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भारतीय मानक IS 4651 (Part 2) : 2020

Indian Standard

पत्तनों और पोताश्रयों की योजना

और रूप — रीति सहं िता
भाग 2 भू-तकनीकी इज
ं ीनियरिंग
( दसू रा पनु रीक्षण )

Planning and Design of Ports and

Harbours — Code of Practice
Part 2 Geotechnical Engineering

( Second Revision )

ICS 93.140

© BIS 2020

भारतीय मानक ब्रयू ो

B U R E A U O F I N D I A N S TA N D A R D S
मानक भवन, 9 बहादरु शाह ज़फर मार्ग, नई िदल्ली – 110002
MANAK BHAVAN, 9 BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR MARG
NEW DELHI-110002
         www.bis.gov.in  
www.standardsbis.in

December 2020  Price Group 7

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Ports, Harbours and Offshore Installations Sectional Committee, CED 47

FOREWORD
This Indian Standard (Part 2) (Second Revision) was adopted by the Bureau of Indian Standards, after the draft
finalized by the Ports, Harbours and Offshore Installations Sectional Committee had been approved by the Civil
Engineering Division Council.
Based on the need felt towards formulating Indian Standard recommendations relating to various aspects of
waterfront structures, the IS 4651 series of standards were established. This standard (Part 2) is one of this series
formulated on this subject and deals with geotechnical engineering aspects. The other parts in the series are given
below:
Part 1 Site investigation
Part 3 Loading
Part 4 General design considerations
Part 5 Layout and functional requirements
This standard (Part 2) was first published in 1969 mainly to cover provisions regarding earth pressure for the
design of port and harbour structures. The standard was revised in 1989 to cover the subject comprehensively and
to include all aspects related to earth pressure needed for the design of port and harbour structures. The clause on
earth pressure was also revised in the first revision.
The following significant changes have been made in this revision:
a) The title of this part has been modified from ‘Earth Pressures’ to ‘Geotechnical Engineering’ to address
the actual provisions covered now.
b) The existing clause on active earth pressure and passive resistance has been modified and elaborated in
detail to cover all the related aspects.
c) Method of calculation of stability factor for soil in the backfill has been included.
d) The provisions related to the calculation of pile capacity for cohesionless, cohesive and weathered/soft
rock soil have been included and illustrated in detail.
e) The method of calculation for fixity length of the pile has been introduced in which stiffness factor for
piles in sand and normally loaded clays, and preloaded clays have been covered in detail.
f) Application of ‘geosynthetics’ have been covered in detail within which it provides information about
geotextiles, geogrids, geocells, geomembranes, geocomposites, prefabricated vertical drains (PVD),
geotubes, and steel and nylon gabions.
g) The techniques and significance for ground improvement and land reclamation have been covered in
detail.
The composition of the Committee responsible for formulation of this standard is given in Annex B.
For the purpose of deciding whether a particular requirement of this standard is complied with the final value,
observed or calculated, expressing the result of a test or analysis shall be rounded off in accordance with
IS 2 : 1960 ‘Rules for rounding of numerical values ( revised )’. The number of significant places retained in the
rounded off value should be the same as that of the specified value in this standard.
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IS 4651 (Part 2) : 2020

Indian Standard
PLANNING AND DESIGN OF PORTS AND
HARBOURS — CODE OF PRACTICE
PART 2 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
( Second Revision )

1 SCOPE pressure of the backfill is reduced and is termed active

earth pressure. The movements required are small and
This standard (Part 2) deals with earth pressures on
about 0.001 H (see 5.1) for sand and 0.005 H for clay
waterfront structures, foundation design, fixity length
and are sufficient to mobilize the active pressure.
calculation, ground improvement techniques and
applications of geosynthetics as required for marine 3.3.3 Passive Earth Resistance — If the wall moves
conditions. sufficiently towards the backfill, by translatory motion
or rotation about the base or their combination, the
2 REFERENCES backfill offers resistance which is termed passive earth
The standards listed in Annex A contain provision which resistance (also, less accurately, passive earth pressure).
through reference in this text, constitute provisions of
3.4 Retaining Wall — A wall which holds back a soil
this standard. At the time of publication, the editions
mass is a retaining wall. The soil mass is referred to as
indicated were valid. All standards are subjected
a backfill.
to revision, and parties to agreement based on this
standard are encouraged to investigate the possibility 4 SYMBOLS
of applying the most recent editions of the standards.
For the purpose of this standard, the following symbols
3 TERMINOLOGY shall apply:
For the purpose of this standard, the terms given in c, c1 = apparent cohesion;
IS 7314 and the following shall apply.
c′, c′1 = effective cohesion;
3.1 Angle of Wall Friction — The roughness of F = factor of safety;
retaining walls causes the active earth pressure and
passive earth resistance to be inclined. The angle of this H = height;
inclination to the normal to the wall is known as the H1 = equivalent height of soil for uniform
angle of wall friction. surcharge q or a load;
3.2 Arching Earth Pressure — When the top of the i = slope angle;
wall is restricted and there is freedom of movement K0 = coefficient of earth pressure at rest;
towards the base, the earth pressure exerted by the KA = coefficient of active earth pressure;
backfill is known as arching earth pressure.
KP = coefficient of passive earth resistance;
NOTE — For movement away from the backfill, it is termed
arching active earth pressure. For movement towards the Nϕ, Nϕ1 = flow value = tan2 (45° + ϕ/2) or
backfill, it is termed arching passive earth resistance. tan2 (45° + ϕ1/2);
3.3 Earth Pressure — The pressure exerted by the P0 = total earth pressure at rest per unit length;
backfill on the wall. The nature and extent of the wall PA = total active earth pressure per unit length;
movement alters the lateral pressure of the backfill
exerted on it. PP = total passive earth resistance per unit length;
Pa = total earth pressure per unit length when
3.3.1 Earth Pressure at Rest — If there is no wall arching is present, for example, in braced
movement, the pressure exerted by the backfill is open cut;
termed as the earth pressure at rest.
p = pressure intensity;
3.3.2 Active Earth Pressure — If the wall moves p0 = intensity of earth pressure at rest;
sufficiently away from the backfill by translatory motion
or rotation about the base or their combination, lateral pA = intensity of active earth pressure;

