment tools, assurance of the competence of
conformity assessment bodies (CABs) [7] becomes important, with recognition of this as CABs
accreditation.
The International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC) [8] is the world’s principal inter-
national forum for the development of laboratory accreditation practices and procedures. ILAC
Table 1.4 Standards of conformity assessment tools.
Conformity assessment First parties Second parties Third parties Corresponding ISO standards
Declaration of supplier ✓ ISO/IEC 17050

The calibration and testing ✓ ✓ ✓ ISO/IEC 17025
The inspection ✓ ✓ ✓ ISO/IEC 17020
The certification ✓ ISO 17021
promotes laboratory accreditation as a tool for trade facilitation, as well as the recognition of com-
petent calibration and testing facilities worldwide. Table 1.4 shows the conformity assessment tool
standards.
Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter

Multiple Choice Questions are given for each chapter with solutions in an online extension of this
book. Please use link: www.wiley.com\go\mekid\metrologyandinstrumentation\
References
1 Holmberg, K., Adgar, A., Arnaiz, A., Jantunen, E., Mascolo, J., and Mekid, S. (Eds), 2010,
E-maintenance, (ISBN 978-1-84996-204-9), Springer Verlag, New York, USA.
2 NIST, www.nist.gov
3 Banks, M., “Kilogram finally redefined as world’s metrologists agree to new formulation for SI
units,” Physics World, Nov. 16, 2018, https://physicsworld.com/a/kilogram-finally-redefined-as-
worlds-metrologists-agree-to-new-formulation-for-si-units/.
4 BIPM, Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures,
home of the International System of Units, SI), https://www.bipm.org/en/publications/guides/
vim.html.
5 Mekid, S., 2008, Introduction to Precision Machine Design and Error Assessment, (ISBN13:
9780849378867), CRC Press.
6 ISO, International Organization for Standardization, www.iso.org.
7 Czichos, H., 2011, “Introduction to Metrology and Testing,” In: Czichos H., Saito T., Smith L.
(Eds.), Springer Handbook of Metrology and Testing, Springer Handbooks, Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg.
8 ILAC, (international organization for accreditation bodies operating in accordance with ISO/IEC
17011), http://www.ilac.org.
13
Scales of Metrology
“If you know how to measure big, it does not mean that you know how to
measure small!”
—Prof. SM
2.1 Introduction to Practical Metrology across All Scales

Although not the topic of this book, commercial exchanges have been one of the first shared activ-
ities among humanity. Measurement, whether related to the object itself in terms of size, weight,
or its functional characteristic such as performance, is one of the tools to reach agreement and
satisfaction to allow transaction. To agree to a given transaction, the counterparty measures the
value of the object if this is permissible. Because matter is active and functional at all scales, from
less than an atom to very large-scale dimensions such as space, measurement science applies to
all scales. This chapter discusses measurement techniques at these different scales and introduces
the instruments that are dedicated to these scales. They have been specifically designed to perform
these measurements.
Typically, the development of measurement infrastructure, expertise, and standards to assist
researchers in properly exploiting technology development at these scales (Figure 2.1) and con-
tributing to the growth and commercialization opportunities in various sectors of our lives such as
health, safety, and the environment is of interest in these areas. All scales considered in metrology
can be represented as shown in Figure 2.2. Each scale shows the range of operation to its neighbor-
hood.
This chapter will introduce the following metrology scales:
i) Nanometrology;
ii) Micrometrology;
iii) Standard-scale metrology; and
iv) Large-scale metrology.
14 2 Scales of Metrology
Airplanes
Nano/microscale metrology systems
10–3
Large-scale metrology systems
Coordinate Measuring Machines
Interferometry
mm Turbines
Profilometry 10–5
Measurement uncertainty
Stand still optical systems
Cars 10–7
μm
Optical parts
nm
mm cm dm m dam hm
Parts dimension
Figure 2.1 Overall scale of metrology.
Nano scale Micro scale Mesoscale scale Macroscale Large scale
Range
1 nm 1 μm 1 mm 1m 1 km
Figure 2.2 Scale range at various levels.
2.2 Nanometrology
2.2.1 Introduction and Need in Industry
Nanotechnology is becoming a large industry sector and is expanding in many ways. Because
of their practical utility in everyday life, machines, systems, and devices are shrinking in size.
Miniaturization encompasses all materials, processes, and manipulation. The long-term growth of
nanotechnology products is dependent on increased investment in infrastructure, including tech-
nology, manufacturing, and inspection development. Metrology and measurement standards are
required for this type of product conformity evaluation. Quality assurance includes traceability,
measurement uncertainty, and standardized definitions to ensure new developments and common
understanding.
The current demand is for high-resolution and high-precision measuring machines, which have
made excellent progress thus far, while calibration in the nanometric and subnanometric scales
has yet to be established. Global efforts to design and integrate nanosystems are only possible
if dimensional assessment and characterization procedures are well defined and standardized.
Measurement at the nanoscale becomes very important and difficult when rules must be agreed
upon and measuring equipment must be developed. The measurement accuracy is expected to be
better than 0.1 nm over the defined range of 100 nm for nanoscale. Nanometrology can cover mea-
surements with higher accuracies or uncertainties than previous methods. On the other hand, it
contributes to the standard scale by measuring a 1 m mirror segment of a telescope with a precision
of 10 nm.
Measurement techniques developed for conventional materials are typically inapplicable to
nanostructures. They require specific protocols that take into account the physics and nature of
the nanostructured materials, as well as their interactions with any surrounding elements. Serious
errors can occur if this is not taken into account. It is important to note that at this scale, many
research fields, such as biology, chemistry, and material science, begin to merge, supported by
joint physics and computation foundations, to develop new functional materials. It is therefore
important to consider a common and agreed perception of a dimensional measurement scale
among these research fields. The dimensions affect the properties of nanomaterials, for, (i) a crystal
smaller than the electron mean free path reduces the electronic conductivity and the temperature
coefficient through grain boundary scattering, (ii) size controls the relaxation of luminescence in
oxide nanoparticles and has been used to develop interesting optoelectronic devices, and (iii) very
small quantum dots consisting of a few electrons have provided the technology for spintronics and
have been used as reductants.
2.2.2 Definition of Nanometrology

Nanometrology is defined as the science of measurement of artifacts at nanoscale. The features
of the artifact are between a tenth of a micrometer and a tenth of a nanometer. This can also be
extended to the uncertainty of large features. Hence, any engineering dimensional measurement
with an uncertainty in the order of a nanometer is part of nanometrology. The nanometrology field
explores the measurement of length and characterization of the features at nanoscale. The applica-
tions are vast, including micro- and nanotechnologies in manufacturing, biology, and chemical and
electrical applications. Nanoscale measurement of dimensions is best achieved with nanometer
uncertainty. To best secure this uncertainty, the equipment should contain traceable dimensional
calibrations over extended specimen ranges.
2.2.3 Importance of Nanometrology in Science and Technology

