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SCADA and smart energy grid control automation

Chapter · January 2017

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-805343-0.00018-8

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Chapter 18 SCADA and Smart Energy Grid Control
Automation
Khairy Sayed, and Hossam A. Gabbar

Abstract
The advent and evolution of the Smart Grid initiative to improve the electric
utility power infrastructure have brought with it a number of opportunities for
improving efficiencies. A supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system
provides a pretty scheme for remote control and monitoring of renewable energy
sources. SCADA systems have been used widely in various industrial applications
and it has assisted to improve the efficiency of such systems. Although of those
benefits of SCADA systems, there still some challenges in the effort to ensure
reliability, safety and security, for power generation, transmission, and distribution.
One of the considerations in designing the capabilities of the Smart Grid is the
integration of Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems to allow
the utility to remotely monitor, supervise and control the electric network equipments
as a means of fulfilling reliability and desire efficiencies for the whole utility. Given
the ability of these systems to control the flow of electricity throughout the network,
additional planning and forethought are required to ensure all possible measures for
preventing compromise are considered. This chapter discusses the overall system
architecture used nowadays and some of the measurements presently carried out to
secure those developed architectures. More importantly, it considers simplifying the
complication of implementing the many required standards. Due to the unpredictable
nature of renewable energy sources, it has become important to constantly monitor
their states in order to determine the amount of energy that is generated at all times.
This will help in planning power usage and save energy when the sources are not
enough for power generation. However, it will be practically impossible to station
personnel who will constantly be monitoring the state of the sources, hence the need
for a remote monitoring system.
This chapter provides an overview of SCADA systems, evolution, and use in
power systems and the data acquisition process. It presents the components of
SCADA systems, from the traditional remote terminal units (RTUs) to the recent
intelligent electronic devices (IEDs), outstations hardware, data concentrators, and
master stations. The fundamentals and possible application functions of power system
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) unveil the potential of the smart
grid and inspire more minds to get involved in the development process. The SCADA
system optimizes the solar PV generation and improves its performance. Usually,
wind energy assessment on a new wind farm is conducted with maximum effort prior
to the installation of the turbines by using both numerical and experimental
investigations. The wind farm performances during operation can be investigated with
a deep analysis of the operational conditions of the wind farm. A large amount of data
collected by the SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems
installed on the turbines can be very helpful.

Keywords:

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Smart grid; SCADA and Smart Grid; Substation Automation; IEDs; RTUs, and Data
Concentrator; SCADA Communication Systems; Master Station; Automation
SCADA Applications; SCADA in Power Systems; SCADA Basic Functions

18.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the SCADA and smart grid are explained to discuss the efficacy
and challenges in the integration process. The challenges for secure smart grid and
automation systems will be discussed. The smart grid system overlaps the existing
renewable energy distribution system with digital information management and
advanced telemetry systems. It is clear that the increased integration and automation
over the electric grid systems presents new aspects of management and deployment.
Control systems are computer-based systems used within many critical
infrastructures and industries (e.g.; electric grid, natural gas, water, and wastewater
industries) to monitor and control sensitive process. To deploy the smart grid system,
there is a trend toward interconnecting SCADA system and data networks. Typically
control systems collect field measurement and operational data from the field stations,
process and display this information. The relay control commands to local or remote
outstations are issued from the control center. Control systems may perform
additional control functions such as operating switches and circuit breakers and
adjusting valves to regulate the fuel flow [1-4].
Control systems have been taken place since the 1930s; there are two primary
types of control systems: distributed control systems(DCS) and SCADA systems.
Typically DCS systems are used within a single processing or generating plant or over
a small geographic area. SCADA systems usually are used for large, geographically
extended electricity distribution or generation operations. For example, a utility
company may use a DCS to generate power and an SCADA system to distribute it.
But nowadays SCADA is applicable in large scales renewable energy systems such as
the wind and solar farms. We concentrate on SCADA systems for renewable energy,
and our discussion is generally applicable to DCS systems. The resulting computer-
aided control center is called the renewable energy management system (EMS).
Recently, the EMS achieved a quantum jump in terms of intelligence and
application software capabilities. The requirements for data acquisition electronic
devices and the associated communications systems, within the control center were
then extended to the limits that computer and communication technologies could offer
at the time. Specially designed devices and proprietary systems had to be developed to
fulfill the power system application needs. Over the years, information and
communication technologies have advanced in leaps and bounds, while control
centers, with their nonstandard conventional devices and systems that could not have
entire advantage of the new technologies, have remained far behind. Recent trends in
control industry deregulation have mainly changed the requirements of the electricity
supervisory control center and have uncovered its weakness. In the past, the
conventional control centers were too centralized, independent, inflexible, and closed
by today’s standards. As was stated before, the SCADA system is the heart of the
large scale renewable power generation as well as the Distribution Management
System (DMS) architecture.

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 An SCADA system should have all of the infrastructure elements to support the
multifaceted nature of distribution automation and the higher level applications of a
DMS. A smart grid SCADA system’s main function is in assisting of distributed
generation operations, alarming, telemetry, event logging recording, and remote
control of outstation field equipment.
A modern SCADA system should support the engineering planning and budgeting
functions by providing entrance to power system data without having to have
procurement of an operational workstation. Historically, SCADA systems have been
known for their surplus support for the importation, and more importantly, the
exporting of power system data values. The evolving changes in recent power system
operational needs demand a distributed control center that is decentralized, flexible,
integrated, and opened. Present-day control centers are moving in that direction with
varying degrees of success [5-10]. The SCADA technologies utilized in today’s
control centers to enable them to be more distributed are briefly reviewed. With the
rising of the Internet age, the trend in information and communication technologies is
moving toward microgrid and grid computing and web services, or microgrid
services. A microgrid service-based future control center is specified.
Renewable energy systems have gained more popularity over the years because of
the incessant failure and general unreliability of the power grids and microgrids.
Renewable energy forms a major source of energy in distributed generation systems;
the energy generated can be integrated into the existing power grid or it can be used
for domestic microgrid consumption. Even though renewable sources are in
abundance and inexhaustible, their occurrence at a quantity enough for power
generation at all times is not guaranteed because of variations in climatic conditions,
thereby jeopardizing the chances of relying on them as the only source of energy. This
prompted research and development in the areas of power generation and storage of
energy in order to increase the efficiency of such systems. Such researchers have seen
a drastic reduction in the cost of systems, which convert renewable energy into
electrical energy.
The increasing size of PV power plants all over the world has made their operation
and maintenance (O&M) tasks much more complex than they were a few years ago
[10]. Many of these PV plants are equipped with advanced SCADA systems in order
to collect the necessary information to assess their performance, such as
meteorological data, information from the PV farm field, PV inverters, etc. [11-14].
However, the great amount of data provided those SCADA systems makes necessary
the development of new procedures capable of handling all this data and providing
accurate information about the performance, failures, long-term trends etc. In the
literature available, there is a lack of information and experiences in the automatic
failures detection and performance evaluation of large-scale solar PV plants.
SCADA systems are essentially Process Control Systems (PCS) that are used for
gathering, monitoring, and analyzing real-time environmental data from a simple
residential building or a complex large scale PV or wind far power plant. PCSs are
designed for microgrid automation or power distribution systems based on a
predetermined set of data and conditions, such as generated/consumed energy or
power grid management. Some PCSs consist of one or more remote terminal units
(RTUs) and/or Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) connected to any number of
actuators and sensors, which relay data to a master data collective device for analysis.

