processes

Article
The Effect of Air Relative Humidity on the Drying Process of
Sanitary Ware at Low Temperature: An Experimental Study
Ricardo S. Gomez 1,2, * , Kelly C. Gomes 1,3 , José M. Gurgel 1,3 , Laís B. Alves 4 , Raissa A. Queiroga 1 ,
Hortência L. F. Magalhães 5 , Larissa S. S. Pinheiro 6 , Elaine J. C. Silva 6 , Dauany S. Oliveira 7 ,
Henry W. D. Moreira 8 , Herllange C. Brito 9 , João M. P. Q. Delgado 10 and Antonio G. B. Lima 2

1 Postgraduate Program in Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Paraíba,

Citation: Gomez, R.S.; Gomes, K.C.;
Gurgel, J.M.; Alves, L.B.; Queiroga,
R.A.; Magalhães, H.L.F.; Pinheiro,
L.S.S.; Silva, E.J.C.; Oliveira, D.S.;
Moreira, H.W.D.; et al. The Effect of
Air Relative Humidity on the Drying
Process of Sanitary Ware at Low
Temperature: An Experimental Study.
Processes 2023, 11, 3112. https://
doi.org/10.3390/pr11113112
Academic Editors: Alexander S.
Novikov and Renata Różyło
Received: 21 September 2023
Revised: 19 October 2023
Accepted: 21 October 2023
Published: 30 October 2023
João Pessoa 58051-900, PB, Brazil; gomes@cear.ufpb.br (K.C.G.); josemauriciogurgel@gmail.com (J.M.G.);
raissa.queiroga089@gmail.com (R.A.Q.)
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Campina Grande,
Campina Grande 58429-900, PB, Brazil; antonio.gilson@ufcg.edu.br
3 Department of Renewable Energy Engineering, Federal University of Paraíba,
João Pessoa 58051-900, PB, Brazil
4 Dexco S.A., João Pessoa 58082-797, PR, Brazil; lais.belizario@dex.co
5 Science and Technology Institute, Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys,
Diamantina 39100-000, MG, Brazil; hortencia.luma@ufvjm.edu.br
6 Postgraduate Program in Process Engineering, Federal University of Campina Grande,
Campina Grande 58429-900, PB, Brazil; larissapinheiro2004@gmail.com (L.S.S.P.);
elainejuliane300308@gmail.com (E.J.C.S.)
7 Postgraduate Program in Agro-Industrial Systems, Federal University of Campina Grande,
Pombal 58840-000, PB, Brazil; dauany.sousa@outlook.com
8 Palmares College, Palmares 55540-000, PE, Brazil; henry.cz@hotmail.com
9 Department of Agricultural Sciences, Federal University of Campina Grande, Pombal 58840-000, PB, Brazil;
herllange@gmail.com
10 CONSTRUCT-LFC, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto,
4200-465 Porto, Portugal; jdelgado@fe.up.pt
* Correspondence: ricardosoaresgomez@gmail.com; Tel.: +55-(83)-98893-7991
Abstract: Drying is a thermodynamic process in which the moisture contained in the solid is removed
by evaporation through the supply of an appreciable amount of thermal energy. It is recognized as a
critical and intricate stage in the manufacturing process of ceramic materials. In general, drying at
higher temperatures and lower air-relative humidity provokes severe hydric, thermal, and mechanical
fractures in the ceramic parts, thus reducing product quality after the process. Then, this process
must be realized under controlled conditions. From an industrial point of view, the drying process of
sanitary ware takes place in two stages: drying at low temperatures (less than 40 ◦ C) and drying at
high temperatures (above 50 ◦ C). Thus, the purpose of this work is to experimentally investigate the
drying process at low temperatures in sanitary toilets. Drying experiments were conducted in an
oven with the same temperature (35 ◦ C) and different relative humidity of the drying air. The results
of the moisture content, temperature, and dimension variations along the process, as well as drying
and heating rates, are reported and analyzed. The results indicate that the higher the air’s relative
humidity, the slower the moisture removal. Herein, aspects of the product quality after the drying
process are also discussed.

Keywords: sanitary toilet; ceramics; clay; drying; heat and mass transfer

Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1. Introduction
Ceramics are a class of inorganic and non-metallic materials that are obtained after
heat treatment at high temperatures [1]. These materials are obtained from firing clay in a
specific format (tiles, bricks, blocks, floors, artistic and decorative artifacts, etc.) and are
widely used in civil construction [2].

Processes 2023, 11, 3112. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11113112 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes

Processes 2023, 11, 3112 2 of 18

Depending on the type of product, clay is mixed with other raw materials, such
as kaolin, feldspar rocks (pegmatite, granite, and leucogneiss), phyllite, talc, limestone,
zirconium and quartz [3–5]. Such mixtures are intended to obtain a mass that provides the
desired properties for each product type, as well as guaranteeing its quality (absence of
defects) and reducing energy costs during processing.
In Brazil, the ceramic sector is formed by a large number of industries with different
levels of technological development and productive capacities. Although some companies
stand out in the sector, it is characterized by a considerable number of micro and small
companies, generally with a family structure, distributed throughout the country [4]. As for
the technological level, some have a high degree of technological development throughout
the production process. However, this is not the general rule, and many companies are
still at a very primitive stage in terms of modernization, with outdated and inefficient
production processes and technology [6].
While the red ceramic sector is characterized by a decentralized industrial structure
and national financial investment, the sanitary ware segment is concentrated in a few
companies and has a large share of foreign financial investment. National companies are
responsible for 60% of the national production, and the two leading companies, Dexco
(Brazilian industry) and Roca (Spanish industry), hold more than 60% of the market [5].
Currently, Brazil is among the five largest world producers of sanitary ware, has 26 medium
to large-scale manufacturing units, and produces around 22 million pieces of kitchen and
bathroom ware, including toilets with attached tanks (37%), basins (25%), conventional
toilets (20%), column washbasins (10%), tanks (5%), and urinals (3%) [7].
In the sanitary ware manufacturing process, in general, the non-plastic raw materials
undergo a dry grinding process until they reach the appropriate granulometry, to then be
blended with the plastic raw materials, water, and deflocculant in tanks with mechanical
agitation [8]. The pulp thus obtained, known as barbotine, is sieved and pumped to the
casting sector, where sanitary parts are cast into plaster or resin molds [5]. After being
molded, the pieces go through the steps of drying at low temperatures (below 40 ◦ C),
drying at high temperatures (above 50 ◦ C), glazing, and firing before being stored and
delivered to the customer [9].
Drying is a thermodynamic process in which the moisture contained in the solid is
removed by evaporation, providing an appreciable amount of thermal energy, which is
considered a critical stage in the ceramic material manufacturing process [10].
It is essential that the ceramic material be subjected to the drying process to ensure
that it has the necessary strength and consistency during firing [11]. If the moisture from
the part is not removed during drying, the high temperature in the furnace will force the
water out during the firing process, increasing the chances of defect formation and even
the explosion of the product [12–14].
By carrying out experiments on the drying of sanitary ware in a controlled environ-
ment, it is possible to understand the drying phenomenon and obtain important informa-
tion for the optimization of the process. The ultimate goal is to obtain a superior-quality
product, reduce the waste of raw materials in processing and energy consumption, promote
economic gain, and, consequently, play an important role for industries that wish to remain
competitive in the national and international markets [15].
In addition to the financial concern, there is the environmental impact, as the energy
required during the thermal processing steps is normally provided by burning fuels, which,
during the combustion reaction, emit polluting gases into the atmosphere. It is well known
that the consequences of global warming and climate change caused by greenhouse gas
emissions are catastrophic for the ecosystem: melting of the polar ice caps, which causes
rising sea levels and floods [16,17], species extinction [18], worsening food security [19],
various health problems, and even premature deaths from asthma, cardiovascular, and
pulmonary diseases [20,21].
Silva et al. [10] conducted a study on the drying process of industrial ceramic blocks
in an oven with forced air recirculation, exploring temperature variations from 50 ◦ C to
Processes 2023, 11, 3112 3 of 18