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pp = intensity of passive earth resistance; active earth pressure is positive. The cases of gravity
wharf walls on clayey foundations require to be
Q = point load; individually examined for settlement and if the wall
q = intensity of uniformly distributed load or should settle more with reference to the backfill,
surcharge intensity; negative angle of wall friction will result.
z = depth from top of retaining wall; 5.6.1 Angle of wall friction for sheet-pile walls should
α = inclination of the back of retaining wall be judged with reference to the deposition of the backfill
with the horizontal; and the relative movements of the wall and the backfill.
γ, γ1 = bulk unit weight of soil (soil particle + 5.7 For passive resistance, as the earth normally heaves
water + air); up due to wall movement, the angle of wall friction is
γ′, γ′1 = submerged unit weight of soil; generally positive.
γd = dry (bulk) unit weight of soil; 5.7.1 But when the wall moves up relative to the
γsat = (bulk) unit weight of soil in fully saturated backfill as it may happen in a sheet-pile wall which
condition; is strongly held back by anchor at the top and which,
γw = unit weight of water; deflecting, moves out and upward in the embedded
portion, negative angle of wall friction will result.
δ = angle of wall friction;
σ = normal stress; 6 EARTH PRESSURE AT REST
σ = effective normal stress; For a horizontal backfill, the intensity of earth pressure
σz = effective normal stress at depth Z; at rest at a depth z is given by:

ϕ, ϕ1 = apparent angle of shearing resistance; and p0 = K 0γ z …(1)

ϕ′, ϕ′1 = effective angle of shearing resistance.
The field values of K0 are given in Table 1.

5 WALL MOVEMENTS Table 1 Field Values of Coefficient of Earth

Pressure at Rest, K0
5.1 In water front structures, wharves constructed
( Clause 6 )
as gravity retaining walls have sufficient outward
movement to mobilize active pressure and Coulomb’s Sl No. Type of Soil K0
pressure distribution obtains/develops.
(1) (2) (3)
5.2 Wharves constructed as sheet-pile retaining walls, i) Loose sand 0.4
either dredged in the front or backfilled, sufficiently ii) Dense sand 0.5 to 0.6
yield to justify the adoption of Coulomb’s active
iii) Sand, well tamped 0.8
pressure distribution.
iv) Soft clay 0.6
5.2.1 In highly plastic clays, pressures approaching at v) Hard clay 0.5
rest condition may develop, unless wall movement can
constitute with time.
7 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE
5.3 Walls in the locks and in the dry docks, being
monolithically constructed with the floors may not 7.1 In waterfront structures, the backfill is usually
yield and earth pressure at rest in these cases should horizontal. With a uniform surcharge intensity q and
be taken. uniform backfill, the active earth pressure varies for
type of soil.
5.4 Gravity wharf walls founded on cohesionless
subgrade may not yield forward sufficiently as to 7.1.1 Cohesionless Soils
mobilize full passive resistance. Corresponding to the The active earth pressure at any depth z for cohesionless
yield for active pressure, not more than half of the soil layer is calculated by the following formula:
passive resistance may be available.
5.5 Gravity wharf walls founded on clayey subgrade PA = K A γ z … (2)
may eventually sufficiently yield as to fully mobilize where
the passive resistance.
PA = active earth pressure, in kN/m2;
5.6 Usually the backfill in a gravity wharf wall settles KA = coefficient of active earth pressure which is
more than the wall and the angle of wall friction for

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1 − sin φ
given by: K A = ; 7.3 Lateral Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge Loads
1 + sin φ
ϕ = angle of internal friction; 7.3.1 If the backfill carries a uniformly distributed
superimposed load q, the lateral active earth pressure
γ = unit weight of the soil layer, in kN/m3; and
is given by:
z = depth of the soil layer, in m.
PA = K A ( q + γ z ) ; for granular soil and
7.1.1.1 The effect of wall friction on the values of KA
is not very large and may be neglected for sheet pile = K A ( q + γ z ) − 2c K A ; for cohesive 
…. (4)
structures, that is, take δ = 0. The error resulting from and mixed soils
this is on the safe side.
The values of KA for cohesionless soils cohesive and
7.1.2 Cohesive (ϕ = 0) and Mixed ( C – ϕ ) Soils mixed soils are given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
The active earth pressure at any depth z for cohesive
Table 2 Values of KA for Cohesionless Soils —
soil layer is calculated by the following formula:
Vertical Walls with Horizontal Ground Surface
PA = K A γ z − 2c K A …. (3) ( Clause 7.3.1 )

where
PA = active earth pressure, in kN/m ; 2
Sl
No.
Values
of δ
1444442444443
Values of KA, for Various Values of ϕ

25° 30° 35° 40° 45°

KA = coefficient of active earth pressure which is
1 − sin φ (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
given by: K A = 1 + sin φ ;
i) 0° 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.17
ϕ= angle of internal friction; ii) 10° 0.37 0.31 0.25 0.20 0.16
γ= unit weight of the soil layer, in kN/m3; iii) 20° 0.34 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.15
z= depth of the soil layer, in m; iv) 30° – 0.26 0.21 0.17 0.14

c= cohesion of the soil layer, in kN/m2.