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SCADA systems are composed of the following components:
1. Outstations hardware: state of charge (SOC), Current transformer CT, Voltage
transformer VT, fuel valves, conveyors, and Circuit breakers CB that can be
controlled locally or remotely.
2. Local substations processors: which collect data from the site’s instruments and
hardware equipment. This includes the Remote Terminal Unit (RTU), Programmable
Logic Controller (PLC). Intelligent Electronic Device (IED) such as digital relays and
digital meters. The local processor will be responsible for dozens of analog and digital
inputs/outputs from IEDs and switchgear equipment.
3. Digital Instrument: It is usually installed in the field or in a facility that sense
conditions such as current, voltage, irradiance, temperature, pressure, wind speed, and
flow rate.
4. Communications devices: It could be either short-range communications or Long-
range communications. The short-range communications are installed between local
RTUs, instruments, and operating equipment. These are relatively short distance
cables or wireless connections carry digital and analog signals using electrical
properties such as voltage and current or using other settled industrial
communications protocols. The Long-range communications are installed between
local processors RTU/PLC and host serves. This communication typically are using
methods such as leased telephone lines, microwave, satellite, frame relay network,
and cellular packet data.
5. Host computers/servers: Host computers, like Data acquisition server DAC,
engineering/operation workstations. It acts as the central point of monitoring and
control. They will be in the control room or master station. The operation workstation
is where an engineer or operator can supervise the process, as well as receive system
alarms, review data, and exercise remote control.

Figure 18-1 displays a high-level overview of SCADA architecture, where the

Remote Stations might be an Electric Substation, the SCADA network on one
network segment, with another organization network on differing network segments.
With the progress in the digital computing area, the integration of digital intelligent
electronics devices play a substantial role in the industrial manufacturing, wherein
manufacturing factory utilize PLCs/RTUs to control the devices, and develop
distributed and large complicated systems in which intelligent systems are part of the
manufacturing plant control systems.
Most often, an SCADA system will monitor and make slight changes to function
optimally; SCADA systems are considered closed loop control systems and operate
with comparatively little human interference. One of the key processes of SCADA is
the ability to supervise a whole system in real time environment. This is simplified by
data acquisitions including meter reading, checking statuses of sensors, etc. that are
communicated at regular small time intervals depending on the system. An SCADA
system as an industrial automation system is used to acquire data from instruments
and sensors located at remote sites and to receive/transmit data at master station
central site for either controlling or monitoring purpose. The collected data from
sensors and instruments is usually viewed on one or more SCADA host computers
that are located at the central site. Based on the data received from the remote
substations, automated or operator-driven supervisory commands can be pushed to
remote substation control devices, which are usually referred to as outstation or field
devices.

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 Figure 18-1 SCADA system Network
Large-scale and customer-premise grid-connected solar PV power wind farms
must be equipped with automatic operation, fully functional SCADA system.
Communication media is the key to data transmission to ensure the efficiency of the
specific SCADA system, so the intensive research and testing of the communication
solution are necessary. Currently, the SCADA technology of solar PV power plant is
still in the development stage, and the communication solution is also self-contained
and immature. However, because of the single method, lack of network management,
low level of integration, the current communication solutions of the SCADA system
are difficult to accommodate increasing business needs, the research of new solution
is insistent [15-20].

18.2 Smart Grid Concept

The Smart Grid framework is composed of and concerned with distributed
intelligence including data decentralization, renewable distributed generation and
energy storage, and distribution system automation. Customer partnership and
interaction are a regard, as are micro-grids, and high-demand electric devices. The
Smart Grid is by definition about real-time data monitoring and active microgrid
management via rapid two-way digital communications through the implementation
of technological solutions to the power delivery infrastructure. Integration exists
between microgrids and within the electric utility, renewable power generating
devices, consumer loads devices, and third-party entities either as consumers,
vendors, or regulatory organizations. Smart Grid comprise an intelligent monitoring

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system that observes the flow of electrical energy throughout the power network and
incorporates the use of cables or transmission lines to manage power fluctuations,
losses, and co-generation integration from solar, fuel cell and the wind.
Generally, most effective Smart Grid can monitor/control residential home
devices that are non-critical during peak power consumption times to reduce power
demand, and return their function during non-peak hours. Proposals for optimization
include smart microgrids, smart power grid, and intelligent grid. In addition to
normalizing electric demand, the ability to manage power consumption peaks can
support in avoiding brown-outs and black-outs when power demand exceeds supply,
and allow for maintaining critical loads and devices under such conditions. Figure 18-
2 displays a high-level communication flow between different components in a Smart
Grid.

Figure 18-2 Smart grid architecture

The Smart Grid initiative has produced a significant progress toward the
modernization and growth of the electric utility infrastructure and aims to integrate it
into today’s advanced communication era both in function and in architecture. That
evolution comes with a number of organizational, socio-economic, technical, and
cyber security challenges. The expansion and depth of those challenges are
significant, and a number of regulatory organizations have taken up the initiative to
bring their own standards and requirements into alignment with these new challenges.
The initiative has also offered many opportunities to explore new areas for taking
advantages of data communication among distributed and remote electric networks
and their devices.

18.3 Smart Grid / SCADA Integration

Integrating SCADA into the Smart Grid is interesting topic, and can be connected
by electrical, communications and data networks, allows for distributed and central
aggregation of information and control over the entire electrical utility network as
depicted in Figure. 18-3. SCADA empowers the electricity consumer by

184
interconnecting energy management systems to authorize the customer to manage
their own demand of energy and control costs. It allows the grid to be self-healing by
automatically responding to power quality issues, power outages, and power system
faults. SCADA optimizes the grid assets by monitoring and optimizing those assets
while minimizing operations and maintenance costs. The Smart Grid, intelligence and
control need to exist along the entire power supply chain. This includes the electricity
generation and transmission from beginning to delivery end-points at the customer’s
side and includes both fixed and mobile devices in the SG architecture.