100 ◦ C. The research confirmed that drying ceramic products at elevated temperatures
leads to substantial mass loss, intense heating, and significant volumetric shrinkage. These
conditions result in high thermo-hydraulic stresses, leading to the formation and spread of
cracks, compromising the product’s overall quality.
In a recent study by Zaccaron et al. [22], the feasibility of fast-drying clay ceramics
was explored through the utilization of various clay mixtures. Their research focused
on the influence of plastic clay, sandy clay, and claystone compositions processed via
extrusion and subjected to rapid drying cycles. The findings emphasized the pivotal role
of plastic clay, with mixtures containing more than 33% of this component exhibiting
significant moisture loss during drying. Remarkably, the introduction of claystone proved
instrumental in stabilizing shrinkage, effectively minimizing defects such as cracking
during the drying process.
Zhao et al. [23] investigated the drying behaviors of calcium silicate and ceramic brick
through experimental and numerical methods. The authors found that the surface velocity
and the surface area of the sample increase the drying rate in the first drying stage (constant
drying rate). Additionally, it was observed that the calcium silicate sample has a relatively
longer initial drying phase compared to the ceramic sample.
Araújo et al. [24] reported an investigation on the convective drying process of indus-
trial hollow clay bricks within an oven. Utilizing computational fluid dynamics (CFDs),
the study involved a meticulous analysis of various variables, including the behavior of
air inside the oven and the distribution of water mass and temperature fields within the
industrial hollow structure throughout the entire drying process.
Arvanitidis et al. [25] developed a 1D diffusion model and performed a parametric
analysis to investigate the influence of shrinkage on the drying kinetics of ceramic tiles.
After validating the mathematical model by comparing the results with experimental data,
the authors concluded that the magnitude of shrinkage directly influences alterations in
porosity, thereby significantly impacting both the drying kinetics and the distribution of
properties within the material.
In light of the scarcity of research that studies the drying process of sanitary ware,
the purpose of this work is to evaluate the drying process at low temperatures in sanitary
toilets. Three drying experiments were conducted in an oven with the same temperature
(35 ◦ C) and different values of drying air relative humidity. Several results of moisture
content, surface temperature, and linear retraction are presented and discussed. The idea is
to assist production engineers, specialists, and academics in making decisions about this
interesting topic.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Oven Drying
Aiming to evaluate the influence of air relative humidity and air velocity (natural and
forced convection) on the moisture content, surface temperature, and dimensions of the
product along the process, oven drying experiments were developed.

2.1.1. Product and Equipment Used in Drying Experiments

The products used in the oven drying studies were standard sanitary toilets (Figure 1),
generously supplied by our partner company, Dexco S.A.
To conduct the experiments and ascertain the drying parameters, the subsequent
apparatus was employed:
(a) Drying oven with forced air renewal, internal dimensions 50 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm
(height × width × depth). The operational temperature of the oven ranges from the
ambient temperature plus 5 ◦ C to 250 ◦ C.
(b) Digital scale with a load capacity of 35 kg and an accuracy of 5 g.
(c) Measuring tape was utilized to assess the main dimensional changes in the samples
throughout the drying procedures.
 Processes 2023, 11, 3112 4 of 18

(d) Two digital thermo-hygrometers were used to measure the temperature and relative
humidity of the air inside and outside the oven.
(e) Digital infrared thermometer was utilized for measuring the surface temperature of
the sample during the experiments.
(f) Hot wire anemometer with digital reading, featuring a resolution of 0.01 m/s, to
measure the airflow velocity inside the oven.
(g)
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Thermographic camera to capture the surface temperature of the sample, facilitating
4 of 19
the identification of potential temperature gradients on its surface throughout the
drying process.

Figure 1. Sanitary toilet used in oven drying experiments.

Figure 1. Sanitary toilet used in oven drying experiments.
2.1.2. Experimental Procedures
To conduct
The thetime
elapsed experiments and ascertain
between extracting the the drying
sanitary parameters,
toilet from thethe subsequent
mold ap-
at the partner
paratus
company wasand
employed:
the start of the experiment was approximately 2 h and 30 min. This duration
wasDrying
(a) deemedoven
adequate
with to ensure
forced airthat the sample
renewal, haddimensions
internal acquired the50
requisite
cm × 60level
cm of
× rigidity,
60 cm
enabling
(height consistent
× width handling
× depth). throughout
The operational the oven-drying
temperatureexperiments.
of the oven ranges from the
The firsttemperature
ambient step in carryingplusout thetodrying
5 °C 250 °C. experiment was to measure the air temperature
andDigital
(b) relativescale
humidity
with ainload
the capacity
internal andof 35external
kg and regions of theofoven,
an accuracy 5 g. as well as the mass,
(c)surface temperature,
Measuring tape was and main dimensions
utilized to assess theofmain the sanitary
dimensionaltoilet. Then, the
changes sample
in the sampleswas
taken into the oven, whose internal air temperature was programmed to be fixed at 35 ◦ C.
throughout the drying procedures.
(d) Two At predefined intervals, the sample
digital thermo-hygrometers werewas usedtaken out of the
to measure the oven for measurements
temperature and relativeof
mass, main dimensions, and surface
humidity of the air inside and outside the oven.temperature. The measurements were conducted
initially, with intervals of 10, 20, and 30 min, with six repetitions
(e) Digital infrared thermometer was utilized for measuring the surface temperature of for each one. Subsequently,
12 measurements
the sample during werethetaken at one-hour intervals, followed by measurements every two
experiments.
hours until the sample’s
(f) Hot wire anemometer with mass remained
digitalconstant
reading,for four consecutive
featuring a resolutionmeasurements.
of 0.01 m/s,Then,to
the measure
sample was kept in the oven for an
the airflow velocity inside the oven. additional 24 h, maintaining the temperature at
35 ◦Thermographic
(g) C to achieve equilibrium
camera tomass, andthe
capture then for another
surface 24 h at of
temperature a temperature of 105 ◦ C to
the sample, facilitating
determine the dry mass
the identification of the sample.
of potential A similar
temperature procedure
gradients onwas carried throughout
its surface out by Silvathe [26]
anddrying
Silva [3], who
process. conducted experimental investigations into the drying phenomenon of
hollow ceramic bricks and industrial ceramic blocks, respectively.
For the experiments
2.1.2. Experimental carried out with forced convection, it was noticed that the absolute
Procedures
air humidity in the internal and external regions of the oven was approximately equal in the
The elapsed time between extracting the sanitary toilet from the mold at the partner
same instant of time. Thus, for such experiments, the air relative humidity inside the oven,
company and the start of the experiment was approximately 2 h and 30 min. This duration
for each instant of measurement, was calculated instead of being obtained experimentally.
was deemed
For theadequate
experiment to ensure
carriedthatoutthe
with sample
natural had acquired the
convection, it wasrequisite level
noticed ofthe
that rigid-
pre-
ity, enabling consistent handling throughout the oven-drying experiments.
viously adopted premise is not valid. For a given instant of time, the absolute humidity
Thethe
inside first
ovenstepisinalways
carrying out the
higher thandrying experiment
that measured was todue
outside measure
to thethe
low airair
tempera-
renewal.
ture and relative humidity in the internal and external regions
Thus, a thermo-hygrometer was used inside the oven to measure the temperature of the oven, as well as the
and
mass, surface temperature,
relative humidity of the drying air. and main dimensions of the sanitary toilet. Then, the sample
was taken into the oven, whose internal air temperature was programmed to be fixed at
35 °C.
At predefined intervals, the sample was taken out of the oven for measurements of
mass, main dimensions, and surface temperature. The measurements were conducted in-
itially, with intervals of 10, 20, and 30 min, with six repetitions for each one. Subsequently,
 ously adopted premise is not valid. For a given instant of time, the absolute humidity
inside the oven is always higher than that measured outside due to the low air renewal.
Thus, a thermo-hygrometer was used inside the oven to measure the temperature and
relative humidity of the drying air.
In Figure 2a, it is possible to observe the holes located on the left side of the oven that
Processes 2023, 11, 3112 5 of 18
allow air renewal. It is possible to keep one, two, three, or four holes open, and there is
also the possibility to keep them all closed. All experiments were carried out with the four
holes open, allowing a better renewal of the internal air.
In Figure 2a,
2b, it is possible to observe theof
see the fan holes located
the oven, on thebelow
located left side
theoflower
the oven
tray that
and
allow air
driven byrenewal.
an electricIt motor,
is possible to keep
allowing for one, two, three,
experiments or forced
with four holes open, and
convection. Forthere
the ex-is
also the possibility
periment to keep
with natural them all closed.
convection, All experiments
the electric power supplyweretocarried out with
the electric the four
motor that
holes open,
drives allowing
the fan a better renewal of the internal air.
was interrupted.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 2.
2. (a)
(a) Holes
Holes for
for air
air renewal
renewal are
are located
located on
on the
the left
left side
side of
of the
the oven,
oven, and
and (b)
(b) aa fan
fan is
is used
used in
in the
the
test under forced convection and internal holes for air renewal.
test under forced convection and internal holes for air renewal.