7.1.2.1 The effect of wall friction on the values of KA
is smaller for sheet pile structures, that is, take δ = 0.
The error is on the safe side. The wall adhesion Cw , for
calculation of active pressure should be taken as being
equal to c up to a maximum of 50 kN/m2.
7.1.2.2 It is advisable to neglect any negative values
of earth pressure which represent tension. However,
allowance should be made for intrusion of water in the
tension cracks between the wall and the soil which will
produce the full hydrostatic pressure over the crack
depth.
8 PASSIVE RESISTANCE
8.1 When a retaining wall is pushed out due to active
thrust of the backfill and the surcharge thereon, partial
or full passive resistance will be mobilized in the front
soil. In waterfront structures, the front soil will usually
be dredged and there may be downward inclination.
However, the depth in the fairway channel or berth
should be taken for calculations, and the following
value of i should be adopted:
i=0 …(5)

7.2 For broken back wall or irregular cohesionless 8.2 Waterfront structures are usually vertical in the
backfill surface and loading, one of the graphical front and the passive resistance varies for different soil
methods should be applied. types.

Table 3 Values of KA for Cohesive and Mixed Soils

( Clause 7.3.1 )

Coefficient Values of δ Values of Cw / C Values of KA, for Values of ϕ

0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25°

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
0 1.00 0.85 0.70 0.59 0.48 0.40
All values
KA ϕ 1.00 0.78 0.64 0.50 0.40 0.32
0 0 2.00 1.83 1.68 1.54 1.40 1.29

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8.2.1 Cohesionless Soils NOTE — The values of K, may be taken from tables on the
subject (tables for the calculation of passive resistance, active
The passive earth pressure at any depth z for pressure and bearing capacity of foundation by Caquot and
cohesionless soil layer is calculated by the following Kerisel).
formula: 8.2.4 In case of gravity wharf wall δ = + ϕ/3 may be
PP = K P γ z + K P q …. (6) adopted unless, as in case of clayey foundation, greater
outward movement is expected, when
where
PP = passive earth pressure, in kN/m2; 3
δ  φ may be taken.
KP = coefficient of passive earth pressure which is 4

given by: KP =
1 + sin φ
; 8.2.5 For sheet pile wharf wall δ = 0 should be taken,
1 − sin φ except when it is to be strongly held back by anchor at
ϕ = angle of internal friction; the top and is likely to move upward in the embedded
γ = unit weight of the soil layer, in kN/m3; and position when appropriate negative δ should be adopted.
z = depth of the soil layer, in m. Table 4 Values of KP for cohesionless Soils —
The values of coefficient KP , for different values of Vertical Walls with Horizontal Ground Surface
angle of shearing resistance ϕ and angle of wall friction ( Clause 8.2.1 )
δ are given in Table 4.
8.2.1.1 In calculating passive earth resistance in the
Sl
No.
Values of δ 14444Values
42of4444
ϕ
43
design of sheet pile walls, it is usual to take δ = 2/3 ϕ, 25° 30° 35° 40°
except in the case of certain silty sands where a reduced
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
value of δ should be taken (δ = 1/3 ϕ to 2/3 ϕ).
i) 0° 2.5 3.0 3.7 4.6
8.2.2 Cohesive (ϕ = 0) and Mixed (c – ϕ) Soils ii) 10° 3.1 4.0 4.8 6.5

The passive earth pressure at any depth z for cohesive iii) 20° 3.7 4.9 6.0 8.8
soil, is calculated by the following formula: iv) 30° – 5.8 7.3 11.4

PP = K P γ z + 2c K P + K P q …. (7)
where Table 5 Values of KP for Cohesive and Mixed Soils
PP = passive earth pressure, in kN/m ; 2 ( Clause 8.2.2 )
KP = coefficient of passive earth pressure which is
given by KP =
1 + sin φ
;
Coefficient Values of δ 14444Values
42of4444
ϕ 43
1 − sin φ
0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25°
ϕ = angle of internal friction;
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
γ = unit weight of the soil layer, in kN/m3; 0 1.00 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.2 2.5
KP
z = depth of the soil, in m; and ϕ 1.00 1.3 1.6 2.2 2.9 3.9
c = cohesion of the soil layer, in kN/m2.
The values of the coefficient KP for different values
9 STABLITY FACTOR FOR SOIL IN THE
of angle of shearing resistance ϕ, angle of wall
BACKFILL
friction δ, and the ratio of adhesion to cohesion are
given in Table 5. The stability factor for the retaining structure to retain
8.2.3 It is recommended to take generally δ ≤ ϕ/3 backfill soil shall be calculated using the expression:
and, in which case, equation (7) shall apply. If the Stability factor =
Total passive force
wall movement outward should be more than what Total active force + Differenttial water force
… (8)
is essential to mobilize active earth pressure, δ may
This stability factor should be greater than 2.5 for the
exceed ϕ/3, equation (7) is developed with plane surface
retaining structure to be stable.
of rupture and the error for true curvilinear surface of
rupture is insignificant up to about δ = ϕ/3. For values 10 PILE CAPACITY CALCULATION
of δ exceeding this value, therefore, curvilinear surface
of rupture should be taken (see Note). Pile capacity is the sum of skin friction resistance and
end bearing capacity. IS 2911 (Part 1/Sec 2) gives