Figure 18-3 SCADA/Smart Grid Integration

Digital communications on a Smart Grid take place over a diversity of

technologies, devices, and protocols that comprise wireless and wired telephone,
voice and data dispatch radio, fiber optics networks, power line carriers, distribution
line carriers, and satellite. SCADA software allows for dynamic grid management that
involves monitoring the required number of control points. To be fully efficient and
operational, monitoring occurs for every segment of the power line and a piece of
equipment in the distribution system, in addition to allowing the customers to observe
and control their own devices and energy consumption. This results in considerable
amount of data to be analyzed, organized and used for both automated and manual
decision software that can be classified into two basic categories: decentralized and
back office.

The decentralized software is important due to the significance of the SCADA

devices and data collection and computation ability, which prevent a centralized data
acquisition solution. The IEDs will evolve to mitigate the organization, collection, and
data analysis necessary for performing decision making, data routing, and other
control actions that may be necessary based on the data received. This functionality

184
subsists either as part of the devices firmware or via RTU configurable functions and
settings within each device.

18.4 SCADA Applications in Power System

SCADA system is widely used in a power system to collect, analyze and observe
the power system data effectively. As the power system deals with power generation,
transmission, distribution, and renewable energy sectors, monitoring and control are
the main aspects in all these areas. Thus, the SCADA implementation of power
system improves the overall efficiency of the system, by saving cost and time. This
can be achieved by an optimizing operation, loss minimization, supervising and
controlling the generation and transmission systems. SCADA function in the power
system network provides greater system reliability and stability for integrated grid
operation. The power system automation system offers contingency based fast Load
Shedding, Power Control and SCADA functionality for the electrical system. These
applications may be supplied by different vendors and applications such as:

► Generation/Transmission/Distribution Monitoring and Control System

► Generation/Transmission/Distribution Control System

► Generation/Transmission/Distribution Integrated Control System

► Generation/Transmission/Distribution Protection and Control System

► Power Management System

► Switching management System

► Load Management System

18.4.1 SCADA for Power Generating Stations

With the use of Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) hardware and advanced
communication links along with SCADA software and hardware in power generating
stations, delivering an optimum solution for each and every operation with flexible
and advanced control structures. Figure 18-4 shows the SCADA structure in power
generation where it supervises several operations, including protection, controlling
and monitoring. The functions of SCADA in power generation include
• Continuous monitoring of Speed and Frequency
• Geographical monitoring of coal delivery and water treatment processes
• Supervising the status of circuit breakers, protective relays and other safety related
operations
• Generation operations planning
• Active and reactive power control
• Turbine protection
• Load scheduling
• Historical data processing of all generation related parameters

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 Fig. 18-4 SCADA for Electrical Power Industry

The SCADA provides an integrated set of control, supervision and management

functions for power generation stations. These functions include:
► Generator control including integration with the governor and excitation
controller.
► Circuit breaker control including integration with protection relays.
► Synchronization function between generators.
► Transformer and tap-changer control according to the status of the electrical
network.

18.4.2 SCADA for Power Distribution System

Distribution management systems deal with electric power from distribution

substation to the different loads with the use of medium and low voltage cables and
transmission lines. Most of the power distribution or utility companies rely on manual
labor to carry out the distribution tasks like interrupting the power to loads, all the
parameter hourly checking, fault diagnosis, etc. The implementing SCADA to the
power distribution not only reduces the manual labor operation but also facilitates
smooth automatic operations with minimizing disturbance. Fig. 18-5 shows the
structure of SCADA in power distribution system where it collects the whole data

184
from various electrical substations, even at remote locations, and does the
corresponding data and status processing.

SCADA for Electrical distribution system

Data acquisition Data acquisition

device device

Distribution
substation
Incoming Feeders
C.B C.B
BB.

Earth fault
Pole mounted Kiosk-mounted
indicator
Distribution Distribution
Transformer Transformer Outgoing feeders
Fig. 18-5 SCADA for Power Distribution System

Programmable logic controllers in electrical substations continuously monitor the

substation components and corresponding transfer that to centralized PC-based
SCADA system. In the event of any power outages or failure, this SCADA allows
detecting the fault type and location, therefore without waiting for the calls from
customers. SCADA gives an alarm or event to the operators for identifying and
analyzing it. The SCADA in substations automatically controls the circuit breakers
and switches for exceeding parameter limits, thereby continuous inspection of
network status and parameters are performed regularly without a line worker. Some of
the SCADA functions in power distribution system are given as follows:

► Improving power system quality by maintaining an acceptable range of power

factor and harmonics contents

► Limiting peak power demand

► Continuous monitoring and controlling of various electrical components in both

normal and abnormal conditions

► Trending and alarming to enable operators to fix outage problems

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► Historian data and viewing that from remote locations

► Quick response to customer service interruptions

► Motor control including integration with motor control centers.

► Power Control including tie-line control, peak shaving and load sharing.

► Load Shedding including both fast, slow and frequency based.

18.5 SCADA in solar PV plants

Photovoltaic power generation system can be divided into stand-alone PV system
and grid-connected PV system. Grid-connected PV power plants consist of PV array,
converter, energy management system (EMS), and other several parts and so on. A
typical distributed network of PV power plants is shown in Fig. 18-6. SCADA system
can be employed to be a sub-system of Energy Management System EMS in PV
power plants. Its core part is Remote Terminal Unit (RTU). Due to this requirement,
we decided to develop an industrial supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) environment. In this way, PV system could be managed using data streams
in the range of several thousand measures per second. Software should be configured
to meet solar PV application requirements. This SCADA provided flexibility in
controlling and monitoring the different PV plant components, including inverters,
trackers, circuit breakers substations and meters.

In the case of a small scale solar photovoltaic system, it is important to assess how
much energy, the system can produce according to a specific location, orientation, and
plant power conversion efficiency. Employing an efficient monitoring system is
important for being able to account for the amount of energy produced by a PV
system in real time, and to guarantee the forecast conversion efficiency will stay right
over the PV panel’s service life. A digital meter is also used to measure the energy
produced. The energy recording frequency requires more advanced data loggers than
the meters installed for residential systems. Data loggers supply data into SCADA
database that can be stored for use at a later time. The meters have communication
interfaces through serial ports (RS485/RS232) or Ethernet that allow PC to access the
data. Most electric utilities in the world have adopted standard criteria and guidelines
for interconnecting distributed energy resources into their electric distribution
systems. Solar PV installations efficiently reduce the customer load and, during
minimum loading conditions, may export energy back to the grid in a net energy
metering transaction. The IEEE recommended a set of guidelines (IEEE P1547.6) to
PV system users to help them design systems that are applicable to utility systems.

The industrial SCADA software should meet its PV application requirements.