For all experiments,

In Figure the dimensional
2b, it is possible to see the measurements
fan of the oven, oflocated
the samples
belowwere
the performed
lower tray
after one, three,
and driven by ansix, and twelve
electric hours following
motor, allowing the initiation
for experiments of the experiment.
with forced Subse-
convection. For the
quently,
experimentmeasurements
with naturalwere taken at the
convection, twelve-hour intervals.
electric power supply to the electric motor that
drives the fan was interrupted.
2.1.3.For
Cases Studied
all experiments, the dimensional measurements of the samples were performed af-
ter one, three,
Table six, and an
1 provides twelve hoursof
overview following the initiation
the experimentally of the experiment.
studied Subsequently,
scenarios, including their
measurements
respective weretype
location, takenofatventilation,
twelve-hour intervals. (T), relative humidity (RH), and av-
temperature
erage velocity (v) of the drying air, as well as the initial mass (m0) and temperature (T0) of
2.1.3. Cases Studied
the samples.
Table 1 provides an overview of the experimentally studied scenarios, including
their respective location, type of ventilation, temperature (T), relative humidity (RH), and
average velocity (v) of the drying air, as well as the initial mass (m0 ) and temperature (T0 )
of the samples.

Table 1. Cases were studied experimentally.

Type of Drying Air Sanitary Toilet

Case Local Ventilation T (◦ C) RW (%) v (m/s) m0 (g) T 0 (◦ C)
1 LABFILM Forced 35.0 20 0.1 15,355 24.0
2 TECNOMAT Forced 35.1 41 0.1 16,200 24.3
3 TECNOMAT Natural 35.1 63 0.001 16,515 24.0

The drying experiments on the samples were conducted in two distinct laboratories,
aiming to evaluate the impact of the relative humidity of the air at the same temperature on
the drying process. The LABFILM laboratory is equipped with two air conditioners and a
dehumidifier that operate continuously, resulting in a controlled environment with notably
low temperatures, relative humidity, and, consequently, low absolute humidity levels in
the air. TECNOMAT, on the other hand, is a laboratory that does not have a dehumidifier.
The experiments were carried out with the air conditioners turned off to maintain air with
higher humidity. The experiment carried out with natural convection in the TECNOMAT
allows for drying air with even higher relative humidity.
 on the drying process. The LABFILM laboratory is equipped with two air conditioners
and a dehumidifier that operate continuously, resulting in a controlled environment with
notably low temperatures, relative humidity, and, consequently, low absolute humidity
levels in the air. TECNOMAT, on the other hand, is a laboratory that does not have a de-
Processes 2023, 11, 3112 humidifier. The experiments were carried out with the air conditioners turned off to main- 6 of 18
tain air with higher humidity. The experiment carried out with natural convection in the
TECNOMAT allows for drying air with even higher relative humidity.
The temperature
The temperature and andrelative
relativehumidity
humidityvalues
values forfor
thethe
drying
dryingair, as
air,indicated in Table
as indicated in
1, represent the mean measurements taken throughout the entire
Table 1, represent the mean measurements taken throughout the entire drying process drying process at pre-
determined
at time intervals.
predetermined The drying
time intervals. The air velocity
drying air value
velocityfor value
cases with forced
for cases convection
with forced
was determined
convection by averagingby
was determined readings obtained
averaging fromobtained
readings eight distinct
frompoints
eight inside thepoints
distinct oven,
utilizing
inside theaoven,
hot wire anemometer.
utilizing a hot wire Measurements
anemometer.were carried outwere
Measurements with carried
air at room tem-
out with
perature,
air at roomastemperature,
it is considered as that
it is the velocity is
considered notthe
that influenced
velocityby the air
is not temperature
influenced inside
by the air
the oven and to avoid damaging the measuring equipment. The
temperature inside the oven and to avoid damaging the measuring equipment. The sample sample used during air
velocity measurements had already completed the drying process.
used during air velocity measurements had already completed the drying process. The The door was kept
with was
door the minimum
kept with opening
the minimumnecessary to take
opening the reading,
necessary reducing
to take the influence
the reading, reducing ofthe
the
airflow outside
influence the oven
of the airflow on thethe
outside measurement
oven on thevalues.
measurement values.
Inthe
In thecase
caseinvolving
involvingnatural
naturalconvection,
convection,aadifferent
differentstrategy
strategywaswasused
usedto tomeasure
measurethe the
dryingair
drying airvelocity.
velocity.As Asitsitsvalue
valueisislower
lowerthan
thanthe
theequipment
equipmentaccuracy
accuracy(0.01(0.01m/s),
m/s), the
the air
air
velocity
velocity was
was measured
measured at at different
different holes
holes in
inthe
thelower
lowertray,
tray,uncovered
uncoveredby bythe
thegalvanized
galvanized
steel
steelsheet
sheet(Figure
(Figure3). 3). Subsequently,
Subsequently,the theaverage
averagewas wascalculated,
calculated,and andthe thevalue
valueobtained
obtained
was
wasmultiplied
multiplied by by the
theratio
ratiobetween
between thethe area
area of
ofthetheholes
holesandandthethecross-sectional
cross-sectional areaareaof of
the
theoven.
oven.

Figure3.3.Sanitary
Figure Sanitarytoilet
toiletabove
abovethe
thegalvanized
galvanizedsteel
steelsheet
sheetinside
insidethe
theoven.
oven.