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detailed reference of load carrying capacity of piles. installed and which contribute to positive
See also IS 2911 (Parts 1 to 4) for more details rearding skin friction;
concrete piles. Ki = coefficient of earth pressure applicable for
10.1 Piles in Cohesionless Soil the i th layer (see Note 3);
PDi = effective overburden pressure for the i th
The ultimate load capacity (Qu) of piles, in kN, in
layer, in kN/m2;
cohesionless soils is given by the following formula:
δi = angle of wall friction between pile and soil
Qu = Ap (½ Dγ Nγ + PD N q ) + ∑ i =1K i PDi tan δ i Asi
n for the i th layer; and
Asi = surface area of pile shaft in the i th layer,
in m2.
The first term gives end-bearing resistance and the
NOTES
second term gives skin friction resistance.
1 Nγ factor can be taken for general shear failure according to
where IS 6403.
2 Nq factor will depend on the nature of soil, type of pile, the
AP = cross-sectional area of pile tip, in m2; L/B ratio and its method of construction. The values applicable
D = diameter of pile shaft, in m; for bored piles are given in Fig. 1.
γ = effective unit weight of the soil at pile tip, 3 Ki, the earth pressure coefficient depends on the nature
of soil strata, type of pile, spacing of pile and its method of
in kN/m3;
construction. For driven piles in loose to dense sand with ϕ
Nγ and Nq = bearing capacity factors depending upon varying between 30° and 40°, Ki values in the range of 1 to
the angle of internal friction, ϕ at pile tip; 1.5 may be used.
PD = effective overburden pressure at pile tip, 4 δ, the angle of wall friction may be taken equal to the friction
angle of the soil around the pile stem.
n in kN/m2 (see Note 5);
5 In working out pile capacity by static formula, the maximum
∑ = summation for layers 1 to n in which pile is
i =1
effective overburden at the pile tip should correspond to

500
BEARING CAPACITY FACTOR , Nq

100

50

10
20 25 30 35 40 45
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION , Φ

Fig. 1 Bearing Capacity Factor, Nq for Bored Piles

FIG.1 BEARING CAPACITY FACTORY, N q FOR BORED PILES

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the critical depth, which may be taken as 15 times the diameter 10.3 Piles in Weathered/Soft Rock
of the pile shaft for ϕ < 30° and increasing to 20 times
for ϕ > 40°. For piles founded in weathered/soft rock, different
6 For piles passing through cohesive strata and terminating in empirical approaches are used to arrive at the socket
a granular stratum, a penetration of at least twice the diameter length necessary for utilizing the full structural
of the pile shaft should be given into the granular stratum. capacity of the pile. Since, it is difficult to collect cores
in weathered/soft rocks, the method suggested by Cole
10.2 Piles in Cohesive Soil and Stroud using ‘N’ values is more widely used. The
The ultimate load capacity (Qu) of piles, in kN, in allowable load on the pile, Qa, in kN, by this approach,
cohesive soils is given by the following formula, in is given by:
which the first term gives the end-bearing resistance
and the second term gives the skin friction resistance: π B2 π BL
Qa = cu1 N c . + α cu 2 .
4 Fs Fs
Qu = Ap N c c p + ∑ i =1α i ci Asi
n

where
where cu1 = shear strength of rock below the base of the
AP = cross-sectional area of pile tip, in m2; pile, in kN/m2;
Nc = bearing capacity factor, may be taken as 9; Nc = bearing capacity factor taken as 9;
cP = average cohesion at pile tip, in kN/m2; Fs = factor of safety, usually taken as 3;
n
α = 0.9 (recommended value);
∑� = summation for layers 1 to n in which the pile is
i =1 installed and which contribute to positive skin cu2 = average shear strength of rock in the socketed
friction; length of pile, in kN/m2;
αi = adhesion factor for the i th layer depending on B = minimum width of pile shaft (diameter in case
the consistency of soil (see Note); of circular piles), in m; and
ci = average cohesion for the i th layer, in kN/m2; L = socket length of pile, in m.
and NOTE — For N > 60, the stratum is to be treated as weathered
rock rather than soil.
Asi = surface area of pile shaft in the i th layer, in m2.
NOTE — The value of adhesion factor, αi depends on the
undrained shear strength of the clay and may be obtained from
Fig. 2.