This SCADA software should provide flexibility in monitoring and controlling the
various PV plant component and operations, including MPP trackers, inverters,
substations, circuit breakers, and meters. Designed for monitoring performance, the
system logs any event and triggers alarms so that the engineering staff can order
switching action or change the process of plant operation.

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 Fig. 18-6 SCADA in solar PV plants

The SCADA system monitors PV plant performance by comparing it with a

mathematical model initialized at installation with PV plant design data such as PV
panels maximum power, inverter specifications, manufacturer-provided electric
parameters, the number of strings, strings length, etc. The PV model is continuously
fed with local weather data and real-time calculates the energy production at full plant
rating. A comparison is made automatically between the calculated and the real
production figures (supplied by the data logger) will give an accurate indication of the
plant performance or plant health check every minute or less. Recent monitoring and
performance analysis of solar PV plants has become extremely vital due to the
increasing cost of operation and maintenance as well as reducing production due to
aging degradation during the lifecycle of the plant equipment. This means that the use
of a monitoring system can be essential to ensure high performance, less downtime,
and fault detection of a solar PV power plant during the entire lifecycle.
From a technical point of view, it is interesting to know how the overall data
acquisition in PV system is performed starting from the panel output. Here, string
combiner boxes designed for PV installations have built-in string probe units that
measure the analog values of DC current and voltage then calculate the power. The
remote terminal units (RTU) makes the data available through a serial RS485 port
(different methods or wireless can be used) for communication to the SCADA via
ModBus. Some RTUs are installed at the field substation that connects to multiple
string junction boxes on the multi-drop loops RS485. At the AC level, DC/AC
inverters expose RS485 ports to allow an easy interface connection. The
communication drivers collect data from control boxes and RTUs with a time stamp
for processing, alarming, storage, reporting, and displaying at real-time. This is in
order for both DC and AC side parameters, status, and diagnostics to be continuously
acquired. The SCADA capabilities are further used in the monitoring of digital
protection relays, digital energy meters, weather monitoring station/sensors, low
tension (LT), and high tension HT, control panels, DC switches, transformers, and in
general any devices installed in the PV plant. In order to make PV applications more
efficient, scalable, and sustainable as possible, it’s important to take into account
other aspects of the SCADA platform. These include dynamic configuration,
redundancy for data protection, stand-alone and client-server configurations, historical
and real-time trends analysis, as well as advanced alarm management. Looking

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further at standards compliance, the support of such protocols as IEC 61850 and
DNP3 is considered an asset if required to communicate with several electric
substation devices. To access all data points, user-friendly graphical user interfaces
GUI, report generator, switching management, scheduler, and an event-driven engine
all make the process much smoother. Web-access functionality provides all kinds of
capabilities and access to remote SCADA devices the application may need.

18.6 Improving wind-farm operation using SCADA

The SCADA application on wind farm operation is a very important skill which is
critical for improving the actual power conversion efficiency. Useful information on
the expected wind farm response to the wind can be gathered in the wind energy
assessment study through an analysis of the measurements and the simulations.
However, a very accurate operational analysis needs to be strengthened by a judicious
data mining of all the available information spreading out from the wind turbine
control systems. In [21-22], the Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)
dataset is divided into four ranks (the wind, energy conversion, vibration and
temperature parameters, respectively).

The improvement of wind turbine performance and lowering in operation and

maintenance costs is a vital topic. After the capital costs of commissioning wind
turbine generators, the significant costs are operations, maintenance, and insurance
[22]. Reducing maintenance and operating costs can highly reduce the payback period
and provide the motive for investment and widespread approval of this clean energy
source.
Maintenance costs can be reduced through automated monitoring of wind
turbines. Wind turbines often operate in stiff, remote environments and need frequent
scheduled maintenance. Unscheduled maintenance due to sudden failures can be
costly, not only for maintenance expenses but also for lost production time. In
addition, as wind turbines age, different parts fail, and energy production degrades,
maintenance costs increase as a percentage of power production. Monitoring and site
data analysis enable condition-based rather than time-interval-based maintenance and
operation tune-ups. The condition monitoring discovers failures before they reach a
serious or secondary damage stage, extends lifetime, keeps assets working at initial
capacity factors, enables better maintenance planning and logistics, and can reduce
regular maintenance.
Condition monitoring systems for wind farm have focused on the failures
detection in the main generator, bearing, and gearbox, which are the highest cost
components on a wind turbine [21–22]. Two widely-used methods are vibration
analysis and oil monitoring [23-29]. These are standalone systems that require
installation of sensors and hardware. An SCADA based condition monitoring system
uses collected data at the wind turbine controller and is a cost-effective way to
monitor for early alarming of failures and other performance issues. Wind turbine
reliability remains an important focus for wind turbine owners, operators and
manufacturers [30]. There is an economic case in favor of condition monitoring for
rotating machines in general and also specifically for wind turbines. A key factor for
good wind farm availability is high turbine reliability, reliability can be improved and
downtime reduced through the use of condition monitoring [31]. The use of SCADA
data for condition monitoring has a number of advantages, in particular, the data are

144
already collected, requiring no additional hardware. Different approaches are
available to utilize SCADA data to predict the health of operational wind turbines.

The SCADA data are usually analyzed for an automated fault detection and
diagnosis and to aid the experts in a diagnosis of the fault patterns, for a performance
monitoring of the wind turbines and for modeling a wind turbine power curve, with
different approaches depending on the aim of the specific analysis. The
multidimensional graphical analysis is an original method, extracting and processing
information on a daily basis from the meteorological mast database, turbine SCADA
systems and control system database, respectively: the data are analyzed graphically
in an intuitive and meaningful way, in order to highlight the days of most consistent
power production and nacelle wind speed variations along the wind farm. Actually,
sharpening the periods of non-harmonic farm performance is a crucial exercise in
order to detect possible wake interactions and/or malfunctioning and quantify their
influence on the production output.

Modern Wind farms contain a variety of measurement devices , SCADA

components and communication systems. For reliable, safe, and automated
control , the individual wind turbines use microprocessor controllers with closed
loop control algorithms to regulate the internal controllers which include:
Pitch, Yaw, Generator and Supervisory controllers. The Safety system
independent of the main controller for fail safe (hardwired) for emergency
shut‐down

Yaw Controller rotates the wind turbine into or out of the essential to
mitigate fatigue loads, Maintain optimum electrical energy production , Unwinds
power and control cables between nacelle and base or Generator Controller which
adjusts torque to maximize electrical power output and maintain rotor
speed below the rated one. It is also actively dampen drive train torsional
vibrations by applying small ripple torque closer to drive train natural frequency and
phase angle.