2.2.
2.2.Auxiliary
Auxiliary Calculations
Calculations
Calculations
Calculationswere
wereperformed
performedto
todetermine
determineimportant
importantdrying
dryingparameters,
parameters,assisting
assistingin
in
the analysis of the results.
the analysis of the results.
• Mass of water
The quantity of water within the sample (mw ) at each measurement time was calculated
as a function of the sample mass (m) at the specific time of measurement and the dry mass
of the sample (md ), according to the following equation:

mw = m − md . (1)

• Moisture content on a dry basis

The moisture content of the sample (M) at each measurement time was determined
using the mass of water in the sample (mw ) at the specific time of measurement and the dry
mass of the sample (md ), as follows:
mw
M= . (2)
md

• Drying rate
Processes 2023, 11, 3112 7 of 18

The drying rate of the sample, dM/dt(t), is the derivative of the moisture content by
the drying time and is calculated as follows:

M(t) − M (t − ∆t)
dM/dt(t) = − , (3)
∆t
where M(t) represents the moisture content at time t, M(t − ∆t) stands for the moisture
content at time t − ∆t, and ∆t is the time interval between these two measurements. The
inclusion of the minus sign in the equation ensures that the drying rate is expressed as
positive and decreasing values.
• Linear retraction of the sample
The linear retraction of the sample at a specific instant of time (t) was established as
the average of the five main measurements of the sanitary toilet at that specific moment,
divided by the mean of these five measurements taken at the start of the drying process
(t = t0 = 0 s), as follows:

∑ 5i=1 Li (t)
Linear retraction = , (4)
∑ 5i=1 Li (t0 )

where Li is the value of measure i, which varies from 1 to 5. For this purpose, the five
measures are the length and width of the upper base, the length and width of the lower
base, and height, as shown in Figure 1.
• Relative humidity of the drying air
The relative humidity of the air inside the oven for each instant of time, in cases with
forced convection, was calculated using the following methodology:
Based on the Tetens equation [27], the saturation vapor pressure (Pg ) of the air outside
the oven is calculated as a function of its temperature (T):
17.27T
Pg = 0.61078e( T+237.3 ) , (5)

where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius (◦ C).

Then, the vapor pressure (Pv ) is calculated as a function of the saturation vapor
pressure (Pg ) and relative humidity (RH), as follows:

Pv = RH × Pg , (6)

where Pg and Pv are given in kPa.

Considering that the absolute humidity of the air in the internal and external regions
is the same at each instant of time, it follows that the vapor pressures (Pv ) in the two regions
are also the same for the same instant of time. Therefore, the next step is to calculate the
saturation vapor pressure (Pg ) of the air in the region inside the oven, using Equation (5).
Subsequently, by having the vapor pressure (Pv ) and the saturation vapor pressure (Pg ), the
relative humidity of the drying air (RH) is determined as follows:

Pv
RH = , (7)
Pg

3. Results
Table 2 indicates the temperature, relative humidity, and drying air velocity for each
analyzed case, as well as the initial mass (m0 ), initial mass of water (mw0 ), equilibrium mass
(me ), and dry mass (md ) of the samples. It is observed that even after obtaining the same
temperature for the three cases, the drying air relative humidity values were different.
 Table 2 indicates the temperature, relative humidity, and drying air velocity for each
analyzed case, as well as the initial mass (m0), initial mass of water (mw0), equilibrium mass
(me), and dry mass (md) of the samples. It is observed that even after obtaining the same
temperature for the three cases, the drying air relative humidity values were different.

Processes 2023, 11, 3112 Table 2. Initial, equilibrium, and dry mass results for each case. 8 of 18

Drying Air Sanitary Toilet

Case
T (°C) RH (%) v (m/s) m0 (g) mw0 (g) me (g) md (g)
Table 2. Initial, equilibrium, and dry mass results for each case.
1 35.0 20 0.1 15,355 2785 12,625 12,570
2 35.1 Drying41 Air 0.1 16,200 2700 13,580
Sanitary Toilet 13,500
Case
3 35.1 63 0.001 16,515 2985
◦
T ( C) RH (%) v (m/s) m (g)
0 m (g)
w0 m13,655
(g)
e m13,530
d(g)
1 35.0 20 0.1 15,355 2785 12,625 12,570
2 35.1
While
41
Cases 1 and
0.1
2 were carried out using forced
16,200 2700
convection, Case 3 was 13,500
13,580
carried out
3 35.1 using 63
natural convection
0.001 and, consequently,
16,515 a low renewal
2985 of the air
13,655 inside the oven. In
13,530
this way, a greater part of the water that evaporates from the sample during the drying
process ends up being trapped inside the oven, increasing the airʹs absolute humidity and,
While Cases
consequently, the1 water
and 2 vapor
were carried
pressureoutand
using
theforced
dryingconvection, Case
airʹs relative 3 was carried
humidity. outis
This fact
using natural convection and, consequently, a low renewal of the air inside
corroborated by the water vapor that is constantly condensed on the internal parts of the the oven. In
this way, a greater part of the water that evaporates from the sample
roof and the door of the oven, observed only in Case 3, as shown in Figure 4. during the drying
process ends up being
Analyzing trapped
Table 2, inside the
it is observed oven,
that thereincreasing the air’s
exists a certain absolute
variance humidity
in the and,
initial sam-
consequently, the water vapor pressure and the drying air’s relative humidity.
ple masses (m0), even respecting the same time interval between extracting the sanitary This fact is
corroborated by the water vapor that is constantly condensed on the internal
toilet from the mold and the start of the drying experiment. A possible reason for this factparts of the
roof and
is the the door ofvariations
dimensional the oven, inobserved
the moldsonlyofin
theCase 3, as shown in Figure 4.
samples.

Figure4.4.Water
Figure Watervapor
vaporcondensation
condensationwas
wasobserved
observedonly
onlyin
inthe
theexperiment
experimentwith
withnatural
naturalconvection
convection
(Case 3).
(Case 3).

Figure 5 shows
Analyzing Table the
2, itaverage moisture
is observed content
that there ofathe
exists sample
certain over time
variance in thefor eachsample
initial case. It
is observed
masses (m0 ), that
evendrying occurred
respecting moretime
the same quickly for the
interval experiment
between with the
extracting lower relative
sanitary hu-
toilet
midity
from the(Case
mold1). It is
and thealso
startobserved that the
of the drying drying curve
experiment. for the experiment
A possible withfact
reason for this interme-
is the
diate relativevariations
dimensional humidityin(Case 2) wasofvery
the molds close to that obtained for the experiment with
the samples.
Figure 5 shows the average moisture content of the sample over time for each case.
It is observed that drying occurred more quickly for the experiment with lower relative
humidity (Case 1). It is also observed that the drying curve for the experiment with
intermediate relative humidity (Case 2) was very close to that obtained for the experiment
with lower relative humidity. Finally, it was noticed that Case 3 presented a drying curve
slower than the other experiments. This occurred because Case 3 was carried out with
natural convection and, consequently, low air renewal inside the oven, keeping the air
relative humidity at a high level during most of the drying experiment.
These results highlight the significant role of air relative humidity in the drying process
of sanitary ware. It is evident that in situations in which the relative humidity of the drying
air is higher, it becomes more advantageous to focus on reducing air humidity instead of
exploring solutions to raise its temperature. As for intermediate values of relative humidity
(ranging from 40 to 65%) of the drying air, variations in its value have a smaller influence
on the drying removal of the product.
 relative humidity at a high level during most of the drying experiment.
These results highlight the significant role of air relative humidity in the drying pro-
cess of sanitary ware. It is evident that in situations in which the relative humidity of the
drying air is higher, it becomes more advantageous to focus on reducing air humidity
instead of exploring solutions to raise its temperature. As for intermediate values of rela-
Processes 2023, 11, 3112 9 of 18
tive humidity (ranging from 40 to 65%) of the drying air, variations in its value have a
smaller influence on the drying removal of the product.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Average moisture content over time.