1.0

0.8
ADHESION FACTOR , α

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
UNDRAINED
UNDRAINEDSHEAR SHEAR STRENGTH, Cu (CkN/m
STRENGTH, ) 2 2
u ( kN / m )
( (For C < 40 kN/m2
, Take
2 α = 1)
For C ˂ 40 kN / m , Take α = 1 )
u
u

Fig. VARIATION
FIG.2 2 Variation ofOF α with
α with cu C u

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11 FIXITY LENGTH CALCULATION Table 7 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for

Cohesive Soil, K1, in kN/m3
11.1 As per IS 2911 (Part 1/Sec 3), the long flexible
( Clause 11.2.2 )
pile, fully or partially embedded is treated as a
cantilever fixed at some depth below the ground level. SI Soil Consistency Unconfined Range of K1
This length depends on soil properties, free length of No. Compression kN/m3 × 103
the pile, properties of structural element and stiffness Strength, qu kN/m2
factors of soil. (1) (2) (3) (4)

11.2 Stiffness Factor i) Soft 25 - 50 4.5 - 9.0

ii) Medium stiff 50 - 100 9.0 - 18.0
11.2.1 For Piles in Sand and Normally Loaded Clays
iii) Stiff 100 - 200 18.0 - 36.0
The stiffness factor is given as, iv) Very stiff 200 - 400 36.0 - 72.0

EI v) Hard > 400 > 72.0

Stiffness factor T , in m = 5
ηh NOTE — For qu less than 25, K1 may be taken as zero,
which implies that there is no lateral resistance

where
11.3 The depth to the point of fixity Lf may be read from
E = Young’s modulus of pile material, in MN/m2; the plots given in Fig. 3. ‘e’ is the effective eccentricity
I = moment of inertia of the pile cross section, of the point of load application obtained either by
in m4; and converting the moment to an equivalent horizontal load
ηh = modulus of subgrade reaction, in MN/m3 or by actual position of the horizontal load application.
(see Table 6). R and T are the stiffness factors described earlier. L1 is
the free length of the pile.
Table 6 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for
Granular Soils, ηh, in kN/m3 12 GEOSYNTHETICS
( Clause 11.2.1 )
12.1 Definition
Sl Soil Type N Range of ηh A geosynthetic is a product manufactured from a
No. (Blows per kN/m3 × 103 polymeric material, essentially planar, used with soil,
300 mm) 1444442444443
rock or other geotechnical engineering related material,
Dry Submerged as an integral part of a man-made project, structure or
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) system. A polymer is a large molecule composed of
i) Very Loose sand 0–4 < 0.4 < 0.2 many repeated subunits, called monomers.
ii) Loose sand 4 – 10 0.4 – 2.5 0.2 – 1.4 NOTE — A polymer is colloquially called as ‘plastic’.

iii) Medium sand 10 – 35 2.5 – 7.5 1.4 – 5.0 With time, the expression ‘synthetics’ has lost its
iv) Dense sand > 35 7.5 – 20.0 5.0 – 12.0 connotation. Natural fibres as well as steel are also
used as soil reinforcements and protection works.
NOTE — The ηh values may be interpolated for intermediate
The terminology ‘geosynthetics’ no longer reflects its
standard penetration values N.
literal connotation of strictly synthetic material used for
geotechnical systems. For the sake of completeness, the
11.2.2 For Piles in Preloaded Clays terminology ‘geosynthetics’ includes various polymers,
The stiffness factor is given as, natural fibres, such as jute, coir and hemp, and steel.

EI 12.2 Geosynthetics have been widely used for several

Stiffness factor T , in m = 4
civil engineering applications, including for ports
KB
and harbours. These include but are not limited to the
where following:
E = Young’s modulus of pile material, in MN/m2; a) Reinforcement of load-bearing systems, including
onshore roads, laydown areas and container
I = moment of inertia of the pile cross section,
yards;
in m4;
K1 0.3 b) Consolidation of reclaimed areas in marine clay,
K= × (see Table 7 for values of K1, in MN/m3); particularly for laydown areas and container
1.5 B
and yards;
B = width of pile shaft (diameter in case of circular c) Retainment of soil for subsurface works including
piles), in m. dry docks;

7
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IS 4651 (Part 2) : 2020

Q Q

L1 L1
FREE HEAD PILES =
FIXED HEAD PILES
Le Lf

2.3

WHERE,
2.1 L 1 = e and L f = Z f
L f / R OR L f / T

1.9
FOR PILES IN SANDS
AND NORMALLY
LOADED CLAYS
1.7

1.5
FOR PILES IN
PRELOADED CLAYS
1.3
0 2 4 6 8 10
L 1 / R OR L 1 /T

Fig. 3 Depth of Fixity

FIG 3 DEPTH OF FIXITY
d) Offshore structures including breakwaters, groins
and spurs; and
e) Shore protection works including seawalls,
embankments, revetments, dykes and toe
protection systems, erosion control.
The basic objective of application of geosynthetics is
to facilitate construction and minimise use of natural
resources. Geosynthetics are versatile and depending
on the type, the material serves the following functions:
1) Separation of dissimilar materials;
2) Reinforcement of soils and soil slopes;
3) Filtration (cross-plane flow);
4) Drainage (in-plane flow); and
5) Containment/protection.
In an application, a geosynthetic may be multi-
functional. Commonly used geosynthetics for ports
include those given in 12.2.1 to 12.2.8.
12.2.1 Geotextiles
These are in the form of woven and non-woven fabrics,
planar and flat. They are generally made of synthetic
fibres, made into flexible porous fabrics by standard
weaving machines or by being matted together in a
random non-woven manner. Some are also knitted.
The major characteristic is that geotextiles are porous
and allow liquid flow both across their plane and
within their thickness in case of non-wovens. See also
IS 16391, IS 16392, and IS 16393.
12.2.2 Geogrids
Geogrids too are planar material with very open
grid-like configuration. Geogrids may be knitted
or woven from polyester (PET) yarn appropriately
coated or extruded polypropylene. Knitted/woven
geogrids are flexible whereas extruded geogrids
which are formed into open grid-like formation
would be relatively stiff. While there may be
many application areas, geogrids are almost
exclusively used as soil reinforcement materials.
See IS 16349.
The key feature of geogrids is the tensile strength in
the machine direction for uniaxial geogrids and in
both machine and cross-machine directions for biaxial
geogrids.