The complexity of the nanoworld arises from the very nature of nanostructures [1]. Thus, a nanos-
tructure can be interpreted as an arrangement of atoms or particles in new forms, such as those of
fullerenes, core–shell nanoparticles, tangled nanotubes, nanostructured metals, or dendrites, all of
which defy the principles of stereology. One important feature of nanomaterials is the special prop-
erties they exhibit by virtue of their small size, which have attracted scientists and engineers. How-
ever, efficiently exploiting such properties necessitates a thorough understanding of their nature, as
well as the ability to characterize the physics or chemistry of very small objects; again, this is impos-
sible with conventional methods and necessitates the development of new, effective methodologies
that also enable the production of reproducible nanostructures as a prerequisite for understand-
ing their properties. The new nanostructure preparation and characterization methods should be
supplemented by appropriate standards developed in collaboration with the nanometrology con-
course. Overall, research-oriented nanometrology is now well established in research institutes and
industry. However, there are still a number of constraints that must be overcome before industrial
nanometrology can be implemented.
As stated earlier, dimensions play a key role in the properties of nanomaterials. The significance
can be illustrated with the following selected examples of properties that arise from the nanometric
size of these materials:
a) Atomic diffusion through interfaces becomes an efficient mechanism of mass transfer at the
nanoscale. Unlike conventional matter, nanoparticulate matter can be efficiently transferred
at low temperatures. Among other applications, this property has been used to enhance the
kinetics of hydrogen diffusion in hydrogen storage devices;
b) A crystal size that is smaller than the electron mean free path reduces electronic conductivity
and the temperature coefficient through grain boundary scattering;
c) Phonon spectra are modified by effect nanosurfaces and nanoparticles;
d) Band gap changes in nanosized semiconductor particles cause blue-shifts in luminescence sig-
nals. Size-induced control of luminescence relaxation in oxide nanoparticles leads to changes
in optical properties and has been used to develop interesting optoelectronic devices;
e) Very small quantum dots consisting of a mere few electrons have provided the technology for
spintronics and can be used as reductants;
f) Surface effects in magnetic materials govern the magnetic properties of thin layers; in addi-
tion, they facilitate the development of more efficient data storage devices and more sensitive
magnetic sensors;
g) The mechanical properties of metals less than 100 nm in grain size are dictated by the con-
tribution of grain boundaries. This has facilitated the development of materials with superior
strength and ductility and hence improved service performance;
h) Tribological properties are dramatically different when the interacting materials are nanosized.
This reduces friction and wear in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).
Examples of Nanometrology, Parts, and Instruments

There are several manufacturing techniques that result in products or parts with nanometer-level
accuracy in length measurement. However, an instrument that can verify that the sizes are within
the exact values is also required. This will be supplemented by standards for agreeing on measure-
ment methods using calibrated instruments and a thorough understanding of the measurement
procedure. Figure 2.3 depicts a typical experimental setup for a metrological scanning probe micro-
scope measuring slot sizes with ultra-high precision and at the nanoscale with AFM. A sample of
SEM images is shown in Figure 2.4.
Tip interaction signal

Probe fixed
Controller Sample surface

X-axis Laser Interferometer
Translational stage
Feedbackposition for
Z&X axis z
x
Z-axis Laser Interferometer
Measurement results
Figure 2.3 Metrological scanning probe microscope.

500 nm 500 nm
Figure 2.4 SEM image of nanoporous anodic alumina membrane and ZnO fibers.
As instruments, nanomanipulation techniques [2] are extensively in use not only to reveal
more characteristics of nano-, micro-, and mesoscopic phenomena but also to build functional
nanodevices that can bridge components between two or more scales to diversify the functions.
Figure 2.5 depicts an integrated and numerically controlled instrument for nanomanipulation,
imaging, in-process inspection with lithography and AFM back-to-back probes, and material
characterization at the nanoscale.
A feature of common datum to all operations to avoid accuracy degradation between references
is set. Robotic arms secure nanometer accuracy in the manipulation [3, 4]. The variety of opera-
tions is supported by multiple end-effector tools, for example, force and temperature measurement.
The availability of such an instrument with integrated functions appeared to be extremely benefi-
cial in addressing various fundamental problems in science and engineering, such as understand-
ing, modeling, and testing nanomachining processes, biomimetic design, precise construction of
nanostructure arrays, and inspection of devices with complex features [5]. Table 2.1 lists major
nanometrological instruments and their related resolution range. These are used for dimensional
metrology for nano- and microscales.
Desktop Micromachining
Monitors Nano manipulator
AFM and Robotics
Anti-Vibration table
Figure 2.5 Nano-manipulator with monitors and robotics controllers.

Table 2.1 Major nanometrological instruments and their related resolution range.
Measurement Instrument Resolution
Dimensional Transmission electronic microscopy (TEM) 0.5 Å

metrology
Atomic force microscope (AFM) Depth 0.5–5 nm Lateral 0.2–130 nm
High-resolution microscopy (HM) 150 nm
Phase contrast microscope (PCM) 0.1 μm
Scanning tunneling system (STM) Depth 0.01 nm Lateral 0.1 nm
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) Depth 3 nm Lateral 1–24 nm
Ellipsometer for thickness of Sub nm
transparent film
Scanning proximal probe microscope 1 nm
(SPM)
Stylus profilometer for sample surface Sub nm
roughness
Reflection spectroscopy for thickness of nm
opaque films
X-ray fluorescence for film thickness (XRF) 100 μm
Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) Range 2 nm–1 μm
Source: Based on ISO/TR 18196. Nanotechnologies — Measurement technique matrix for the characterization of
nano-objects, 2016.
2.3 Standards
The ISO definition of standards states that “ISO standards are internationally agreed upon by
experts.” They are methods that describe the best way to do something. It could be about man-
ufacturing a product, managing a process, providing a service, or supplying materials—standards
cover a wide range of activities.
The ISO adds: “Standards are the distilled wisdom of people with expertise in their subject mat-
ter and who know the needs of the organizations they represent—people such as manufacturers,
sellers, buyers, customers, trade associations, users or regulators”. For instance:
i) Quality management standards to help work more efficiently and reduce product failures;
ii) Environmental management standards to help reduce environmental impacts, reduce waste,
and be more sustainable;
iii) Health and safety standards to help reduce accidents in the workplace;
iv) Energy management standards to help cut energy consumption;
v) Food safety standards to help prevent food from being contaminated;
vi) IT security standards to help keep sensitive information secure.
Measurement of materials and products at nanoscale would need these measurements to be stan-
dardized to meet specifications. Standardization is a prerequisite for successful development of
nanotechnology in all aspects. Nanometrology aims to support the assessment of materials or prod-
ucts irrespective of the method of measurement used. If a statement on a measurement is made as
part of a description of the object, it should be final. Nonetheless, the practice requires that measure-
ment results be accompanied by documentation of the method and conditions of measurement.
2.3 Standards 19
The standardizations include:

– Scientific instrumentation;
– Measurement methods showing the best way of carrying out measurements;
– Special protocols describing unsuitability of conventional methods translated to nanometrology
to avoid gross errors in interpretation.
The following standards are identified by their titles and briefly described in their respective
scopes.
1) ISO/TR 18196:2016(en)
Nanotechnologies—Measurement technique matrix for the characterization of nano-objects.
2) ISO 11952:2019(en)
Surface chemical analysis—Scanning-probe microscopy—Determination of geometric quanti-
ties using SPM: Calibration of measuring systems.
3) ISO 25178-601:2010(en)
Geometrical product specifications (GPS)—Surface texture: Areal—Part 601: Nominal charac-
teristics of contact (stylus) instruments.
4) IEC 62622:2012(en)
Geometrical product specifications (GPS)—Surface texture: Areal—Part 605: Nominal charac-
teristics of non-contact (point autofocus probe) instrument.
5) ISO 25178-605:2014(en)
Artificial gratings used in nanotechnology—Description and measurement of dimensional
quality parameters.
ISO/TR 18196:2016(en)
Nanotechnologies—Measurement technique matrix for the characterization of nano-objects.
SCOPE: This document contains a matrix that directs users to commercially available techniques
for measuring common physiochemical parameters of nano-objects. Some techniques can also be
used on nanostructured materials. This document connects the nano-object parameters that most
commonly need to be measured with corresponding measurement techniques. This document
will be a useful tool for nanotechnology interested parties to rapidly identify relevant information
for measuring nano-objects. The top row of the Quick-Use-Matrix lists the common nano-object
parameters. If a measurement technique listed in the first column of the matrix is applicable, the
box in the matrix will be marked. Once a measurement technique of interest is identified, it is
recommended that the reader then enters this document’s body of text (Clause 5), where the reader
will find an alphabetical listing of the measurement techniques and descriptions of the advan-
tages, limitations, relevant standards, measurand(s), and applicable nano-object parameters of
each technique. As scientific advances are made and new commercial measurement techniques
become available, this document will be reviewed and updated on a regular basis to ensure
its relevance.
Many of the techniques listed in this document have not been validated through round-robin
testing or any other means for the measurement of nano-objects. This document is intended as
a starting point and resource to help identify potentially useful and relevant techniques; it is not
an exhaustive or primary source. It is recommended that once a technique has been identified,
the reader refers to relevant international standards and conducts a literature search for similar
or comparable applications. Other sources of information include application notes and technical
literature from instrument manufacturers.
ISO 11952:2019(en)
Surface chemical analysis—Scanning-probe microscopy—Determination of geometric quantities
using SPM: Calibration of measuring systems.
SCOPE: This document specifies methods for characterizing and calibrating the scan axes of
scanning-probe microscopes (SPMs) for measuring geometric quantities at the highest level. It
is applicable to those providing further calibrations and is not intended for general industry use,
where a lower level of calibration might be required.
This document has the following objectives:
i) To increase the comparability of measurements of geometrical quantities made using SPMs by
traceability to the unit of length;
ii) To define the minimum requirements for the calibration process and the conditions of accep-
tance;
iii) To ascertain the instrument’s ability to be calibrated (assignment of a “calibrate-ability” cate-
gory to the instrument);
iv) To define the scope of the calibration (conditions of measurement and environments, ranges
of measurement, temporal stability, transferability);
v) To provide a model, in accordance with ISO/IEC Guide 98-3, to calculate the uncertainty for
simple geometrical quantities in measurements using an SPM;
vi) To define the requirements for reporting results.
IEC 62622:2012(en)
Artificial gratings used in nanotechnology—Description and measurement of dimensional quality
parameters.
SCOPE: This technical specification stipulates the generic terminology for the global and local
quality parameters of artificial gratings, interpreted in terms of deviations from nominal positions
of grating features, and provides guidance on the categorization of measurement and evaluation
methods for their determination. This specification is intended to facilitate communication among
manufacturers, users and calibration laboratories dealing with the characterization of the dimen-
sional quality parameters of artificial gratings used in nanotechnology.
This specification supports quality assurance in the production and use of artificial gratings in
different areas of application in nanotechnology. Whilst the definitions and described methods
are universal to a large variety of different gratings, the focus is on one-dimensional (1D) and
two-dimensional (2D) gratings.
ISO 25178-605:2014(en)
Geometrical product specifications (GPS)—Surface texture: Areal—Part 605: Nominal character-
istics of non-contact (point autofocus probe) instrument.
SCOPE: This part of ISO 25178 describes the metrological characteristics of a non-contact instru-
ment for measuring surface texture using point autofocus probing. The committee responsible for
this document is ISO/TC 213 dimensional and geometrical product specifications and verification.
2.3 Standards 21
ISO 25178 consists of the following parts, under the general title, Geometrical product specifica-
tions (GPS)—Surface texture: Areal:
– Part 1: Indication of surface texture;

– Part 2: Terms, definitions, and surface texture parameters;
– Part 3: Specification operators;
– Part 6: Classification of methods for measuring surface texture;
– Part 70: Material measures;
– Part 71: Software measurement standards;
– Part 601: Nominal characteristics of contact (stylus) instruments;
– Part 602: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (confocal chromatic probe) instruments;
– Part 603: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (phase-shifting interferometric microscopy)
instruments;
– Part 604: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (coherence scanning interferometry) instru-
ments;
– Part 605: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (point autofocus probe) instruments;
– Part 606: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (focus variation) instruments;
– Part 701: Calibration and measurement standards for contact (stylus) instruments.
ISO 25178-601:2010(en)
Geometrical product specifications (GPS)—Surface texture: Areal—Part 601: Nominal character-
istics of contact (stylus) instruments.
SCOPE: This part of ISO 25178 defines the metrological characteristics of contact (stylus) areal
surface texture measuring instruments.
ISO 25178-601 was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 213, dimensional and geometrical
product specifications and verification.
ISO 25178 consists of the following parts, under the general title, Geometrical product specifica-
tions (GPS) - Surface texture: Areal:
– Part 2: Terms, definitions, and surface texture parameters;

– Part 3: Specification operators;
– Part 6: Classification of methods for measuring surface texture;
– Part 7: Software measurement standards;
– Part 601: Nominal characteristics of contact (stylus) instruments;
– Part 602: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (confocal chromatic probe) instruments;
– Part 603: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (phase-shifting interferometric microscopy)
instruments;
– Part 604: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (coherence scanning interferometry)
instruments;
– Part 605: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (point autofocusing) instruments;
– Part 701: Calibration and measurement standards for contact (stylus) instruments.
2.4 Micrometrology
2.4.1 Introduction and Need in Industry

Micrometrology deals with metrological measurement at microscale. The miniaturization of prod-
ucts, and thus parts produced in micromanufacturing at the microscale, necessitated the use of an
appropriate and related dimensional metrology. As many parts with dimensions of a few microm-
eters began to be produced, the industry made numerous requests for this. The goal was to assist
the manufacturing scale paradigm for quality inspection.
Critical dimensions in semiconductor manufacturing are in the range of submicron and nanome-
ter range. Specialized measurement systems suitable for these types of dimensions have been devel-
oped with the necessary accuracy and resolution for process control. In industry, as the dimensions
of micromanufacturing extend into the microscale, the technologies and capabilities of semicon-
ductor metrology systems can enable new generations of micromanufacturing metrology systems.
In nondimensional metrology, there was an extreme need to measure low forces from newtons
to attonewtons. This is due to the fact that when dealing with nanometer to micrometer dimen-
sions in manufacturing and assembly, related quantities of forces must be measured and known in
precise values. In these applications, force control is required, which necessitates measurement. It
is possible that effects will appear, such as Van der Waal forces, which are still difficult to evaluate
at this scale.
2.4.2 Definition of Micrometrology

Micrometrology is the science of measurement where the range of dimensions of objects are in
the sub-millimeter to millimeter range, associated with measurement uncertainty up to 0.1 μm
for dimensional measurement. Measurement of dimensions at microscale is well achieved with
better than a tenth of a micrometer uncertainty. To reduce uncertainty and improve accuracy, the
equipment must have traceable dimensional calibrations over a wide range of specimen ranges.
2.4.3 Examples of Micrometrology of Microparts

Parts with great precision are made through precision chemical etching metals, such as aluminum,
brass, copper, tungsten, or titanium. Features are obtained on the parts with micrometer precision
(Figures 2.6–2.9).
5 mm
Figure 2.6 Micro-actuator, box and electronic circuit. Courtesy of Fotofab. Source: Courtesy of Fotofab
Figure 2.7 Micro-actuator, box and electronic circuit. Courtesy of Fotofab. Source: Courtesy of Fotofab
Figure 2.8 Extremely large aspect ratio microtool.
Figure 2.9 Laser printed dots @ 1 μm resolution with CCD imaging. Hole drilled in material.
2.5 Macroscale Metrology

Metrology, as defined and agreed upon by the International Bureau of Measurement, is the science
of measurement. It establishes common understanding of units covering most of the human activ-
ities in almost all aspects. The inception in dimensional metrology started by the length standard
defined from natural source as proposed in France. The decimal-based metric system had been con-
sequently established in 1795. Metrology is not only the ability to measure but to be standardized
so that measurements are understood worldwide across civilizations. Furthermore, it encompasses
not only experiments but also theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in any field of
science and technology.
Figure 2.10 Simple ruler in SI and Imperial units to