Figure 66 illustrates
Figure illustrates the
the drying
drying rate
rate curves
curves asas aa function
function of
of time
time for
for each
each of
of the
the experi-
exper-
ments.
iments.ItItisisobserved
observed that
that the
the first
first stage
stage ofof drying,
drying, or
or constant
constant rate
rate period,
period, does
does not
not occur
occur
for
for any of the analyzed cases; that is, the drying rate decreases with time already at the
any of the analyzed cases; that is, the drying rate decreases with time already at the
beginning
beginning of the the process,
process, continues
continues to to decrease
decrease its
its value
value even
even more
more during
during the
the course
course ofof
the
the experiment,
experiment, and and approaches
approaches zero zero asas it
it nears
nears the
the hygroscopic
hygroscopic equilibrium
equilibrium state.
state. It is
is
evident
evident the
the effect
effect ofof the
the air
air relative
relative humidity
humidity on on the
the drying
drying rate
rate intensity.
intensity.
Drying rate (kg/kg/h)

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Drying
Drying rate
rate over
over time.
time.

It is
It is notable
notable that
that the
the drying
drying rate
rate curve
curve for
for natural
natural convection
convection (Case 3) presents
presents large
large
oscillations throughout the experiment. This occurred due to the large
oscillations throughout the experiment. This occurred due to the large fluctuations in thefluctuations in
the air temperature
air temperature inside
inside the oven,
the oven, as shown
as shown later,
later, due to due to the
the low air low air renewal.
renewal. For
For the cases
the
withcases
forced with forced convection,
convection, the maximumthe maximum standard observed
standard deviation deviationfor observed for the
the drying air
drying air temperature was 0.2 ◦ C, while for the experiment with natural convection, the
standard deviation was 0.7 ◦ C. These values are in accordance with the accuracy of the
measurement devices.
It is noticed that for the experiments with forced convection (Cases 1 and 2), oscillations
in the drying rate also occur, being more evident in the initial instants of the process. Factors
that may have influenced these oscillations are the frequent removal of samples from the
oven for measurements of mass, temperature, and dimensions; scale accuracy (5 g); and
the time interval between two successive measurements. As mentioned earlier, from 18 h
until the end of the drying experiment, the interval between the two measurements was
 ment devices.
It is noticed that for the experiments with forced convection (Cases 1 and 2), oscilla-
tions in the drying rate also occur, being more evident in the initial instants of the process.
Factors that may have influenced these oscillations are the frequent removal of samples
Processes 2023, 11, 3112 from the oven for measurements of mass, temperature, and dimensions; scale accuracy (5
10 of 18
g); and the time interval between two successive measurements. As mentioned earlier,
from 18 h until the end of the drying experiment, the interval between the two measure-
ments was only two hours. If the adopted interval were greater, oscillations in the drying
only two hours. If the adopted interval were greater, oscillations in the drying rate would
rate would be less evident.
be less evident.
Additionally, it can be seen that the disparity in drying rates between the experiments
Additionally, it can be seen that the disparity in drying rates between the experiments
with forced convection is greater in the initial moments of the drying process and that
with forced convection is greater in the initial moments of the drying process and that after
after 50 h, this difference decreases with a more accentuated decay of the drying rates in
50 h, this difference decreases with a more accentuated decay of the drying rates in relation
relation to time.
to time.
Figure 7 illustrates the drying rates as a function of the average moisture content for
Figure 7 illustrates the drying rates as a function of the average moisture content for
each case. Note
each case. Note that
that for
for cases
cases with
with forced
forced convection,
convection, there
there is is aa more
more pronounced
pronounced decay
decay
in its
in its value
value as
asthe
theaverage
averagemoisture
moisturecontent
contentnears
nears0.03
0.03kg/kg.
kg/kg. It It is
is also
also observed
observed that
that for
for
average moisture contents above 0.02 kg/kg, the drying rate for Case 1 (RH = 20%) al-
average moisture contents above 0.02 kg/kg, the drying rate for Case 1 (RH = 20%) is is
ways higher
always higherthan
thanfor
forCase
Case22(RH
(RH==41%),
41%),which,
which,inin turn,
turn, is
is always
always greater than for
greater than for Case
Case 33
(RH == 63%).
(RH 63%).

Case 1: T = 35.0oC; RH = 20%

Case 2: T = 35.1oC; RH = 41%
Case 3: T = 35.1oC; RH = 63%

0.0050
0.0045
0.0040
0.0035
0.0030
0.0025
0.0020
0.0015
0.0010
0.0005
0.0000
0.00 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.24
Average moisture content (kg/kg)
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Drying
Drying rate
rate as
as aa function
function of
of average
average moisture
moisture content.
content.

Figure 8a,b
Figure 8a,b illustrates
illustrates images
images of of the
the sample
sample used
used in
in Case
Case 11 (the
(the most
most severe
severe drying
drying
case) at
case) at the
the beginning
beginning andand end
end ofof the
the drying
drying experiment,
experiment, respectively.
respectively. There
There is
is aa change
change
in
in the
the color
color ofof the
the piece
piece due
due to
to the
the reduction
reduction inin moisture
moisture content during the drying pro-
cess.
cess. Because the experiment
experiment was carried out at at low
low temperatures,
temperatures, no no cracks
cracks or
or fissures
fissures
were
were observed.
observed.
Figure 9 illustrates the surface temperature of the sample as a function of time for
all analyzed cases. Similar behavior is observed for all the experiments carried out: an
accentuated increase in temperature from its initial value to an intermediate value; it
remains oscillating close to this value for a certain time interval; and near the end of the
process, its value increases again and approaches the drying air temperature (35 ◦ C).
This increase in the surface temperature of the sample after the intermediate temper-
ature is explained by the change in the color of the sample, which modifies the material
emissivity, directly influencing the temperature read by the digital infrared thermometer.
Analyzing Figure 9, it is observed again that the first stage of drying does not occur for
any of the analyzed cases since this process is characterized by occurring at constant tem-
perature and with a value equal to the wet bulb temperature of the drying air. In contrast,
in the experiments, it was observed an accentuated increase in the surface temperature
of the samples during the initial moments of the process. It is noticed that the wet bulb
temperature for Case 3 is 28.8 ◦ C.
Processes 2023, 11,
Processes 2023, 11, 3112
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of
11 of 18
19

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Sample used in Case 1 (LABFILM; T = 35.0 °C; RH = 20%) before (a) and after (b) the oven
drying experiment.

Figure 9 illustrates the surface temperature of the sample as a function of time for all
analyzed
(a) cases. Similar behavior is observed for all the(b) experiments carried out: an accen-
tuated increase in temperature from its initial value to an intermediate value; it remains
Figure
Figure 8. Sample
8.
oscillatingSample used
closeused in Case
in
to thisCase 11 (LABFILM;
value (LABFILM; TT ==time
for a certain 35.0 ◦°C;
35.0 C; RH
RH == 20%)
interval; andbefore
20%) before (a)
(a) and
near the endafter
and after (b) the oven
oven
(b) process,
of the the
drying experiment.
drying experiment.
its value increases again and approaches the drying air temperature (35 °C).
Figure 9 illustrates the surface temperature of the sample as a function of time for all
analyzed cases. Similar behavior is observed for all the experiments carried out: an accen-
tuated increase in temperature from its initial value to an intermediate value; it remains
oscillating close to this value for a certain time interval; and near the end of the process,
Temperature (oC)Temperature (oC)

its value increases again and approaches the drying air temperature (35 °C).