8
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12.2.3 Geomembranes
Geomembranes are impervious sheets of polymeric
materials, generally high density polyethylene (HDPE)
(see IS 16352), linear low density polyethylene
(LLDPE), or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (see IS 15909).
Before the use of geomembranes, clay was used as
impervious material. The hydraulic permeability
of clay is of the order of 1 × 10–9 m/s. By contrast,
the permeability of a typical geomembrane would
be between 1 × 10–9 m/s and 1 × 10–11 m/s and hence
geomembranes are deemed relatively impervious. By
virtue of such impervious characteristics, geomembranes
are primarily used for linings and caps for liquids or
solid retaining storages, and as liquid or vapour barriers.
12.2.4 Geocells
Geocells are essentially three dimensional honeycomb-
like cellular confinement system. Modern geocells are
fabricated from ultrasonically-welded HDPE strips that
are expandable at site to form the honeycomb cellular
structure. The cells of a geocell system are filled
essentially with cohesionless soil for rigidity. The cell
walls are perforated for pore water pressure relief and
soil-to-soil interaction. The walls are also textured for
better soil-cell wall interaction.
Geocells have been used for reinforcing components
of flexible pavements, thereby reducing the thickness
of the pavement for the required traffic, resulting in
savings in project time and overall costs. Maintenance
required is also reduced. Geocells have also extensively
been used paving in container yards where thick
concrete layers have been done away with, thereby
reducing time and cost of construction. Geocells along
embankment slopes have been successful in preventing
bank erosion.
12.2.5 Geocomposites
Geocomposites are essentially a combination of geonets
covered on either side by geotextiles (generally non-
woven), or geotextile on one side and geomembrane
on the other. While the geonet allows flow along the
plane of the material, the non-woven is a separation
and filtration layer. A geomembrane may be provided
on one side if flow should not take place from soil
on the geomembrane side. Geocomposites are used
behind retaining walls and behind the concrete fascia of
reinforced soil structures to facilitate drainage of water
out of the system.
12.2.6 Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD)
These are also geocomposites comprising of a strip of
corrugated plastic 100 mm wide and placed within a
sleeve of PET non-woven geotextile. The purpose is
to invoke horizontal drainage of water in sub-strata
comprising soft silt/clay see IS 16393. The mechanism
of geocomposites is based on the principle that in
transported soft/very soft material, the permeability
9
IS 4651 (Part 2) : 2020
on the horizontal direction is several times higher than
that in the vertical direction. The PVDs are available
in rolls and are driven vertically into the soft subsoil
by mandrels. The PVDs are driven in close triangular
or rectangular grid. With surcharge at the surface, an
excess pore water pressure is developed within the soft
strata and water flows horizontally to the nearest PVD
over not only a distance shorter than the vertical but also
at a faster rate. As a result, 90 percent consolidation that
would otherwise occur over a period of several months,
would take place within a matter of weeks.
12.2.7 Geotubes
These are essentially large diameter tubes of woven or
non-woven and woven composites filled with pumped
sand to create sausage like structures. Geotubes are
used for shore protection against erosion and as spurs.
12.2.8 Steel and Nylon Gabions
Gabions are boxes or baskets of steel or nylon wire
mesh, infilled with cobble and/or gravel sized particles
(see IS 16014). The objective is to protect the shoreline
from erosion. Steel mesh gabions are also used as
building blocks to construct gravity retaining walls.
The major advantage of gabions is that the body of the
structure is pervious, allowing free flow of water from
the rear. This is a useful feature in sudden drawdown
conditions. However, migration of soil particles need to
be prevented through the body of gabions by judicious
use of non-woven geotextiles behind the gabions or
within the cage on the backfill side.
13 GROUND IMPROVEMENTS AND LAND
RECLAMATION
13.1 Considerations and Need for Ground
Improvement
Based on subsoil information obtained from site and
the loading exerted by the structure, foundation design
shall be carried out including sizing and settlement
analysis. Ground improvement is indicated if the
net loading intensity of the foundation exceeds the
allowable pressure computed as per IS 6403. Ground
treatment is also indicated if even for relative low
loading intensities, the resultant settlement [computed
in accordance with IS 8009 (Part 1) and IS 8009
(Part 2)] exceeds the acceptable limits for the structure
both from view point of distortions induced in the
structure and from operation angle. Loose cohesionless
deposits in seismic zones may be prone to liquefaction
during earthquakes especially under high water table
conditions. In such cases, analysis should be carried out
for establishing liquefaction potential of the subsoil [see