1 inch measure length.
1 cm
The meter [m] is a fundamental unit of length measurement. It used to be defined as one
10-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the equator. To achieve a new and precise
determination, an international prototype of one meter made of platinum (90%) and iridium (10%)
with an X shape was created to avoid any distortion in manipulation for comparisons. A ruler
sample shown in Figure 2.10.
France has one prototype identical in length to the “metre des archives” as a reference, while USA
has received a prototype with a calibrated length of 0.999 9984 m ± 0.2 μm, which is 1.6 μm shorter.
The standard scale discussed here is the normal one starting from a few millimeter to around one
meter length of objects, after micrometrology and before large-scale metrology.
A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) inspects parts for dimensions and quality (Figure 2.11).
A coordinate measuring machine is used to measure the dimensions and characteristics of an
object. It can measure a point or a feature formed from several points in a 2D or 3D shape, such
as a hole or a whole shape. When tracking map coordinates, the CMM works similarly to your fin-
ger. It has three axes that make up the machine coordinates system. A probe is used by the CMM
to measure points on a work piece and record their coordinates. Each point on the work piece is
unique to the machine’s coordinate system.
The ballbar inspects the circular path of a CNC (computer numerical control) machine as well as
the positioning performance. This ensures that the programmed circular motion corresponds to the
measured one (Figure 2.12). This inspection is performed as part of the CNC machine’s diagnostic.
It investigates the salient features of the contouring and polar results in relation to machine error
sources. ISO 230-4 is the usual standard where the test is described.
Figure 2.11 Coordinate measuring machine inspecting a part. Source: ssp48/Envato Elements Pty Ltd
Figure 2.12 Ballbar instrument to inspect motion in CNC machines.
2.5.1 Standards
Most metrology standards are written for metrology in general and are described subsequently.
ISO 16239:2013
Metric series wires for measuring screw threads.
ISO/TS 15530-4:2008
Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS)—Coordinate measuring machines (CMM): Technique
for determining the uncertainty of measurement—Part 4: Evaluating task-specific measurement
uncertainty using simulation.
ISO 15530-3:2011
Geometrical product specifications (GPS)—Coordinate measuring machines (CMM): Technique
for determining the uncertainty of measurement—Part 3: Use of calibrated work pieces or mea-
surement standards.
ISO/TS 15530-1:2013
Geometrical product specifications (GPS)—Coordinate measuring machines (CMM): Tech-
nique for determining the uncertainty of measurement—Part 1: Overview and metrological
characteristics.
ISO 14978:2018
Geometrical product specifications (GPS)—General concepts and requirements for GPS measuring
equipment.
ISO 13385-2:2020
Geometrical product specifications (GPS) - Dimensional measuring equipment—Part 2: Design
and metrological characteristics of caliper depth gauges.
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future as they have been in the past, if you so will it. The reverse may
bring disaster on every portion of the country; and if you will have it
thus, we will invoke the God of our fathers, who delivered them from
the power of the lion, to protect us from the ravages of the bear, and
thus, putting our trust in God, and to our firm hearts and strong
arms we will vindicate the right as best we may.
In the course of my service here, associated at different times with
a great variety of Senators, I see now around me some with whom I
have served long; there have been points of collision, but whatever of
offense there has been to me I leave here; I carry with me no hostile
remembrance. Whatever offense I have given which has not been
redressed, or for which satisfaction has not been demanded, I have,
Senators, in this hour of our parting, to offer you an apology for any
harm which, in the heat of discussion, I have inflicted. I go hence
unencumbered of any injury received, and having discharged the
duty of making the only reparation in my power for any injury
offered.
Mr. President and Senators, having made the announcement
which the occasion seemed to me to require, it only remains for me
to bid you a final adieu.
Speech of the Hon. Henry Wilson of
Massachusetts
In the canvass against Horace Greeley at Richmond, Ind., August 3,