Wind farm supervisory controller is necessary to operate wind turbine

autonomously from one operational condition to another at the following
conditions: Start-up; Power production ; Shut-down ; Stopped (fault case) ;
Operation of auxiliary equipment ; Cooling of gearbox, generator, power
converter, fans and pumps ; Heaters for cold weather applications ;
Lubrication pumps.
The SCADA server may be located on site or in a control room depending on
communication access to the wind turbines. This means multiple wind turbines
regardless of location may be monitored by one SCADA server. By means of an IP
connection single turbines or small clusters of turbines are continuously monitored
and controlled by a SCADA Server which could be located in the control room, Fig.
18-7. The OLE for Process Control (OPC) server is a software program that converts
the PLC communication protocol into the OPC protocol. The client software is the
application program that needs to connect to the hardware, such as an power plant
HMI. To get data, the OPC client uses the OPC server and send control commands to
the hardware.

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 Fig. 18-7. Schematic diagram of SCADA system in Wind farm

SCADA software allows to monitor your wind turbines. The software should be
easy to install, and allows to monitor both individual turbines and wind parks/sites.
SCADA products divided into three functions which covers all aspects of a complete
SCADA solution:
► Online monitoring and operation of turbines.
► Alarm Handling of incoming alarms from turbines.
► SCADA server which collect Data and reporting events.

Turbines may be accessed via telephone modem or TCP/IP depending on

available communication connection in the individual wind turbine or wind farm.
SCADA software provides full control and monitoring of the each wind turbine and
the whole wind park. The wind park overview provides a graphical overview of the
wind farm showing the status of each individual turbine. Furthermore, current wind
and production data are shown. The turbine specifications gives a full overview of all
relevant parameters of the used wind turbine, for instance rated wind speed,
temperatures, pitch angle, generator and rotor speed, electrical parameters, yaw
control system, etc.

18.7 Fuel cell system control and monitoring

A fuel cell is a dc power generator that converts the fuel chemical energy
(hydrogen, natural gas, methane, methanol, etc.) and an oxidant such as air or oxygen

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directly into electrical energy. While there are several available fuel cell technologies,
the most popular and practical technology for small to medium-sized standby power
supply is the proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell that produces electricity
through an electrochemical reaction using hydrogen and oxygen. This electrochemical
reaction happens without any combustion process. A fuel cell operates
electrochemically meanwhile the use of an electrolyte. This is similar to a generator
that it operates as long as the fuel is supplied. Fuel cell is designed to provide stable
electrical power while operating over a wide range of power and environmental
conditions. The fuel cell advantages include high efficiency, simple, quiet and clean,
low maintenance and noise with few moving parts, null harmful emissions, and
economical cost for stationary standby power generation [32-34]. The fuel cell
systems are load-following because fuel consumption depends on the load. The FC
power systems are designed for a wide range of customers, including hospitals, hotels,
universities, utilities, and water treatment facilities. The applications of next
generation high temperature fuel cell products, such as a diesel fueled marine ship
fuel cells, combined-cycle FC power plants, and next generation solid oxide fuel cells
(SOFC). The higher efficiency, environmental friendliness, and modularity have made
PEM fuel cell systems to be one of the most attractive candidate for both
transportation application and stationary standby power generation.

The criteria for selecting a fuel cell standby system for a specific application
include the output power requirements, frequency and duration of power failures,
response time to the load, environmental restrictions and service requirements. The
Fuel cells can be used as the sole backup/emergency power solution in many critical
applications. However, they can also be used as an added degree of protection for a
site using resilience solutions. Fuel cells can offer rack-mounting options within an
equipment shelter as well as reinforced environmentally- outdoor cabinets for
flexibility to meet electrical network demand. Refueling fuel cell allows the system to
run continuously as long as required during extended outages. For sites with these
comparatively low power loads and power failure remaining from hours to days, fuel
cells can be the selected backup power source.

18.7.1 Integrating a Fuel Cell Into a electrical Network

As an advantage of a fuel cell that makes it attractive for use in standby power
environments is that a fuel cell produces DC power. It is similar to a standby rectifier
power source, Fig. 18-8, because the power provided from the fuel cell can directly
feed the site's DC power bus. In a power outage situation, the fuel cell automatically
turns on, providing DC power formerly provided by the utility through rectifiers. This
means fuel cells can work for long reserve times as a standby power supply in
customer critical applications. Fuel cell systems are proposed to work in parallel with
the traditional DC power system components. Fuel cells can easily be integrated into
an existing power network or can be designed into a new standalone network location.
They can also be a hybrid system composed of solar and/or the wind power to provide
a clean hybrid power solution. A variety of fuel cells is capable of serving loads in a
variety of critical geographical locations due to hot and cold weather design features.

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 Fig. 18-8 fuel cells to provide backup to their communications equipment

18.7.2 Benefits of the FC SCADA System

Fuel Cell SCADA solutions in the monitoring and control of their fuel cell
systems. The solution includes specifically HMI/SCADA application; real-time
automation software; and the alarm and events management system. FC power system
required a robust, secure Human Machine Interface to allow monitoring and remote
controlling of the fuel cell power plants as standalone systems. SCADA system has
provided Fuel Cell power system with alarm management and real time online
functionality. Operators can be alerted during event/alarm conditions for instant
acknowledgement and action. The internet-enabled HMI control promote ease of use
and remote monitoring/control throughout the system. Another benefit is the
integration into existing microgrid systems. SCADA HMI delivers the easy-to-use
internet-based remote access, and alarm/event management that the energy system
required for remote monitoring/control of standby FC power plants as
standalone/Hybrid systems.

Due to the specific nature of fuel cell systems, measurement, monitoring, and
control devices are substantial. However, it is interesting to find detailed instruments
focused on showing the real-time performance of a PEM fuel cell system and
compare it with the performance recommended by the stack manufacturer. The FC
automation of the unit is based on an SCADA system that acquires and monitors the
input/output (I/O) signals [32-33]. In the SCADA system data are organized in a
process database. The monitoring platform is composed of three major components:
an upper-level computer, the fuel cell system controller, and non-volatile memory
media. The upper-level computer provides a visual parameter access and modification
interface with the serial communication interface. The user can access the data for
analyzing, reporting or developing models. The main screen of the SCADA system
allows for selecting the method in which the user desires to work. The software tool
has a detailed description of the PEM fuel cell and rated input/output values, nominal
operating characteristics, optimal process interface, and stack operation. The SCADA
software traces the dynamic changes in the site and sends data to the central control
room , which communicates with the selected module.