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Surface
Surface temperature
temperature of
of the
the sample
sample over
over time.
time.

This
It increase in
is observed thethe
that surface
highesttemperature
value of the of the sample after
intermediate the intermediate
temperature temper-
was observed
for theisexperiment
ature explained by carried out with
the change in intermediate
the color of the relative
sample, humidity (Case 2), while
which modifies Cases
the material
1emissivity,
and 3 presented
directlysimilar valuesthe
influencing fortemperature
the intermediateread bytemperature. It is alsothermometer.
the digital infrared noticed that
the upper-temperature
Analyzing Figure 9, level
it iswas reached
observed firstthat
again for the first
experiment
stage ofcarried
drying outdoeswith
not lower
occur
Figure 9. Surface temperature of the sample over time.
relative
for any humidity (Case 1),
of the analyzed followed
cases since by thisthe experiment
process with intermediate
is characterized relative
by occurring athumidity
constant
(Case 2), and and
temperature much withlater for Case
a value 3. to the wet bulb temperature of the drying air. In con-
equal
This increase in the surface temperature of the sample after the intermediate temper-
trast,From
in theFigure 10, which
experiments, it illustrates
was observed the temperature
an accentuated of the dryingin
increase airthe
over time for
surface all the
tempera-
ature analyzed,
cases is explained by be
it can theseen
change that inforthethecolor of the sample,
experiments which modifies
forcedthe material
ture of the samples during the initial moments of thecarried
process. outIt with
is noticed convection
that the wet
emissivity,
(Cases 1 and directly
2), the influencing the temperature read by the digital infrared thermometer.
bulb temperature foroscillations
Case 3 is 28.8 in the
°C. temperature of the drying air around the initially
definedAnalyzing Figure
◦ 9, it is observed again that the first stage ofmaximum
drying does not occur
It isvalue (35 C)
observed were
that theminimal.
highest value Theseoffluctuations exhibited
the intermediate temperature was variations
observed of
for
0.3 any
◦ C of
and the
a analyzed
standard cases
deviation sinceof this process
approximately is characterized
0.2 ◦ C. As for by
the occurring
experiment at constant
carried
for the experiment carried out with intermediate relative humidity (Case 2), while Cases
temperature
out with and convection
natural with a value equal
(Case 3),tothe
theair
the wet bulb temperature
temperature inside theof the
ovendrying
showedair. greater
In con-
1 and 3 presented similar values for intermediate temperature. It is also noticed that
trast, in the experiments, it was observed an accentuated
oscillations. A minimum temperature of 34 C and a maximum temperature of 36.3 ◦ C
◦ increase in the surface tempera-
ture of
were the samples
observed during during the initial moments
the experiment, of the process.
and the standard It is was
deviation noticed
0.7 ◦that the wet
C. This is a
bulb temperature for Case 3 is 28.8 °C.
characteristic of the oven used, which works with smaller fluctuations in the temperature
of theItinternal
is observed that the
air when operatedhighest withvalue of the
forced intermediate
convection temperature was observed
(fan on).
for the experiment carried out with intermediate relative humidity (Case 2), while Cases
1 and 3 presented similar values for the intermediate temperature. It is also noticed that

Processes 2023, 11, 3112
tions of 0.3 °C and a standard deviation of approximately 0.2 °C. As for the experiment
carried out with natural convection (Case 3), the air temperature inside the oven showed
greater oscillations. A minimum temperature of 34 °C and a maximum temperature of
36.3 °C were observed during the experiment, and the standard deviation was 0.7 °C. This
is a characteristic of the oven used, which works with smaller fluctuations in the temper-
12 of 18
ature of the internal air when operated with forced convection (fan on).

Drying air temperature (oC)

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Drying
Drying air
air temperature
temperature inside
inside the
the oven
oven over
over time.
time.

Analyzing
Analyzing Figure 11, which illustrates the relative humidity of the drying air as as aa
function of time for all experiments, it can be seen
function of time for all experiments, it can be seen that that the greater oscillations in the values
greater oscillations in the values
obtained
obtainedforforthe
theair
airrelative
relativehumidity
humidity in in
Cases 2, carried
Cases outout
2, carried in the TECNOMAT,
in the TECNOMAT, are justified
are jus-
due todue
tified the fact
to thethat it rained
fact in someinmoments
that it rained of the execution
some moments of this experiment.
of the execution Since a
of this experiment.
door
Sinceproviding access to the
a door providing exterior
access ofexterior
to the the building
of theremained
buildingopen duringopen
remained the experiments
during the
conducted
experiments in conducted
the TECNOMAT, it happened that
in the TECNOMAT, during thethat
it happened timeduring
it rained,
the the
time airitrelative
rained,
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
humidity in the laboratory increased, influencing the increase in the relative humidity 13 of of
19
the air relative humidity in the laboratory increased, influencing the increase in the rela-
the drying air.
tive humidity of the drying air.

70
Drying air relative humidity (%)

60

50

40
Case 1: T = 35.0oC; RH = 20%
30
Case 2: T = 35.1oC; RH = 41%
Case 3: T = 35.1oC; RH = 63%
20

10
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time (h)
Figure11.
Figure 11.Drying
Dryingair
airrelative
relativehumidity
humidityover
overtime.
time.

Oscillations
Oscillations in in the
the drying
drying airair relative
relative humidity
humidity were were also
also observed
observed for Case 1, per-
formed
formed at at LABFILM.
LABFILM. This This occurred
occurred because,
because, during
during thethe experiment,
experiment, there
there was
was aa greater
greater
circulation
circulationof ofpeople
peoplein inthe
thelaboratory
laboratoryin insome
someperiods.
periods. AsAs people
people exhale
exhale more
more humid
humid airair
than they breathe in, and also because of the constant air renewal whenever
than they breathe in, and also because of the constant air renewal whenever the laboratory the laboratory
door
doorisisopened
openedforforpeople
peopletotoenter
enteroror
exit,
exit,it is natural
it is naturalthat there
that is an
there increase
is an in the
increase relative
in the rela-
humidity of the ambient air and, consequently, in the relative humidity
tive humidity of the ambient air and, consequently, in the relative humidity of the drying of the drying air
during periods when there is a greater circulation of people in
air during periods when there is a greater circulation of people in the laboratory.the laboratory.
ItIt isisobserved
observed that
that for
forthe
theexperiment
experimentwith withnatural
naturalconvection
convection (Case
(Case 3),
3), the
therelative
relative
humidity
humidity of the drying air remained at a level between 65 and 70% during a goodpart
of the drying air remained at a level between 65 and 70% during a good partofof
the experiment, and after 250 h of experiment, it reduced its value to something between
45 and 50%. This occurred because, at this final stage of the drying process, the moisture
content of the piece already had values close to equilibrium, and consequently, the loss of
moisture from the product to the air was greatly reduced. In this final stage of the process,
Processes 2023, 11, 3112 13 of 18

the experiment, and after 250 h of experiment, it reduced its value to something between
45 and 50%. This occurred because, at this final stage of the drying process, the moisture
content of the piece already had values close to equilibrium, and consequently, the loss of
moisture from the product to the air was greatly reduced. In this final stage of the process,
the absolute humidity of the air inside the oven tended to approach the absolute humidity
of the air outside the oven, as was observed in the experiments with forced convection.
Figure 12 illustrates the surface temperature of the sample over the average mois-
ture content for each case. It is observed that at the beginning of the process, the surface
temperature of the samples experiences a rapid increase from its initial value to an interme-
diate value, with minimal fluctuations in the average moisture content. This temperature
level remains relatively constant until the average moisture content approaches approxi-
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19
mately 0.03 kg/kg, when the temperature rises again, approaching the temperature of the
drying air.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Surface
Surface temperature
temperature of
of the
the sample
sampleover
over the
the average
average moisture
moisturecontent.
content.