1872.
AN ABSTRACT.
Gentlemen, standing here to-day, in this presence, among these

liberty-loving, patriotic men and women of Wayne county, I want to
call your attention for a few moments to what we have struggled for
in the past.
Nearly forty years ago, when the slave power dominated the
country—when the dark shadow of human slavery fell upon us all
here in the North—there arose a body of conscientious men and
women who proclaimed the doctrine that emancipation was the duty
of the master and the right of the slave; they proclaimed it to be a
duty to let the oppressed go free. Rewards were offered—they were
denounced, mobbed—violence pervaded the land. Yet these faithful
ones maintained with fidelity, against all odds, the sublime creed of
human liberty. The struggle, commencing forty years ago against the
assumptions and dominations of the slave power, went on from one
step to another—the slave power went right on to the conquest of the
country—promises were broken, without regard to constitutions or
laws of the human race. The work went on till the people, in their
majesty, in 1860, went to the ballot-box and made Abraham Lincoln
President of the United States. [Cheers.] Then came a great trial; that
trial was whether we should do battle for the principles of eternal
right, and maintain the cause of liberty, or surrender; whether we
would be true to our principles or false. We stood firm—stood by the
sacred cause—and then the slave power plunged the country into a
godless rebellion.
Then came another trial, testing the manhood, the courage, the
sublime fidelity of the lovers of liberty in the country. We met that
test as we had met every other test—trusting in God, trusting in the
people—willing to stand or fall by our principles. Through four years
of blood we maintained those principles; we broke down the
rebellion, restored a broken Union, and vindicated the authority and
power of the nation. In that struggle Indiana played a glorious part in
the field, and her voice in the councils of the nation had great and
deserved influence. [Cheers.]
Now, gentlemen, measured by the high standard of fidelity to
country, of patriotism, the great political party to which we belong
to-day was as true to the country in war as it had been in peace—true
to the country every time, and on all occasions.
Not only true to the country, but the Republican party was true to
liberty. It struck the fetters from the bondman, and elevated four and
a half millions of men from chattel-hood to manhood; gave them
civil rights, gave them political rights, and gave them part and parcel
of the power of the country. [Applause.]
Now, gentlemen, here to-day, I point to this record—this great
record—and say to you, that, measured by the standard of patriotism
—one of the greatest and grandest standards by which to measure
public men, political organizations or nations—measured by that
standard which the whole world recognizes, the Republican party of
the United States stands before the world with none, to accuse it of
want of fidelity to country. [Cheers.] Measured by the standard of
liberty, equal, universal, impartial liberty—liberty to all races, all
colors and all nationalities—the Republican party stands to-day
before the country pre-eminently the party of universal liberty.
[Loud cheers.] Measured by the standard of humanity—that
humanity that stoops down and lifts up the poor and lowly, the
oppressed and the castaways, the poor, struggling sons and
daughters of toil and misfortune—measured by that standard, the
Republican party stands before this country to-day without a peer in
our history, or in the history of any other people. [Renewed and
general applause.] We have gone further, embraced more, lifted up
lowlier men, carried them to a higher elevation, labored amid
obloquy and reproach to lift up the despised and lowly nations of the
earth than any political organization that the sun ever shone upon.
And then, gentlemen, tested by the support of all the great ideas
that tend to lift up humanity, to pull none down, to lift all up, to carry
the country upward and forward, ever toward God, the Republican
party of the country has been, and now is, to-day, in advance of any
political organization the world knows.
Gentlemen, I am not here to maintain that this great party, with its
three and a half millions of voters, tested and tried as it has been
during twelve years—I am not here to say that it has made no
mistakes. We have committed errors; we could not always see what
the right was; we failed sometimes; but, gentlemen, take our record—
take it as it stands—it is a bright and glorious record, that any man,
or set of men, may be proud of. We have stood, and we stand to-day,
on the side of man, and on the side of the ideas God has given us in
His Holy Word. [Applause.] There has not been a day since by the
labors, the prayers and the sacrifices of the old anti-slavery men and
women of the country, from 1830 to 1855—during twenty-five years
—I say to you, gentlemen, here, to-day, that this party, the product of
these prayers, and these sacrifices, and these efforts—with all its
faults—has been true to patriotism, true to liberty, true to justice,
true to humanity, true to Christian civilization. [Cheers.]
I say to you here to-day, that all along during this time, the
Democratic party carried the banners of slavery. Whenever the slave
power desired anything they got it. They wielded the entire power of
the nation, until, in their arrogance, when we elected Abraham
Lincoln, they plunged the country into the fire and blood of the
greatest civil war recorded in history. After the war all the measures
inaugurated for emancipation—to make the country free—to lift an
emancipated race up—to give them instruction and make them
citizens—to give them civil rights and make them voters—to put
them on an equality with the rest of the people—to every one of that
series of thirty or forty measures the Democratic party gave their
President unqualified and united opposition. Well, now, we have
been accustomed to say that they were mistaken, misinformed, that
they were honest—that they believed what they did; but, gentlemen,
if they have believed what they have said, that they have acted
according to their convictions from 1832 to 1872—a period of forty
years—can they be honest, to-day, in indorsing the Cincinnati
platform—in supporting Horace Greeley? [“No, no!”]
Why, we have read of sudden and miraculous conversions. We
read of St. Paul’s conversion, of the light that shone around him, but
I ask you, in the history of the human family have you ever known
three millions of men—three millions of great sinners for forty years
—[laughter]—three millions of men, all convicted, all converted, and
all changed in the twinkling of an eye. [Renewed laughter.] Why,
gentlemen, if it is so, for one I will lift up my eyes and my heart to
God, that those sinners, that this great political party that has been
for forty years, every time and all the time, on every question and on
all questions pertaining to the human race and the rights of the
colored race, on the wrong side—on the side of injustice, oppression
and inhumanity—on the side that has been against man, and against
God’s holy word; I say, gentlemen, that I will lift up my heart in
gratitude to God that these men have suddenly repented.
Why, I have been accustomed to think that the greatest victory the
Republican party would ever be called upon to win—and I knew it
would win it, because the Republican party, as Napoleon said of his
armies, are accustomed to sleep on the field of victory. The
Republican party—that always won—always ought to win, because it
is on the right side; and when it is defeated, it only falls back to
gather strength to advance again. [Applause.] I did suppose that the
greatest task it would ever have, greater than putting down the
rebellion, greater than emancipating four millions of men, greater
than lifting them up to civil rights—greater than all its grand deeds—
would be the conviction and conversion of the Democratic party of
the United States. [Laughter and cheers.] Just as we are going into a
Presidential election—when it was certain that if the Republican
party said and affirmed, said by its members, said altogether, that its
ideas, its principles, its policy, its measures, were stronger than were
the political organization of the Democrats. I say, just as we are going
into the contest, when it was certain that we would break down and
crush out its ideas, and take its flags and disband it, and out of the
wreck we would gather hundreds of thousands of changed and
converted men, the best part of the body—just at that time some of
our men are so anxious to embrace somebody that has always been
wrong that they start out at once in a wild hunt to clasp hands with
our enemies and to save the Democratic party from absolute
annihilation. [Laughter.] To do what they want us is to disband.
Well, gentlemen, I suppose there are some here to-day that belonged
to the grand old Army of the Potomac. If when Lee had retreated on
Richmond, and Phil. Sheridan sent back to Grant that if he pushed
things he would capture the army—if, instead of sending back to
Sheridan, as Grant did, “Push things,” he had said to him, “Let us
disband the Army of the Potomac; don’t hurt the feelings of these
retreating men; let us clasp hands with them,” what would have been
the result? I suppose there are some of you here to-day that followed
Sherman—that were with him in his terrible march from
Chattanooga to Atlanta—with him in that great march from Atlanta
to the sea—what would you have thought of him if, when you came in
sight of the Atlantic ocean, you had had orders to disband before the
banners of the rebellion had disappeared from the Southern
heavens?
I tell you, to-day, this movement of a portion of our forces is this
and nothing more. I would as soon have disbanded that Army of the
Potomac after Sheridan’s ride through the valley of the Shenandoah,
or when Sherman had reached the sea, as to disband the Republican
party to-day. The time has not come. [Loud and continued applause.]
I am not making a mere partisan appeal to you. I believe in this
Republican party, and, if I know myself, rather than see it defeated
to-day—rather than see the government pass out of its hands—I
would sacrifice anything on earth in my possession, even life itself.
[Loud applause] I have seen brave and good men—patriotic, liberty-
loving, God-fearing men—I have seen them die for the cause of the
country—for the ideas we profess, and I tell you to-day, with all the
faults of the Republican party—and it has had faults and has made
some mistakes—I say to you that I believe upon my conscience its
defeat would be a disaster to the country, and would be a stain upon
our record. It would bring upon us—we might say what we pleased,
our enemies would claim it, and the world would record it—that this
great, patriotic, liberty-loving Republican party of the United States,
after all its great labors and great history, had been weighed in the
balances and found wanting, and condemned by the American
people.
Well, gentlemen, I choose, if it is to fall, to fall with it. I became an
anti-slavery man in 1835. In 1836 I tied myself, pledged myself, to do
all I could to overthrow the slave power of my country. During all
these years I have never given a vote, uttered a word, or written a line
that I did not suppose tended to this result. I invoke you old anti-
slavery men here to-day—and I know I am speaking to men who have
been engaged in the cause—I implore you men who have been true in
the past, no matter what the men or their natures are, to stand with
the grand organization of the Republican party—be true to its cause
and fight its battles—if we are defeated, let us accept the defeat as
best we may; if we are victorious, let us make our future more
glorious than the past. If we fail, let us have the proud consciousness
that we have been faithful to our principles, true to our convictions;
that we go down with our flag flying—that we go down trusting in
God that our country may become, what we have striven to make it,
the foremost nation on the globe. [Immense applause.]
Speech of Senator Oliver P. Morton, of
Indiana,
On the National Idea, at Providence, R. I.