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 Fig. 18-9 Schematic diagram of SCADA for standalone fuel cell hybrid system

The FC stack current and voltage transformers will be connected to analog input
terminals of RTU, and thus monitoring voltage and current, see Fig. 18-9. Running
the stack above the rated current for long periods contributes to stack degradation.
Moreover, the stack voltage sensor and the cell voltage monitoring system ensure that
increases in stack current don't drive the cells into reversal. Cell reversal produces
heat and can result in a cell-to-cell short circuit and an electrical arcing. Additionally,
a relay is added to isolate the fuel cell system from the electronic load and a blocking
diode to avoid reversal currents. To get these subsystems operate simultaneously, the
RTU will be the responsible for receiving information from all sensors and deciding
the actuator and circuit breakers on what to give the suitable order. An external power
source will supply all the devices which are included into the balance of plant. The
needed of this external electrical source is inherent to fuel cell system for two reasons:
first, balance of plant devices should be activated even before the fuel cell system
starts running, and second, the time required for fuel cell system to reach steady-state
performance and deliver rated electrical power is a function of the difference between
the stack temperature and the optimal operating temperature, the hydration state of the
membrane and the status of the catalyst [32].

18.7.3 Control and monitoring systems

Several efforts have been made to optimize the stack components/fuel cell system
design to chase a significant improvement in both performance, reliability and
durability. In some type air-cooled PEM fuel cell systems, the main causes of short
life and performance degradation are thermal and water, fuel and oxidant reduction,
corrosion and chemical reactions of the fuel cell components. Thermal management is
particularly essential at cold start-ups while poor water management can cause
dehydration or flooding [33]. In this case, PEM fuel cell system operating procedure
should be designed to guarantee high performance, durability and safety. These
procedure are established by the Control Unit. The control unit must observe variables
values measured by sensors and keep them within the admissible range to avoid
sudden stack damage and irreversible performance degradation. If the stack get in an

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alarm critical condition, it is required to carry out a shutdown forcibly. The robustness
and resilience nature of the network is essential whether a utility communications
network or radio communications, is used for SCADA systems. Recent natural
disasters have demonstrated of the importance of communication systems to utilities
and microgrid. To have a resilient power network, the communications equipment
must also provide reliability and resilience. Fuel cell increases power reliability of
communication networks by providing backup power to several hundred sites in a
single network.

18.8 Using SCADA in Hybrid Power Systems

Energy demand either in standalone or grid-connected mode of power systems is
steadily increasing. Thus, it is essential to meet the continually increasing power
demand for power. However, there is a public interest in global environmental
concerns such as greenhouse effect and global warming, and a reduction in fossil fuel
resources. These problem can be solved by the recent research and development of
alternative renewable energy sources. Introducing renewable energy sources, such as
solar photovoltaic, fuel cell, and wind energy has an excellent potential of
contribution to power generation. These sources are clean and abundantly available in
nature, and offer many advantages over conventional sources of power generation.
Combining two or more different of renewable energy sources will form the system
called “Hybrid Power system”. A schematic diagram of a hybrid renewable power
system is shown in Figure18-10. The reliability of the HPS mainly relies on the
dynamic behavior of the renewable energy sources. Hence, it is important to analyze
the dynamic characteristics of these units in real time for long-time periods. A major
challenge lies in the development of the real-time control scheme for the HPS. In
order to test the HPS controllers, it requires, a controller that can interface with a
hardware simulator and the inputs and outputs can be processed at the real time. This
provides an excellent platform to implement and test the solutions in real time. Today,
the improvements in communications system have prompt the implementation of the
HPS using PLCs and RTU control schemes by a centralized supervisory control
platform which is commonly known as SCADA system. All the Modules should be
modeled in the PLC environment. PLC and SCADA system communicate with each
other over a dedicated protocol which can be transmitted over serial port or Ethernet.

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 Local
controller Wire/wireless
gateway

Windfarm EM unit

control

Energy
Data acquisition Managment
RTU or PLC
Solar System
Array protection

Protectio
n Relay
Fuel Utility
Cell
SCADA

Renewable
Energy sources
HPS Energy meter

Figure18-10. Schematic diagram of Renewable Energy based Hybrid Power System

The control structure of HPS is shown in Figure 18-10. Since the monitoring of
PV cell and Fuel cell had done in PLC and is interfaced to SCADA/Energy
management systems. So that the operator could be able to observe the parameters
easily and control the parameters according to the changes in system requirements.
The data of HPS is collected through PLC and connected to control room through
communication protocol. The detailed connection of renewable energy sources as
HPS is shown in Figure 18-10. The PLC is interfaced to energy management control
unit to get control actions according to the respective microgrid loads and
environmental conditions. The entire system is connected to SCADA for supervision
and control. The control room contains various I/O consoles such as engineering
console and operator console. The Engineering console is responsible for adding new
points or new IED devices to the system.

18.9 SCADA System Elements

The data collected at real-time by the SCADA system is passed to the planning
engineers for consideration in the radial distribution line development studies. As
the electricity distribution industry continues to grow, the utilities make annual
investments to improve the electric distribution system to maintain appropriate

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facilities to satisfy the increasing load requirements. Using the real-time data enable
the planning engineers to optimize the annual capital expenditures requested to meet
the needs of the growing electric distribution system. The power quality issues
include reduction of harmonic content to the 15th harmonic and recording the Total
Harmonic Distortion (%THD). This information is used to monitor the performance
of the electric distribution system. At a high level, the components of a distribution
automation system can be divided into four major areas:
1. SCADA application and database servers
2. DMS applications and server(s)
3. Trouble management applications servers
4. Front end processors or communication servers

Another classification of the main elements of an SCADA system are:

1. Host equipment or Master station hardware
2. Communication infrastructure (communication network and communications
equipment)
3. Field devices or outstation hardware to support control operations and
telemetry requirements of a DMS platform

18.9.1 Host Computer System

A central host computer server is usually known as a master station or simply
control room, an SCADA control center, or a master terminal unit (MTU). The
central host computer is usually a single computer or a computer server network.
This computer network provides process control remotely or locally for all SCADA
system devices, supporting requested control strategy and a remote method of
acquiring data and events /alarms for monitoring these processes. The SCADA Host
platforms also provide functions for dynamic graphical displays, alarming, logging,
trending and historical storage of data
The essential elements of a distribution SCADA host are:
1. Host servers (redundant server network with backup/failover capability).
2. Communication front-end processors (FEP).
3. Full graphics user interfaces.
4. Relational database servers for archival of historical power system events) and
data server/Web server for access to system points at real-time (values and events).
The elements and components of the typical distribution control system are
illustrated in Figure 18-11.

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 Figure 18-11 – DA system architecture

SCADA Servers
As SCADA has proven its vital value in operation during stormy weather
conditions, service restoration, and daily operations, the dependency on SCADA has
created a requirement for highly available, reliable and high-performance systems.
Redundant server network hardware operating in a “live” backup/failover mode is
required to withstand the high availability design criteria. High-performance servers
with abundant physical memory, redundant array of independent disks (RAID) hard
disk systems.