Figure 13 shows the thermograms obtained at the intermediate temperature level

(t = 36 h) and equilibrium condition (t = te ), respectively, for Case 1 (LABFILM; T = 35.0 ◦ C;
RH = 20%). When analyzing the thermogram, small temperature gradients are observed
in the external region of the sample, with a maximum variation of 1.5 ◦ C in the equi-
librium condition. Furthermore, it is observed that the temperatures obtained by the
thermogram are a little lower than the values previously presented for the surface tem-
perature of the sample, which is justified by the heat loss from the sample between these
two measurements.
Table 3 presents the initial moisture content (M0 ), equilibrium moisture content (Me ),
time required to reach the equilibrium condition (te ), equilibrium surface temperature (Te ),
and time intervals required to reduce the average moisture content of the sample from 20%
to 15, 10, 5, and 1% for each analyzed case. It appears that there is a notable discrepancy
in the initial moisture content of the sample in Case 2 when compared with the values
(a) for the samples in Cases 1 and 3, despite the same
obtained (b) time interval between extracting
the sample
Figure from the mold
13. Thermogram of theand starting
sample used the oven
in Case drying
1 (T experiment
= 35.0 °C for all
and RH = 20%) forcases.
the time instants
(a) t = 36 h and (b) t = te = 120 h.
Table 3. Results of moisture content, time to reach the equilibrium condition, equilibrium temperature,
and time intervals
Table required
3 presents theto reduce
initial the average
moisture moisture
content (M0content of the sample
), equilibrium fromcontent
moisture 20% to 15,
(M10,
e),
5, and 1% for each drying experiment.
time required to reach the equilibrium condition (te), equilibrium surface temperature (Te),
M0 Me
and time intervals required to reduce the average moisture content of the sample from
Te (◦ C)
Case (kg/kg, d.b) 20% tto
(kg/kg, d.b) e (h)
15, 10, 5, and ∆t
1%M = 0.20→0.15 (h) ∆tM = 0.20→0.10 (h)
for each analyzed ∆tM = 0.20→0.05 (h)
case. It appears ∆tM = 0.20→0.01 (h)
that there is
a notable discrep-
1 0.22156 0.00438 ancy in the initial moisture content of the sample in Case 2 when compared with the val-
120 34.8 12.209 26.294 42.107 66.640
2 0.20000 0.00593 132 35.0 16.250 34.571 55.385 81.333
3 0.22062 0.00924 ues obtained
342 for the samples
35.0 44.810 in Cases 1 and 3, despite the155.417
95.867 same time interval
288.947between
extracting the sample from the mold and starting the oven drying experiment for all cases.

Table 3. Results of moisture content, time to reach the equilibrium condition, equilibrium tempera-
ture, and time intervals required to reduce the average moisture content of the sample from 20% to
15, 10, 5, and 1% for each drying experiment.
Processes 2023, 11, 3112 14 of 18

Figure 12. Surface temperature of the sample over the average moisture content.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Thermogram
Thermogram of of the sample used
the sample used in
in Case
Case 11 (T
(T == 35.0
35.0 °C
◦ C and
and RH
RH == 20%)
20%) for
for the
the time
time instants
instants
(a) t = 36 h and (b) t = te = 120 h.
(a) t = 36 h and (b) t = te = 120 h.

Table
The Case 3 presents
1 sample theexhibited
initial moisture
the highest content (Mmoisture
initial 0), equilibrium
content,moisture
registeringcontent
a value (Mofe),

time required to reach the equilibrium condition (t ), equilibrium

0.22156 kg/kg, whereas the lowest initial moisture content was observed in Case 2, with
e surface temperature (T e),

and time intervals required to reduce the average moisture

a value of 0.20000 kg/kg, a difference of 0.02156 kg/kg in absolute terms and 10.78% in content of the sample from
20% to 15,
relative 10, 5,
terms. and 1% forthese
Comparing eachresults
analyzed withcase. It appears
the data that in
presented there
Tableis 2,
a notable discrep-
it is noticed that
ancy in the value
the lowest initialof moisture content of
initial moisture the sample
content is notinnecessarily
Case 2 when compared
correlated withwiththethe val-
lowest
ues obtained
value of initialfor the samples in Cases 1 and 3, despite the same time interval between
mass.
extracting
Possible thejustifications
sample fromfor thethe
mold
lowerand starting
value the oven
of initial drying
moisture experiment
content obtained forforallCase
cases.2
are variations in the air conditions within the company’s casting sector, dwell time of the
Tablein3.the
part Results
mold,of moisture content,
and efficiency oftime
moldto reach
moisture the equilibrium
absorption,condition,
given that equilibrium tempera-
the collections of
ture, and time intervals required to reduce the average
the samples were performed in different weeks and from different molds. moisture content of the sample from 20% to
15, 10,Table
5, and31% for each drying
illustrates that, atexperiment.
the same temperature, the higher the drying air relative
M0 humidity,
Me the longer the time required
ΔtM = 0.20→to0.15reach
ΔtMthe= 0.20hygroscopic
→0.10
equilibrium condition (te )
Case and the greater tthe
e (h) Te (°C) moisture content (Me ). It isΔtobserved
equilibrium (h) by
M = 0.20→0.05that ΔtMreducing
= 0.20→0.01 (h)
the
(kg/kg, d.b) (kg/kg, d.b) (h) (h)
drying air relative humidity from 63% to 41%, there is a reduction of 210 h in the time to
1 0.22156 0.00438 120 34.8 12.209 26.294 42.107 66.640
reach the equilibrium condition (te ), while reducing the drying air relative humidity from
2 0.20000 0.00593 132 35.0 16.250 34.571 55.385 81.333
41% to 20% provides a reduction in the total drying time (te ) of only 12 h. Then, it is verified
3 0.22062 0.00924 342 35.0 44.810 95.867 155.417 288.947
that the reduction in the air’s relative humidity will be more efficient for the reduction
in the total drying time in situations in which its value is higher than 40%. In situations
where ThetheCase
drying1 sample exhibited
air’s relative the highest
humidity initiallow,
is already moisture
furthercontent,
reducing registering
its value will a value
not
of 0.22156 kg/kg, whereas the lowest initial moisture content
provide significant efficiency gains. Obviously, this information is related to the dryingwas observed in Case 2, with
air
atemperature
value of 0.20000values.kg/kg, a difference of 0.02156 kg/kg in absolute terms and 10.78% in
It is also noticed that the time required to reach the equilibrium condition (te ) for the
experiment carried out with natural convection (Case 3) is 2.85 times the value obtained for
the faster experiment with forced convection (Case 1) and 2.59 times the value obtained for
the slower experiment with forced convection (Case 2). The equilibrium moisture content
(Me ) for Case 3 corresponds to 2.11 times the value obtained for Case 1 and 1.56 times the
value obtained for Case 2.
A good way to define the time the product must remain in the pre-drying sector
(drying at low temperatures) before going to the drying stage at high temperatures is by
defining an ideal moisture content, such as 0.15 kg/kg. Knowing the product drying curves
for different ambient air conditions and the ideal moisture content, it becomes possible to
estimate the required pre-drying duration before transitioning to high-temperature drying.
Table 3 also provides information on the time intervals needed to reduce the moisture
content from 0.20 to 0.15 kg/kg (∆tM = 0.20→0.15 ), from 0.20 to 0.10 kg/kg (∆tM = 0.20→0.10 ),
from 0.20 to 0.05 kg/kg (∆tM = 0.20→0.05 ), and from 0.20 to 0.01 kg/kg (∆tM = 0.20→0.01 ).
The same increasing order observed for the total drying time is also evident for the
time intervals needed to reduce the average moisture content from 0.20 to 0.15, 0.10, 0.05,
Processes 2023, 11, 3112 15 of 18