The distinguished orator was introduced by Senator Anthony, and
made an extended speech, from which we take the more pertinent
paragraphs:
From this proposition two corollaries have been adduced from
time to time, and I must say with great force of logic. The first is that
this Union is composed of sovereign and independent States who
have simply entered into a compact for particular purposes, and the
government is merely their agent; that any State has the right to
withdraw from the Union at pleasure, or whenever in its judgment
the terms of the compact have been violated, or the interests of the
State require its withdrawal. The second is that each State has the
right to nullify any law of Congress which, in the judgment of the
State, is in violation of the compact by which the government was
formed. This doctrine has been the evil genius of the country from
the foundation of our government. It may be said to be the devil in
our political system. It has been our danger from the first. It is the
rock in the straits, and we fear that the end is not yet. Now what can
we oppose to this doctrine? We oppose what we call “the national
idea.” We assume that this government was formed by the
governments of the United States in their aggregate and in their
primary capacity. We assume that, instead of there being thirty-
seven nations, there is but one; instead of there being thirty-seven
sovereignties, there is but one sovereignty. We assume that the
States are not sovereign, but that they are integral and subordinate
parts of one great country. I may be asked the question here, “Are
there no State rights? Would you override the States? Would you
obliterate State lines?” I answer, “No.” I answer that this doctrine is
the only doctrine that can preserve the peace of this nation and
preserve the rights of the States. I answer that there is a vast body of
State rights guaranteed and secured by the Constitution of the
United States, by the same Constitution that created and upholds the
government of the United States; that these State rights have the
same guarantee that the rights of the National Government have,
equally entitled to the protection of the Supreme Court, springing
out of the same instrument, and that one set of rights are just as
sacred as the other. Some confound the idea of State sovereignty and
State rights as being one and the same thing. Others seem to suppose
that State rights are only consistent with State sovereignty, and
cannot exist except upon the theory of State sovereignty; while I
assume that State rights are consistent with National sovereignty,
and are safest under the protection of the nation. The Constitution
gives one class of rights to the government of the United States. They
are specified, and they carry with them all the rights that are
indispensable and necessary to their full execution and enjoyment.
The rest are to be held and enjoyed by the States, or reserved to the
people. The States have their rights by the agreement of the nation.
That seems to be the important truth that is so often overlooked, that
the rights of the States, sacred and unapproachable, are sacred by the
agreement of the nation, as much so as are the powers that are
conferred upon the government of the United States, that the States
derive their powers from the same source, viz: The Constitution of
the United States. That Constitution says that the government shall
have one class of powers, and that other powers shall be gained by
the States, to be enjoyed by them or reserved to the people. In the
consideration of this question, we must reflect that the nation had
assembled in convention in 1787, and there formed a government,
there declared what rights should be given to the National
Government, and what rights should be reserved to the States, and
that, in either case, the grant and guarantee is an act of national
sovereignty by the people in convention assembled. When we shall
embrace this idea fully, all the danger of centralization will pass
away, though we discard the idea of State sovereignty.
I do not differ so much with many gentlemen in regard to what the
rights of the States are. I differ with them in regard to the titles by
which they hold them. I say that so far as State rights are concerned,
and the rights of the government, that we are not to go back beyond
the period of 1787, when the Constitution was formed. The rights of
the elder States, and of Rhode Island as she has them now, are to be
dated from the formation of the Constitution. Then they came into
convention. They had the right to make any sort of government they
pleased, and they did. And in that government they guarantied and
secured to the States the great body of rights in regard to local and
domestic government, but it was the agreement of the nation at that
time. So far as the new States are concerned, they are to come in on
an equality. They are to have the same rights with the old; and this
theory would be impossible of execution except upon the idea that
the rights of the States and of the National Government are to be
determined from the action that was taken at that time. The difficulty
had been in regard to this theory of State sovereignty, and the
assumed right of secession and of nullification was the result. They
assumed that these States existed as nations separate and distinct
before that time, and that they only loaned a portion of their rights
for a particular purpose. This is the base of that theory; while we
assume that the people were acting together at that time in their
aggregate capacity, raising a system of government, giving the United
States certain powers, and providing that the States should hold and
enjoy the rest, excepting those that were reserved to the people. The
preservation of local self-government is essential to the liberties of
this nation. Nobody endorses that sentiment more strongly than I
do. Nobody will stand by the rights of the States more firmly than I
will. I hold that their rights are consistent with national sovereignty,
and that national sovereignty is consistent with the rights of the
States, and I deny that these rights are the result of inherent original
State sovereignty. In other words, we differ in regard to the title.
What the States should have, and what the government should have,
was settled by the act of the nation in convention in 1787, changed to
some extent by the adoption of amendments since that time. It is not
enough for a party to deny the right of secession. It is not enough for
a party to deny the right of nullification. They must go further. They
must deny the doctrine of State sovereignty; for as long as that
doctrine is admitted, these other things will spring up spontaneously
from it, and whenever the occasion allows it. If we were to admit that
the States were sovereign, then we would be bound to say that
Webster did not answer Hayne, and that Webster and Hayne never
answered Calhoun. If once it is admitted that the States are
sovereign, it is hard to resist the corollaries to which I have referred,
that they have the right to secede, and that they have the right to
nullify.
The doctrine of nationality planted deep in the hearts of the
American people is our only sheet-anchor of safety for the future.
Our country is greatly extended, from the tropical to the arctic
regions, with every variety of climate, soil, and productions, with
different commercial and manufacturing interests. The States on the
Pacific slopes are separated from those on this side of the Rocky
Mountains by fifteen hundred miles of mountain and desert. They
have a different commerce from what you have, almost an
independent commerce. Their commerce will be with China, Japan,
Australia, the western countries of South America, and the islands of
the Southern Pacific. It is now but in its infancy, but it bids fair to
develop into colossal proportions, and may change the commercial
aspect of the world. We know not what feelings of independence may
arise in those States in time to come. It is difficult to deny the effect
that may be produced by the separation of vast States with a different
commerce acting in conjunction with forced theories of the origin
and laws of our government. In saying this I will cast no imputation
upon the loyalty of those States. They are now as loyal as any, and
were during the war. But we can imagine that what has been may be
again. And we can understand what may be the danger of this
doctrine, if it should still maintain its hold in the minds of the
American people, when conflicting interests arise, and conflicting
notions arise as to what may be the interests of the people; as in 1812
a war was brought about which was regarded as being fatal to the
interests of the New England States, they took their position upon it.
We have had a law which was regarded in South Carolina as being
fatal to her interests, and she took her position upon it. This doctrine
was again seized by slavery in 1861, and the rebellion was brought
on. And what may happen in the far future upon the eastern and
western coasts, upon the northern and southern extremities of our
nation, we cannot tell.
The idea that we are a nation, that we are one people, undivided
and indivisible, should be a plank in the platform of every party. It
should be printed on the banner of every party. It should be taught in
every school, academy, and college. It should be the political North
Star by which every political manager should steer his bark. It should
be the central idea of American politics, and every child, so to speak,
should be vaccinated with this idea, so that he may be protected
against this political distemper that has brought such calamity upon
our country. Were the mind of the nation, so to speak, fully saturated
with this sentiment of nationality, that we are but one people,
undivided and indivisible, there would be no danger though our
boundaries came to embrace the entire continent. It is therefore of
the utmost importance that it should be taught and inculcated upon
all occasions. What the sun is in the heavens, diffusing light, and life,
and warmth, and by its subtle influence holding the planets in their
orbits and preserving the harmony of the universe—such is the
sentiment of nationality in a nation, diffusing light and protection in
every part, holding the faces of Americans always toward their home,
protecting the States in the exercise of their just powers, and
preserving the harmony and prosperity of all.
We must have a nation. It is a necessity of our political existence,
and we find the countries of the Old World now aspiring for
nationality. Italy, after a long absence, has returned. Rome has again
become the centre and the capital of a great nation. The bleeding
fragments of the beautiful land have been bound up together, and
Italy again resumes her place among the nations. And we find the
great Germanic family has been sighing for a nationality. That race,
whose overmastering civilization is acknowledged by all the world,
has hitherto been divided into petty Principalities and States, such as
Virginia and South Carolina aspire to be, but now are coming
together and asserting their unity, their national existence, and are
now able to dominate all the nations of Europe. We should then
cherish this idea, that while the States have their rights sacred and
unapproachable, which we should guard with untiring vigilance,
never permitting an encroachment, and remembering that such
encroachment is as much a violation of the Constitution of the
United States as to encroach upon the rights of the general
Government, still bearing in mind that the States are but subordinate
parts of one great nation, and that the nation is over, all even as God
is over the universe. Without entering into any of the consequences
that flow from this doctrine, allow me for to-night to refer to that
great national attribute, that great national duty—the duty and the
power to protect the citizen in the enjoyment of life, liberty, and
property. If the Government of the United States has not the power
to protect the citizens of the United States in the enjoyment of life,
liberty, and property in cases where the States fail, or refuse, or are
unable to grant protection, then that Government should be
amended, or should give place to a better. Great Britain sent forth a
costly and powerful expedition to Abyssinia to rescue four British
subjects who had been captured and imprisoned by the government
of that country. She has recently threatened Greece with war, if she
did not use all her power to bring to justice two brigands who had
lately murdered two British subjects. These things are greatly to the
honor of Great Britain. And our Government threatened Austria with
war if she did not release Martin Kosta, who had declared his
intention to become a citizen of the United States, and was therefore
protected by the Government of the United States. More recently we
have made war upon Corea, a province in Asia, and slaughtered her
people, and battered down her forts, because Americans shipwrecked
upon her coast were murdered and the government had refused to
give satisfaction for it. And if a mob in London should murder half a
dozen American citizens, we would call upon that government to use
all its power to bring the murderers to punishment, and if Great
Britain did not do so, it would be regarded as a cause of war. And yet
some people entertain the idea that our Government has the power
to protect its citizens everywhere except upon its own soil. The idea
that I would advocate, the doctrine that I would urge as being the
only true and national one, flowing inevitably from national
sovereignty, is that our Government has the right to protect her
citizens in the enjoyment of life, liberty, and property wherever the
flag floats, whether at home or abroad.
Speech of Hon. J. Proctor Knott, of Kentucky,
Delivered in the House of Representatives on the St. Croix and