Annex F of IS 1893 (Part 1)]. Ground improvement is
called for if such analysis establishes that the subsoil
is prone to liquefaction. See also SP 7 (Part 6/Sec 2).
Stability of soil in slopes can be enhanced substantially
by the use of soil reinforcement.
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IS 4651 (Part 2) : 2020
13.2 Ground improvement
Ground improvement is achieved by the methods given
below.
13.2.1 Soil Densification
By application of shock and vibration to the subsoil
and thereby causing rearrangement of the soil structure
from a loose to medium due to dense state. This
technique is applicable only to cohesionless soils under
high water table conditions. Methods under this head
include vibro-flotation, vibro-compaction, compaction
piles, blasting and dynamic consolidation.
13.2.2 Pre-consolidation
Expulsion of water from the pores causes consolidation
of the soil thereby resulting in build-up of shear
strength and substantially reduced values of final
settlements of foundations. This is achieved by pre-
compression of the subsoil by subjecting the area to a
preload. Preload can be of a soil itself or any suitable
material. Preloading is generally carried out in stages
to allow gradual build-up of soil strength enabling it
to safely support further stages of preload. For poorly
draining soils, such as soft clays, pre-compression
is accelerated by provision of vertical drainage
channels. This technique is applicable to fine ground
soils, such as silts and clays. Subsoils exhibiting
high secondary consolidation characteristics may not
be amenable to required degree of improvement by
the preloading method. Removal of water from pore
spaces has also been carried out by application of
electric current to subsoil, the process being known
as electro-osmosis.
13.2.3 Injection and Grouting
Injection of chemicals, lime, cement, etc, into subsoils
improve subsoil by formation of bonds between soil
particles. Mechanical compression of subsoil is also
achieved under certain conditions provided grout is
pumped in under high pressure. Available methods are
suitable for sands as well as fine grained soils.
13.2.4 Soil Reinforcement
Reinforcement introduced into the soil mass causes
marked improvement in stiffness and consequently
load carrying capacity and stability of soil mass.
Reinforcements may be in the form of dense granular
materials in the form of stone columns [see 15284
(Part 1)]. These are used where the primary requirement
is increased in capability to carry vertical loads.
Reinforcements may also be in the form of horizontal
or vertical strips and membranes. These reinforcements
serve significantly to increase the capacity of soil to
withstand tensile, shear and compression loads and
contribute towards improvement of stability of soil
mass.
10
13.2.5 Miscellaneous Methods
Other methods used successfully include replacement
of poor subsoil by competent fill. These methods,
however have limitations of depths of application.
Improvement of properties of subsoils by heating and
drying and by fusion at high temperatures have been
employed with success. Soft soil has also temporarily
been strengthened by freezing to improve stiffness.
Annex B of Part 6/Sec 2 SP 7 presents various
methods of ground improvement along with principles,
applicability to various soil conditions, material
requirements, equipment required, results likely to be
achieved and limitations. The table may be referred
to as guidance for selecting the proper method for a
situation. Figure 4 gives applicable grain size ranges for
different treatment methods. For a particular situation
more than one method may appear to be suitable. In
such cases a relative study should be made for a proper
selection. If necessary, a combination of more than one
method may be more suitable.
13.3 Equipment and Accessories
The equipment and accessories will depend upon the
method of ground improvement adopted. In practice,
the type of equipment employed can vary considerably
depending upon the design and resources of the
contractor. However, not only it is important that the
equipment should be capable of reaching the required
depths but also the installation procedure should not
adversely affect subsoil properties thereby reducing
efficacy of treatment procedure adopted.
13.4 Control of Ground Improvement Works
Prior to commencement of ground improvement works,
pilot boreholes with relevant field and laboratory tests
shall be carried out in locations specific to area to be
improved. After completion of ground improvement
work in a specific area, the field and laboratory tests
shall be repeated to assess degree and adequacy of
improvement of subsoil.
13.5 Recording of Data
A competent inspector shall be present to record the
necessary information during execution of the ground
improvement work. Data to be recorded shall include:
a) Sequence of operation of the work;
b) Sequence and spacing of treatment points;
c) Depth of treatment;
d) Details of equipment employed and installation
procedure followed;
e) Records of instrumentation;
f) Results of soil tests before and after treatment; and
g) Settlements during preloading.
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GRAIN SIZE RANGES FOR DIFFERENT TREATMENT METHODS