Communication Front-End Processors (FEP)

The current state of the host to field communications device still depends heavily on
serial communications. This requirement is satisfied by using the FEP. The FEP can
be organized in several forms based on bus architecture and operating system.
Location of the FEP in relation to the SCADA server can vary based on system
requirements. In some configurations, the FEP is located on the LAN with the
SCADA server. In other cases, existing communications hubs may dictate that the
FEP reside at the communication hub. The incorporation of the wide area network
WAN into the architecture requires a more robust FEP application to compensate
for less reliable communications (in comparison to LAN). In general, the FEP will
include three functional devices:
1. A network/CPU board,
2. Serial cards, and
3. Possibly a time code receiver.
FEP Functionality should have the ability to download configuration and scan
tables. The FEP should also support the ability to dead band values (i.e., report only
those analog values that have changed by a user-defined amount). FEP network and
SCADA servers should be able of supporting worst-case conditions (i.e., all points
changing outside of the dead-band limits), which typically happens during severe
system disturbances conditions.

18.9.2 Full Graphics User Interface

The recent trend in the graphical user interface (GUI) is a full graphics (FG) user
interface. Nowadays, character graphics consoles are still utilized by many utilities,

444
SCADA vendors are aggressively moving their platforms towards a full graphics
UI. Full graphic displays prove the ability to display power system dynamic network
along with the electric distribution facilities in a geographical (or semi-
geographical) perspective. The advantage of using a full graphics interface becomes
evident in particular for distribution control centers as SCADA is deployed beyond
the substation control room where feeder diagrams become critical to distribution
operations.

18.9.3 Relational Databases, Data Servers

A relational database is simply defined as a collection of data items organized as a
set of formally-described tables from which data can be accessed or reassembled in
many different ways without having to reorganize the database tables. Power system
quantities such as circuit breakers status, bus coupler status, digital alarms and
feeder loading (MW, MWH, MQH, and three phase ampere loading), and bus volts
provide valuable information to the distribution planning engineer.
The availability of event data loggers is important in fault analysis. Utilizing of
relational databases, data servers, and Web servers by the operation and engineering
functions provide access to power network information and data while preventing
the SCADA server from non-operating personnel.

18.9.4 Host to Field Communications

Serial communications to field devices can occur over several mediums: copper
wire (RS485/RS232), fiber, radio, leased line and even satellite. Leased telephone
circuits, fiber, and satellites have a relatively high cost. New radio technologies
offer an attractive communications solution. One of such technologies is the
Multiple Address Radio System (MAS).
The MAS operates in the range of 900 MHz and is omnidirectional, providing radio
coverage in an area with radius up to 20–25 miles depending on terrain. A single
MAS master radio can collect data from many remote sites to a concentrator.
Communication Protocol and bandwidth limit the number of remote terminal units
RTUs that can be communicated with by a master radio. The protocol limit is
simply the address range supported by the protocol. The bandwidth limitations can
be substituted by the use of effective protocols, or slowing down the rate of scan to
comprise more remote units. Combining spread-spectrum and point-to-point radio
with MAS offers an opportunity to address specific communication issues.
Presently, MAS radio is preferred to packet radio; MAS radio communications tend
to be more suitable for smaller timeout values on communication responses, scan
time and controls.

18.9.5 Field Devices

Distribution Automation (DA) or distribution management systems DMS field
devices are multi-featured installations considering a broad range of control,
operations, planning, and system performance issues for the utility personnel. Each
device provides specific SCADA functionality, supports system control operations,
includes fault detection, collecting planning data and records power quality
information. Usually, these devices are found in the distribution substation and at
specific locations along the distribution line. The multi-featured capability of the
DA device increases its ability to be integrated into the electric distribution system.
The functionality and operations capabilities supplement each other with respect to
the control and operation of the electric distribution network.

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18.9.6 Modern RTU
Presently, modern RTU is modular in architecture with advanced capabilities to
support data processing functions. The modular RTU design supports installation
configurations ranging from the small point count required for the pole-mounted
distribution transformer to the very large point count required for large power
substations and power plant switchgear installations. The modern RTUs modules
include expandable analog input/output, digital input/output points, accumulated
input units, and communication cards with power supply. The RTU installation
requirements are met by assembling the necessary number of RTU cards or rack-
mounted modules to accommodate the analog, control, digital, and communication
requirements for the site to be automated. The packaging of the reasonable point
count RTUs is chosen for the distribution line requirement. The substation
automation has the option of installing the traditional RTU in one cabinet with
connections to the substation IED devices or distributing the RTU modules at the
devices within the substation with fiber-optic communications between the modules.
The distributed RTU modules are integrated to a data concentrating unit which in
turn communicates with the host SCADA computer system.

IED1 IED2 IED16

RS485

RTU

IED17 IED18 IED32

RS485
RS485
Fig. 18-12 Connection of IEDs to the RTU using serial port RS485

The modern RTU can accept direct AC inputs from a variety of measurement
(digital meter) and protection devices (digital relays) through a serial port. The
RTU can take the measurements as hardwired from current transformers, potential
or voltage transformers, station service transformers, and transducers. Direct AC
inputs with the processing capability in the modern RTU supports fault current
detection and harmonic content measurements. The fault location algorithm can be
embedded in the RTU firmware. The RTU has the ability to report the direction,
magnitude, and duration of fault current with time tagging of the fault event to 1-
millisecond resolution. Monitoring and reporting of harmonic content in the
distribution feeder could be included in the RTU. The digital signal processing

441
capability of the RTU supports the necessary calculations to report total harmonic
distortion %THD for each the three-phase voltage and current measurement at the
automated distribution feeder or substation site. The RTU configuration software
can include the logic capability to support the development of control algorithms to
meet specific operating requirements. Automatic transfer control schemes have been
built using automated switches and RTUs with the high processing capability. This
high capability provides another benefit to the design engineer when developing the
quality of service and addressing critical load concerns. The logic capability in the
RTU has been used to create an algorithm to control switched capacitors for
operation on the distribution feeder. The capacitors are switched on at zero voltage
crossing and switched off at zero current crossing. This algorithm can be specified
to switch the capacitors for various system specifications, such as voltage, power
factor, reactive load, time, etc. The remote control capability of the RTU allows the
distribution operator to take control of the capacitors to meet inductive load needs.
The modern RTU has become a dynamic device with increased processing
capabilities. This new logic and input capabilities are being utilized to expand the
uses and applications of the modern RTU.