Superior Land Grant, January 21, 1871.
The house having under consideration the joint resolution (S. R.
No. 11) extending the time to construct a railroad from St. Croix river
or lake to the west end of Lake Superior and to Bayfield—
Mr. Knott said: Mr. Speaker—If I could be actuated by any
conceivable inducement to betray the sacred trust in me by those to
whose generous confidence I am indebted for the honor of a seat on
this floor; if I could be influenced by any possible consideration to
become instrumental in giving away, in violation of their known
wishes any portion of their interest in the public domain for the mere
promotion of any railroad enterprise whatever, I should certainly feel
a strong inclination to give this measure my most earnest and hearty
support; for I am assured that its success would materially enhance
the pecuniary prosperity of some of the most valued friends I have on
earth; friends for whose accommodation I would be willing to make
almost any sacrifice not involving my personal honor or my fidelity
as the trustee of an express trust. And that act of itself would be
sufficient to countervail almost any objection I might entertain to the
passage of this bill not inspired by any imperative and inexorable
sense of public duty.
But, independent of the seductive influences of private friendship,
to which I admit I am, perhaps, as susceptible as any of the
gentlemen I see around me, the intrinsic merits of the measure itself
are of such an extraordinary character as to commend it most
strongly to the favorable consideration of every member of this
house, myself not excepted, notwithstanding my constituents, in
whose behalf alone I am acting here, would not be benefited by its
passage one particle more than they would be by a project to
cultivate an orange grove on the bleakest summit of Greenland’s icy
mountains.
Now, sir, as to those great trunk lines of railways, spanning the
continent from ocean to ocean, I confess my mind has never been
fully made up. It is true they may afford some trifling advantages to
local traffic, and they may even in time become the channels of a
more extended commerce. Yet I have never been thoroughly satisfied
either of the necessity or expediency of projects promising such
meagre results to the great body of our people. But with regard to the
transcendent merits of the gigantic enterprise contemplated in this
bill, I have never entertained the shadow of a doubt.
Years ago, when I first heard that there was somewhere in the vast
terra incognita, somewhere in the bleak regions of the great
northwest, a stream of water known to the nomadic inhabitants of
the neighborhood as the river St. Croix, I became satisfied that the
construction of a railroad from that raging torrent to some point in
the civilized world was essential to the happiness and prosperity of
the American people if not absolutely indispensable to the perpetuity
of republican institutions on this continent. I felt instinctively that
the boundless resources of that prolific region of sand and pine
shrubbery would never be fully developed without a railroad
constructed and equipped at the expense of the government, and
perhaps not then. I had an abiding presentiment that, some day or
other, the people of this whole country, irrespective of party
affiliations, regardless of sectional prejudices, and “without
distinction of race, color, or previous condition of servitude,” would
rise in their majesty and demand an outlet for the enormous
agricultural productions of those vast and fertile pine barrens,
drained in the rainy season by the surging waters of the turbid St.
Croix.
These impressions, derived simply and solely from the “eternal
fitness of things,” were not only strengthened by the interesting and
eloquent debate on this bill, to which I listened with so much
pleasure the other day, but intensified, if possible, as I read over this
morning, the lively colloquy which took place on that occasion, as I
find it reported in last Friday’s Globe. I will ask the indulgence of the
house while I read a few short passages, which are sufficient, in my
judgment, to place the merits of the great enterprise, contemplated
in the measure now under discussion, beyond all possible
controversy.
The honorable gentleman from Minnesota (Mr. Wilson), who, I
believe, is managing this bill, in speaking of the character of the
country through which this railroad is to pass, says this:
“We want to have the timber brought to us as cheaply as possible.
Now, if you tie up the lands, in this way, so that no title can be
obtained to them—for no settler will go on these lands, for he cannot
make a living—you deprive us of the benefit of that timber.”
Now, sir, I would not have it by any means inferred from this that
the gentleman from Minnesota would insinuate that the people out
in this section desire this timber merely for the purpose of fencing up
their farms so that their stock may not wander off and die of
starvation among the bleak hills of St. Croix. I read it for no such
purpose, sir, and make no comment on it myself. In corroboration of
this statement of the gentleman from Minnesota, I find this
testimony given by the honorable gentleman from Wisconsin (Mr.
Washburn). Speaking of these same lands, he says:
“Under the bill, as amended by my friend from Minnesota, nine-
tenths of the land is open to actual settlers at $2.50 per acre; the
remaining one tenth is pine-timbered land, that is not fit for
settlement, and never will be settled upon; but the timber will be cut
off. I admit that it is the most valuable portion of the grant, for most
of the grant is not valuable. It is quite valueless; and if you put in this
amendment of the gentleman from Indiana you may as well just kill
the bill, for no man and no company will take the grant and build the
road.”
I simply pause here to ask some gentleman better versed in the
science of mathematics than I am, to tell me if the timbered lands are
in fact the most valuable portion of that section of country, and they
would be entirely valueless without the timber that is in them, what
the remainder of the land is worth which has no timber on it at all?
But, further on, I find a most entertaining and instructive
interchange of views between the gentleman from Arkansas (Mr.
Rogers), the gentleman from Wisconsin (Mr. Washburn), and the
gentleman from Maine (Mr. Peters), upon the subject of pine lands
generally, which I will tax the patience of the house to read:
“Mr. Rogers—Will the gentleman allow me to ask him a question?
“Mr. Washburn, of Wisconsin—Certainly.
“Mr. Rogers—Are these pine lands entirely worthless except for
timber?
“Mr. Washburn, of Wisconsin—They are generally worthless for
any other purpose. I am personally familiar with that subject. These
lands are not valuable for purposes of settlement.
“Mr. Farnsworth—They will be after the timber is taken off.
“Mr. Washburn, of Wisconsin—No, sir.
“Mr. Rogers—I want to know the character of these pine lands.
“Mr. Washburn, of Wisconsin—They are generally sandy, barren
lands. My friend from the Green Bay district (Mr. Sawyer) is himself
perfectly familiar with this question, and he will bear me out in what
I say, that these timber lands are not adapted to settlement.
“Mr. Rogers—The pine lands to which I am accustomed are
generally very good. What I want to know is, what is the difference
between our pine lands and your pine lands?
“Mr. Washburn, of Wisconsin—The pine timber of Wisconsin
generally grows upon barren, sandy land. The gentleman from Maine
(Mr. Peters) who is familiar with pine lands, will, I have no doubt,
say that pine timber grows generally upon the most barren lands.”
“Mr. Peters—As a general thing pine lands are not worth much for
cultivation.”
And further on I find this pregnant question the joint production
of the two gentlemen from Wisconsin.
“Mr. Paine—Does my friend from Indiana suppose that in any
event settlers will occupy and cultivate these pine lands?
“Mr. Washburn, of Wisconsin—Particularly without a railroad.”
Yes, sir, “particularly without a railroad.” It will be asked after
awhile, I am afraid, if settlers will go anywhere unless the
government builds a railroad for them to go on.
I desire to call attention to only one more statement, which I think
sufficient to settle the question. It is one made by the gentleman
from Wisconsin (Mr. Paine), who says:
“These lands will be abandoned for the present. It may be that at
some remote period there will spring up in that region a new kind of
agriculture, which will cause a demand for these particular lands;
and they may then come into use and be valuable for agricultural
purposes. But I know, and I cannot help thinking that my friend
from Indiana understands that, for the present, and for many years
to come, these pine lands can have no possible value other than that
arising from the pine timber which stands on them.”
Now, sir, who, after listening to this emphatic and unequivocal
testimony of these intelligent, competent and able-bodied witnesses,
who that is not as incredulous as St. Thomas himself, will doubt for a
moment that the Goshen of America is to be found in the sandy
valleys and upon the pine-clad hills of the St. Croix? Who will have
the hardihood to rise in his seat on this floor and assert that,
excepting the pine bushes, the entire region would not produce
vegetation enough in ten years to fatten a grasshopper? Where is the
patriot who is willing that his country shall incur the peril of
remaining another day without the amplest railroad connection with
such an inexhaustible mine of agricultural wealth? Who will answer
for the consequences of abandoning a great and warlike people, in
the possession of a country like that, to brood over the indifference
and neglect of their government? How long would it be before they
would take to studying the Declaration of Independence and
hatching out the damnable heresy of secession? How long before the
grim demon of civil discord would rear again his horrid head in our
midst, “gnash loud his iron fangs and shake his crest of bristling
bayonets?”
Then, sir, think of the long and painful process of reconstruction
that must follow with its concomitant amendments to the
constitution, the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth articles.
The sixteenth, it is of course understood, is to be appropriated to
those blushing damsels who are, day after day, beseeching us to let
them vote, hold office, drink cocktails, ride a-straddle, and do
everything else the men do. But above all, sir, let me implore you to
reflect for a single moment on the deplorable condition of our
country in case of a foreign war, with all our ports blockaded, all our
cities in a state or siege, the gaunt specter of famine brooding like a
hungry vulture over our starving land; our commissary stores all
exhausted, and our famishing armies withering away in the field, a
helpless prey to the insatiate demon of hunger; our navy rotting in
the docks for want of provisions for our gallant seamen, and we
without any railroad communication whatever with the prolific pine
thickets of the St. Croix.
Ah, sir, I could very well understand why my amiable friends from
Pennsylvania (Mr. Myers, Mr. Kelley and Mr. O’Neill) should be so
earnest in their support of this bill the other day; and if their
honorable colleague, my friend, Mr. Randall, will pardon the remark,
I will say I consider his criticism of their action on that occasion as
not only unjust, but ungenerous. I knew they were looking forward
with a far-reaching ken of enlightened statesmanship to the pitiable
condition in which Philadelphia will be left unless speedily supplied
with railroad connection in some way or other with this garden spot
of the universe. And beside, sir, this discussion has relieved my mind
of a mystery that has weighed upon it like an incubus for years. I
could never understand before why there was so much excitement
during the last Congress over the acquisition of Alta Vela. I could
never understand why it was that some of our ablest statesmen and
most disinterested patriots should entertain such dark forebodings of
the untold calamities that were to befall our beloved country unless
we should take immediate possession of that desirable island. But I
see now that they were laboring under the mistaken impression that
the government would need the guano to manure the public lands on
the St. Croix.
Now, sir, I repeat, I have been satisfied for years that if there was
any portion of the inhabited globe absolutely in a suffering condition
for want of a railroad it was these teeming pine barrens of the St.
Croix. At what particular point on that noble stream such a road
should be commenced I knew was immaterial, and it seems so to
have been considered by the draughtsman of this bill. It might be up
at the spring or down at the foot-log, or the water-gate, or the fish-
dam, or anywhere along the bank, no matter where. But in what
direction should it run, or where it should terminate, were always to
my mind questions of the most painful perplexity. I could conceive of
no place on “God’s green earth” in such straitened circumstances for
railroad facilities as to be likely to desire or willing to accept such a
connection. I knew that neither Bayfield nor Superior city would
have it, for they both indignantly spurned the munificence of the
government when coupled with such ignominious conditions, and let
this very same land grant die on their hands years and years ago
rather than submit to the degradation of a direct communication by
railroad with the piny woods of the St. Croix; and I knew that what
the enterprising inhabitants of those giant young cities would refuse
to take would have few charms for others, whatever their necessities
or cupidity might be.
Hence as I have said, sir, I was utterly at a loss to determine where
the terminus of this great and indispensable road should be, until I
accidentally overheard some gentleman the other day mention the
name of “Duluth.”
Duluth! The word fell upon my ear with a peculiar and
indescribable charm, like the gentle murmur of a low fountain
stealing forth in the midst of roses; or the soft, sweet accents of an
angel’s whisper in the bright, joyous dream of sleeping innocence.
“Duluth!” ’Twas the name for which my soul had panted for years,
as the hart panteth for the water-brooks. But where was Duluth?
Never in all my limited reading, had my vision been gladdened by
seeing the celestial word in print. And I felt a profound humiliation
in my ignorance that its dulcet syllables had never before ravished
my delighted ear. I was certain the draughtsman in this bill had
never heard of it or it would have been designated as one of the
termini of this road. I asked my friends about it, but they knew
nothing of it. I rushed to the library, and examined all the maps I
could find. I discovered in one of them a delicate hairlike line,
diverging from the Mississippi near a place marked Prescott, which, I
supposed, was intended to represent the river St. Croix, but, could
nowhere find Duluth. Nevertheless, I was confident it existed
somewhere, and that its discovery would constitute the crowning
glory of the present century, if not of all modern times. I knew it was
bound to exist in the very nature of things; that the symmetry and
perfection of our planetary system would be incomplete without it.
That the elements of maternal nature would since have resolved
themselves back into original chaos if there had been such a hiatus in
creation as would have resulted from leaving out Duluth! In fact, sir,
I was overwhelmed with the conviction that Duluth not only existed
somewhere, but that wherever it was, it was a great and glorious