GRAVEL SAND SILT CLAY

VIBRO-COMPACTION

BLASTING

PARTICULATE GROUT

CHEMICAL GROUT

DISPLACEMENT GROUT

PRECOMPRESSION
11

HEAVY TAMPING ( DYNAMIC CONSOLIDATION )

ELECTRO-OSMOSIS

REINFORCED ( TENSION, COMPRESSION, SHEAR )

THERMAL TREATMENT

ADMIXTURES

IS 4651 (Part 2) : 2020

10
1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
PARTICLE SIZE IN mm

Fig. 4 Ground
FIG. 4 GROUND Improvement MMETHODS
IMPROVEMENT ethods
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IS 4651 (Part 2) : 2020
ANNEX A
( Clause 2 )
LIST OF REFERRED INDIAN STANDARDS
IS No. Title
1893 Criteria for earthquake resistant
design of structures
(Part 1) : 2016 General provisions and buildings
( sixth revision )
(Part 3) : 2014 Bridges and retaining walls
2911 (Part 1/ Design and construction of pile
Sec 1) : 2010 foundations ― Code of practice
: Part 1 Concrete piles, Section 1
Driven cast-in-situ concrete piles
( second revision )
2911 (Part 1/ Design and construction of pile
Sec 2) : 2010 foundations ― Code of practice:
Part 1 Concrete piles, Section 2
Bored cast-in-situ concrete piles
( second revision )
2911 (Part 1/ Design and construction of pile
Sec 3) : 2010 foundations ― Code of practice:
Part 1 Concrete piles, Section 3
Driven precast concrete piles
( second revision )
2911 (Part 1/ Design and construction of pile
Sec 4) : 2010 foundations ― Code of practice:
Part 1 Concrete piles, Section 4
Precast concrete piles in prebored
holes ( first revision )
6403: 1981 Code of practice for determination
of bearing capacity of shallow
foundations ( first revision )
7314 : 1974 Glossary of terms relating to port
and harbour engineering
8009 Code of practice for calculation
of settlements of foundations
(Part 1) : 1976 Shallow foundations subjected to
symmetrical static vertical loads
(Part 2) : 1980 Deep foundations subjected
to symmetrical static vertical
loading
13094 : 1992 Selection of ground improvement
techniques for foundation in
weak soils ― Guidelines
12
IS No. Title
15284 (Part 1) : Design and construction
2003 for ground improvement ―
Guidelines: Part 1 Stone columns
15909 : 2015 PVC geomembranes for lining —
Specification ( first revision )
16014 : 2018 Mechanically woven, double-
twisted, hexagonal wire mesh
gabions, revet mattresses,
rock fall netting and other
products for civil engineering
purposes (galvanized steel wire
or galvanized steel wire with
polymer coating) — Specification
( first revision )
16349 : 2015 Geosynthetics — Guidelines
for installation of geogrids used
as reinforcement of base and
sub-base layers in pavement
structures
16352 : 2015 Geosynthetics — High
density polyethylene HDPE
geomembranes for lining —
Specification
16391 : 2015 Geosynthetics — Geotextiles
used in sub-grade separation
in pavement structures —
Specification
16392 : 2015 Geosynthetics — Geotextiles for
permanent erosion control in hard
armor systems — Specification
16393 : 2015 Geosynthetics — Geotextiles
used in subsurface drainage
application — Specification
SP 7 (Part 6/ National Building Code of
Sec 2) : 2016 India 2016: Part 6 Structural
Design, Section 2 Soils and
Foundations
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IS 4651 (Part 2) : 2020

ANNEX B
( Foreword )

COMMITTEE COMPOSITION
Ports, Harbours and Offshore Installations Sectional Committee, CED 47

Organization(s) Representative(s)

In personal capacity (3353, Sector D; Pocket 3; Dr M. Hariharan (Chairman)

Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110 070)
Afcons Infrastructure Limited, Mumbai
Central Institute of Coastal Engg. for Fishery,
Bengaluru
Central Water & Power Research Station, Pune
Chennai Port Trust, Chennai
CSIR - National Institute of Oceanography,
Panaji
CSIR - Structural Engineering Research Centre,
Chennai
Engineers India Limited, New Delhi
Gujarat Maritime Board, Gandhinagar
India Meteorological Department, New Delhi
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai
ITD Cementation India Ltd, Kolkata
Jawahar Lal Nehru Port Trust, Navi Mumbai
Kolkata Port Trust, Kolkata
Larsen & Toubro Infrastructure Engineering
Limited, Chennai
Military Engineer Services, Engineer-in-Chief’s
Branch, Integrated HQ of MoD (Army),
New Delhi
Ministry of Shipping, New Delhi
Mumbai Port Trust, Mumbai
National Centre for Coastal Research, Chennai
National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai Dr Basanta Kumar Jena
Shri V. Ramamurty
Ms Vasumitha Joshi (Alternate)
Shri N. Venkatesh Prasad
Shri M. B. Belliappa (Alternate)
Dr Prabhat Chandra
Dr J. D. Agrawal (Alternate)
Superintending Engineer (Civil)
Executive Engineer (Civil) (Alternate)
Shri D. Ilangovan
Dr J. Rajasankar
Shri P. Gandhi (Alternate)
Shri Bhaskar Pal
Shri Charanjit Singh (Alternate)
Chief Engineer
Deputy Chief Engineer (Alternate)
Dr S. K. Peshin
Dr S. D. Attri (Alternate)
Prof R. Sundaravadivelu
Prof S. A. Sannasiraj (Alternate)
Shri Prodyot Kumar Ray
Shri Pinkai Adak (Alternate)
Manager (PPD)
Deputy Manager (PPD) (Alternate)
Shri A. K. Mehera
Shri Amitabha Chattopadhyay (Alternate)
Shri N. Sunil Kumar
Shri P. R. Rajesh (Alternate)
Brig J. S. Ishar
Shri H. N. Aswath
Shri Anil Pruthi (Alternate)
Deputy Chief Engineer (D)
Superintending Engineer (D) (Alternate)
Dr M. V. Ramanamurthy
Dr R. S. Kankara (Alternate)
Dr Vijaya Ravichandran (Alternate)

13
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IS 4651 (Part 2) : 2020

Organization(s) Representative(s)

Royal Haskoning DHV India, Noida Shri Mohd Aslam Bijapur

Simplex Infrastructure Ltd, Kolkata
Visakhapatnam Port Trust, Visakhapatnam
In personal capacity (A-307, Casa Ansal
Apts, 18, Bannerghatta Road, Bengaluru)
Directorate General, BIS
Shri Satyanand Kunta (Alternate)
Shri Atindra Narayan Basu
Shri Amal Kumar Mehera
Shri G. V. Satyanarayana (Alternate)
Shri K. Vedagiri
Shri Sanjay Pant, Scientist ‘F’ and Head (Civil Engineering)
[ Representing Director General ( Ex-officio ) ]

Member Secretary
Shri S. Arun Kumar
Scientist ‘D’ (Civil Engineering), BIS

14
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This Indian Standard has been developed from Doc No.: CED 47 (14279).

Amendments Issued Since Publication

Amend No. Date of Issue Text Affected

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