18.9.7 PLCs and IEDs

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) and Intelligent Electronic Device (IED) are
the main site components of the distribution automation system, which meet specific
operating and data gathering requirements, Fig. 18-12. The IEDs in substation
include digital protection relays and digital meters. While there is some overlap in
capability with the modern RTU. The PLCs can be integrated with the RTUs in the
substation to assist in the remote operation of the substation. The typical PLC can
support serial communications to an SCADA server. The RTU has the capability to
communicate via an RS485 interface with the PLC. IEDs include digital meters,
digital relays, and switchgear on specific substation equipment, such as breakers,
switches, regulators, load tap changer LTC on power transformers, etc. The IEDs
also have the ability to communicate to an SCADA server through serial or Ethernet
ports. However, the IEDs are typically reporting to the modern RTU via an RS-485
interface or via status output contact points. RS-485 is preferable than RS-232
because it supports long distance, high speed, and several IEDs can be connected in
series. Recently, the IEDs become attractive in the automation due to improved
communication capabilities.

18.9.10 Recent trends in SCADA communications

As in any traditional data communication network, many types of communication

methods are supported from PLC/RTU to central/ distributed SCADA systems via
local LAN and wide area networks WAN. A local Area network is included within a
local geographical area such as an industrial building or a campus and composed of
few buildings within close proximity. However, a wide area network is a network that
integrates many local area networks spread widely across different cities at least 100
Kilometers (67 miles) apart [35]. These types of wide area networks include the
following:

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• Analog point to point and multi-point modem networks

• Frame relay type point to point and multi-point networks

• Wireless Radio/ Satellite communication networks

• Fiber-optic based communication networks

At the present time, and SCADA network may be built around many of the above
possible collection of networks and transmission protocols. Communication solutions
for SCADA platform include the physical wiring, network and communication
protocols of the local and wide area networks such as Ethernet and Frame Relay.
TCP/IP (Transport Control protocol / Internet Protocol suite is a different open
standard which is a similar open standard used by all.

The RTU/ PLC protocols are emerging as practical standards in SCADA systems such
as MODBUS and Distributed Network Protocol DNP. Fieldbus, including
technologies such as MODBUS, CAN, PROFIBUS, LONWORKS, and many other
technologies, is mainly used to solve the data communication between intelligent
sensors, digital meters, controllers, digital protection relays, actuators and other
outstation devices. It’s currently the most popular used and comparatively functional
industrial communications technology.

The point-to-point Modbus protocol has become a practical standard for RTU and
PLC communications. During communication on a Modbus network, the protocol
specifies how each controller will know device address, recognize a message
addressed to it and determine the required action to be taken and evolve any attached
data to it. DNP is a member limited protocol, used in some Power systems. The DNP
protocol has various versions. In the present, it is up to version 3.0. The DNP
association has rules, which tend to limit the utilization of the protocol, and main
SCADA software suppliers have been slow in implementing this protocol.

Industrial Ethernet is technically compatible with IEEE802.3 standard and is widely

used in industrial SCADA and control systems. However, the industrial Ethernet
should meet the requirements of the industrial field in real-time, material selection,
reliability, product strength, and environmental applicability. Its main technical
advantages are wide range of applications, the high speed of communication, Security
of control network, and supporting a variety of physical media and topologies.

A. Telecommunications

In the world of communication technology, there exist two types of networks, namely
circuit switched and packet switched networks. The circuit switched network
establishes the direct connection between two or more stations by means of switches,
which is normally done with telephone dial-up modem networks. On the other hand,
there is a general shift towards a packet style operation where the data is handled in
packets prefixed with some addressing. This in a packet-switched network, data is
routed in best possible route in a complex meshed public wide or private or local area
network. Packet switched networks are more cost-effective since a dedicated network
is not requested from start to finish.

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B. Wireless Networks

Wireless networks come in many flavors and styles. The mechanisms of large scale
remote industries can be controlled more effectively and safely using wireless
SCADA, which is best economical and time-saving technology. Thus, this is all about
the SCADA applications in power systems. SCADA is used in the industry with the
perfect “Man Machine Interface”. It has solved many issues related to supervision,
data acquisition, controlling and monitoring. It has divergent applications like
Distribution Management, Energy Management, Power Plant Management, water
treatment, Oil and Gas Distribution System. SCADA has also enabled grid monitoring
so the power can be bought and shared on a national basis. Hence, the application of
SCADA is beneficial to the power systems sector as well. These wireless networks
include

• Satellite networks

• Licensed VHF and UHF point to point and multi-point Radio

• Spread spectrum License free (900 MHz, 2.4 GHZ, 5.8Ghz and 24 GHz)

• Point to point Microwave

Within a narrow range of a building or campus, wireless data can be moved from
node to node with privately owned spread spectrum radio networks. Broader ranges
require some form of public network. The most common method is dial up.

C. Power line carrier communication

Power line carrier communication (PLC) technology transmits data through the
power line. The PLC technology making use of high-voltage (10kV or above) power
lines are widely used, and the PLC technology making use of low voltage (220V or
380V) power line is also used in the development and promotion of remote meter
reading. The use of PLC is expanding into the distribution lines for load control and
even into households for control of lighting, alarming and air conditioning and
heating, the mail application is Protective relaying for Transmission Lines . A channel
is used in line protection so that both ends of a circuit are cleared at high speed for all
types faults, including end zone faults. A PLC channel can also be used to provide
remote tripping functions for power transformer protection, shunt reactor protection,
and remote breaker failure relaying.
The main advantage of PLC is eliminating the difficulty of installing the
additional dedicated communication cable. However, the disadvantages of PLC are
obvious, too. The power line is a very bad channel for communication; the main
problem is interference and signal attenuation. The interference is from power
electronic devices, low-voltage load, switch operation and broadcast signals injection.
In such noisy environment, it is difficult to ensure data quality. Signal attenuation is
brought by the complicated structure of power grid, so signals have multiple
transmission paths. Therefore, the power line communication environment is very
severe to ensure reliability and stability. The solar PV power station has many power
electronic devices, such as inverter, static var compensator and static var generator.
These devices arouse harmonic interference into the AC power line, so PLC should

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not be used on the AC power line. However, the DC power line between PV
convergence box and inverter has less interference and single transmission path, can
implement the technology.

18.10 Conclusions
In this chapter, the Smart Grid initiative was explored and described the
integration of SCADA systems into the Smart Grid, including an overview of the
problem domain as a whole. The evolution of the Smart Grid initiative to improve the
electric utility power infrastructure have brought with it a number of opportunities for
improving efficiencies and performance, but along with those benefits come
challenges in the effort to assure safety, security, and reliability for microgrids,
utilities and consumers alike. One of the considerations in designing the capabilities
of the Smart Grid is the integration of Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) systems to allow the utility to remotely monitor and control network
devices as a means of achieving reliability and demand efficiencies for the utility
sectors. SCADA Optimizes Solar PV Energy Generation And Performance. Usually,
wind energy assessment on a new wind farm is conducted with maximum effort prior
to the installation of the turbines by using both numerical and experimental
investigations. Communication technologies in smart grid with renewable energy
sources are explored.

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