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Metrology and Instrumentation:

Practical Applications for Engineering

Vibrations of Linear Piezostructures Primer on Engineering Standards, Expanded

Practical Applications for Engineering and Manufacturing

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Mekid, Samir, author.

Cover image: Courtesy of Abderrahman Mekid

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Chennai, India

1 Fundamental Units and Constants in Metrology 1

2.7 Instruments Techniques 34

3 Applied Math and Statistics 39

4 Errors and their Sources 61

4.3 Propagation of Errors 69

5 Measurement and Measurement Systems 99

6 Tolerance Stack-Up Analysis 149

6.2 Brief Introduction to Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) 156

7 Instrument Calibration Methods 191

Section 5: Data Analysis 234

8 Uncertainty in Measurements 237

9 Dimensional Measurements and Calibration 255

9.5.1 Line Standard Angular Measuring Devices 277

10 Mechanical Measurements and Calibration 293

11 Thermodynamic Measurements 309

12 Quality Systems and Standards 331

12.5 Quality Standards and Guides 338

13 Digital Metrology Setups and Industry Revolution I4.0 341

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October 1, 2021 Professor Samir Mekid

About the Author

Fundamental Units and Constants in Metrology

Figure 1.1 Simpliﬁed methodology producing measurement results.

Flemish Ell Yard

Table 1.1 Primary units.

Measurement Units Symbol Description

Figure 1.3 The standard kilogram for mass.

Table 1.2 Derived units.

Derived quantity Si derived new unit Symbol SI units SI base units

Force newton N mkgs−2

1.2 Current Deﬁnitions of the Main SI Units

1.3 New Deﬁnition of Seven Base Units of the SI

1.4 Derived International System (SI) Units

Table 1.3 SI Units and preﬁxes.

Preﬁx Abbreviation Meaning Example

tera T 1012 1 terameter (Tm) = 1012 m

1.6 Fundamental Constants

𝓁 P = 1.616229(38) × 10−35 m, (1.3)

1 mp = 2.176435(24) × 10−8 kg. (1.4)

tp = sqrt (ℏ.G∕c5 ), (1.5)

1.7 Common Measurements

i) Meter [m] - length;

1.8 Principles and Practices of Traceability

1.8.1 Deﬁnition of Traceability

Example of Traceability of Measurement in a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

1.8.2 Accreditation and Conformity Assessment

Table 1.4 Standards of conformity assessment tools.

Declaration of supplier ✓ ISO/IEC 17050

Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter

2.1 Introduction to Practical Metrology across All Scales

Stand still optical systems

Figure 2.1 Overall scale of metrology.

Nano scale Micro scale Mesoscale scale Macroscale Large scale

Figure 2.2 Scale range at various levels.