and 0.01. It is also observed that the time intervals needed to achieve these moisture content
reductions in the experiment conducted with natural convection (Case 3) correspond to
3.67, 3.65, 3.69, and 4.34 times the values obtained for the fastest experiment with forced
convection (Case 1), respectively, and 2.76, 2.77, 2.81, and 3.55 times the values obtained for
the slower experiment with forced convection (Case 2), respectively.
Table 4 provides the results of the final linear retraction and final mass variation for
each of the analyzed cases. The final mass variation is related to the amount of water
evaporated during the drying process, and the final linear retraction is related to the total
shrinkage of the part. It is observed that the greater the amount of evaporated water, the
lower the final linear retraction value. However, the shrinkage of the piece during
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 ofthe
19
drying experiment is small, about 3% only, while the amount of water evaporated relative
to the initial mass of water (mw0 ) is about 97%. This is a stronger indication that the product
has high rigidity and is very porous after drying.
Table 4. Results of final linear retraction and final water mass variation for all drying experiments.

Table 4. Results of final linear retraction and final water mass variation for all drying experiments.
Case Final Linear Retraction (-) Final Mass Variation (g)
Case Final Linear Retraction (-) Final Mass Variation (g)
11 0.9742
0.9742 2730
2730
22 0.9748
0.9748 2620
2620
33 0.9736
0.9736 2860
2860

Figure 14
Figure 14shows
showsthethelinear
linearretraction
retraction of of
thethe samples
samples overovertimetime forcases.
for all all cases.
OneOne no-
notable
table observation
observation is thatisthe
that the lower
lower the drying
the drying air relative
air relative humidity,
humidity, the greater
the greater theof
the slope slope
the
of the linear
linear retraction
retraction over time.
over time. It is Italso
is also noticed
noticed that
that there
there is isa agreater
greaterproximity
proximitybetween
between
linear retraction
the linear retraction curves
curves for
for Cases
Cases 11 andand 2.2. As it happened
happened for the the average
average moisture
moisture
linear retraction
content, the linear retraction curve
curve over time for the the experiment
experiment carried
carried out with
with natural
natural
convection (Case 3) shows a smoothersmoother decay compared
compared to to the
the drying
drying experiments
experiments with
with
forced
forced convection.
convection.

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Linear
Linear retraction
retraction as
as aa function
function of
of time.
time.

Figure
Figure 15
15presents
presentsthe
thelinear
linearretraction
retractionplotted
plottedagainst the
against average
the averagemoisture content
moisture of
content
the sample.
of the It is
sample. evident
It is that
evident thatthere
thereisisan
anapproximately
approximatelylinear
linearrelationship
relationshipbetween
between these
these
two
two variables
variables for all analyzed cases, proving
proving the
the stronger
stronger rigidity
rigidity of
of the sanitary
sanitary ware after
the drying
drying process.
process.
 Figure 14. Linear retraction as a function of time.

Figure 15 presents the linear retraction plotted against the average moisture content
of the sample. It is evident that there is an approximately linear relationship between these
Processes 2023, 11, 3112 16 of 18
two variables for all analyzed cases, proving the stronger rigidity of the sanitary ware after
the drying process.

Figure15.
Figure 15.Linear
Linearshrinkage
shrinkageas
asaafunction
functionof
ofaverage
averagemoisture
moisturecontent.
content.

4. Conclusions
From the experimental results of drying sanitary ware in an oven, it is possible to
conclude that:
(a) Air relative humidity is a fundamentally important parameter in the drying kinetics
of sanitary ware; at equivalent temperatures, lower air relative humidity accelerates
the drying process.
(b) For all drying conditions, sanitary ware dries under a falling drying rate period.
(c) In cases where the relative humidity of the drying air is higher, it is feasible to
dedicate efforts to reducing its value in order to guarantee faster drying. For low
or intermediate values of air relative humidity, the reduction in its value provides a
smaller influence on the drying kinetics.
(d) For the experiment carried out with natural convection, it was observed that water
vapor constantly condensed on the internal parts of the roof and the door of the oven
due to the low renewal of the internal air.
(e) No cracks or fissures were found in the samples during the drying experiments.
However, it is important to notice that morphological, chemical, or mechanical tests
for quantifying the resistance of the ceramic part were not realized.
(f) At the same temperature, a reduction in air relative humidity leads to a more pro-
nounced slope in the linear retraction as a function of time. From the amount of
water evaporated and the linear retraction measurements, it was confirmed the high
mechanical rigidity of the sanitary ware.
In conclusion, this study is expected to enhance the understanding of the drying
process of ceramic materials and aid in the validation of three-dimensional and transient
mathematical models for the drying of sanitary ware at low temperatures. This will
enable conducting numerical analyses under various operational conditions and different
industrial physical arrangements.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.S.G., K.C.G., J.M.G., R.A.Q., A.G.B.L. and L.B.A.;
methodology, R.S.G., L.B.A., H.L.F.M., D.S.O., H.C.B. and K.C.G. validation, R.S.G., R.A.Q., L.S.S.P.,
E.J.C.S. and K.C.G.; formal analysis, R.S.G., K.C.G. and J.M.G.; writing—original draft preparation,
R.S.G., K.C.G., H.W.D.M., J.M.P.Q.D. and A.G.B.L.; writing—review and editing, R.S.G., D.S.O.,
H.L.F.M., L.S.S.P., J.M.P.Q.D. and E.J.C.S.; supervision, K.C.G., J.M.G. and L.B.A.; funding acquisition,
K.C.G., H.C.B., H.W.D.M., J.M.G., J.M.P.Q.D. and A.G.B.L. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by CNPq (Grant numbers 443863/2018-0, 148893/2019-8, and
308255/2022-4) and FAPESQ-PB/CAPES (Grant number 18/2020) (Brazilian research agencies).
In addition, this work was financially supported by Programmatic Funding-UIDP/04708/2020
(CONSTRUCT), funded by national funds through the FCT/MCTES (PIDDAC), and by FCT—
Processes 2023, 11, 3112 17 of 18

Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia through the individual Scientific Employment Stimulus
2020.00828.CEECIND.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available upon
request from the authors.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express their gratitude to CNPq, CAPES, FINEP,
and FAPESQ-PB for their financial support. Special thanks to DEXCO S.A. (João Pessoa, Brazil) for
their partnership and for providing samples. We also acknowledge the laboratories LABFILM and
TECNOMAT at UFPB (João Pessoa, Brazil) and the Thermal and Fluid Computational Laboratory at
UFCG (Campina Grande, Brazil) for their valuable research infrastructure.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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