Ad-Hoc Basic ConceptsAd-Hoc Basic Concepts * Temporary or ad-hoc networks that are established and maintained on the fly and work without the support of any form of fixed infrastructure such as base station, are known as Mobile Ad-Hoc NETworks (MANETS). + Self-configuring networks set up among the hand-held devices of mobile users. Mobile Adhoo Notwork ArHow is an Ad Hoc network Set up without the Infrastructure Support? * Mobile device can communicate with each other in absence of any form of _ fixed networking infrastructure such as hubs, routers, base station etc. «A network can be established through cooperation among the devices themselves. +A mobile device wanting to communicate can forward its packet to its neighbours and the neighbours nodes in turn can forward those to their neighbours , and so on until the destination is reached.A schematic model of a Mobile Ad-Hoc NetworkWhy is Routing in a MANET a complex Task? + In an ad hoc network, such as simple and efficient routing protocol is difficult to deploy. + First it is very difficult to have a global identifier assigned a to every node that would also indicate route to the node. * This is because the nodes keep on moving and the identity would also have to change, which would incur an inordinately large overhead. + If a route between a pair of nodes is somehow determined, routes become quickly obsolete since they dynamically get built and also get dissolved. + Suppose the route has already been determined between a source and destination and packets are getting transmitted on this route. * Some nodes forming this route may move away even as the packets are getting transmitted, thus disrupting the communication.Why is Routing in a MANET a complex Task? + Ina nutshell, ina MANET + Frequent topology changes + Node failure + Link breakages + Depletion of battery energyCharacteristics of Mobile Ad-Hoc NetworksCharacteristics of Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks + Important characteristics of MANETs are described below: * Lack of fixed infrastructure » It is the most distinguishing characteristic of a MANET. » In the absence of any fixed networking infrastructure, a pair of nodes can either communicate directly when they are in transmission range of each other or they can communicate using a multi-hop communication. » Based on this characteristic alone, Cellular networks and wireless LANs cannot be considered to be MANETS.Characteristics of Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks * Dynamic topologies »The devices in the MANET are allowed to move arbitrarily, the network topology can change unpredictably. »The rate of topology change depends on the speed of movement of the mobile devices. »The speed of movement of a mobile device can vary greatly with the time of the day and the specific MANET application being considered.Characteristics of Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks + Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links > Wireless links have lower capacity. »Factors such as_ fading, noise, and interference can change the available bandwidth of wireless link. »Consequently, the bandwidth of a link can change arbitrarily with time.Characteristics of Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks + Energy constrained operation » The nodes in a MANET rely on battery power. > Batteries are small and can store very limited amounts of energy. >Transmissions and processing required during routing involve expenditure of substantial amount of energy causing the batteries to get rapidly drained out, unless the routing protocol is carefully designed. » Therefore, energy conservation is usually considered to be an important objective of MANET routing protocols.Characteristics of Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks * Increased vulnerability » MANETS are prone to many new types of security threats. » These threats arise due to the underlying wireless transmissions and the deployment of collaborative routing techniques. » There are increased possibilities of eavesdropping, spoofing, denial-of-service attacks. > Further, it is very difficult to identify the attacker since the devices keep moving and do not have a global identifier. » Nodes are vulnerable to capture and compromise.Characteristics of Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks * Other characteristics ~Itincludes, = Distributed peer-to-peer mode of operation = Multi-hop routing ™Relatively frequent changes to the concentration of nodes over any specific area.MANET Operational Constraints * Nodes in a MANET have low processing capabilities and these are connected by low bandwidth wireless links. + A suitable routing protocol needs to be adopted to make efficient utilization of the available bandwidth. * It should keep the computational and communicational overheads low. * Battery power is possibly the most scarce resource. * A routing protocol should not make use of frequent flooding or even make use of periodic updated messages. * Since nodes in a MANET are likely to be mobile, route dissolves due to the rapidly changing topology + A routing protocol should be able to find an alternate route very quickly.Applications of Mobile Ad-Hoc NetworksApplications of Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks * MANETs can be setup quickly since no fixed infrastructures need to be deployed. + Fixed infrastructure becomes difficult to be set up because of security, cost, inaccessibility of the terrain, or safety-related reasons, ad-hoc networks become the preferred choice. +A few example applications are defense related operations and disaster management applications, etc.Applications of Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks * Communication among portable computers + Nowadays all devices are miniaturized. + They are all useful (working meaningfully) only when they operate on a network. * Devices must communicate with others within a range. * Mobile phones, laptops, iPods, etc. could be connected to a network and data is shared among all devices in that network. + Eg: A lecture room with no networking infrastructure exist.Applications of Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks * Environmental Monitoring * Mobile devices collect various environmental related data and exchange them to other nodes in MANET. + Information such as traffic monitoring, security monitoring, weather information, etc. will be continuously collected and shared among the nodes in MANET. * Sensors are used for radiation measuring, rainfall measuring, etc. will be connected to a Wireless sensor networks and share their collected information. * Wired and infrastructure networks cannot be deployed here. + MANET is deployed in such cases.Applications of Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks * Military + Nowadays the equipment in military forces are very latest in technology and trends, having many automated parts. * When deployed in military war field, the system automatically sets up an ad- hoc network and captures information. + Information such as number of troops in enemy force, distance of enemy war ships from the war field, etc. will be recorded. * The information will be sent to commanding officer who is away from the war field + Setting up a network of nodes manually in a war field is not possible. + So, ad-hoc networks will be used in such cases.Applications of Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks + Emergency Applications * It can be used immediately after any natural disaster Tsunami, earth quake, floods, etc. + Wired network will get damaged after disasters. + To immediately create a connectivity to all affected regions of disaster, for the purpose of rescue work, a network is needed. + It is not possible to restore the damaged wired network. * So, ad-hoc networks are the only solution here.Design Issues & Routing in Ad-Hoc NetworksMANET Design Issues * Network Size and Node density Network and node density are the two important parameters of MANET. Network and node density need to be considered while designing an appropriate routing protocol for a network. Network size refers to the geographical coverage area of the network. Network density refers to the number of nodes p geographical area For large area networks , clustering is essential to keep the communication ove ds low. The cluster size as well as a specific clustering solution for network would , to large extent , depends on node density. esent per unitMANET Design Issues * Connectivity * The term connectivity of a node usually refers to neighbours it nas * Here a neighbour of a node is one that is in its transmission range. * The term connectivity between two nodes is also sometimes used to refer to a link between the to nodes. * The term link capacity denotes the bandwidth of the link In a MANET , both the number of neighbouring nodes and the capacities of the links to different neighbours may vary significantly.MANET Design Issues * Network topology * The topology of a network denotes the connectivity among the various nodes of the network. * Mobility of the nodes affects the network topology. * Due to node mobility ,new links can form and some links may get dissolved * Other than mobility , nodes can become inoperative due to + discharged batteries or + hardware failure and thereby causing changes to the topology. +The rate at which the topology changes need to be appropriately considered in the design of an effective networkMANET Design Issues * User traffic * The design of a MANET is carried out primarily based on the + anticipated node density. * average rate of node movements. + the expected traffic. * The traffic in a network can be of various Types. *A network protocol should specific traffic types that are performance * The common traffic types are the following * Bursty traffic. + Large packet sent periodically. + Combination of the above two types of traffic.MANET Design Issues * Operational environment * The operational environment of a mobile network is usually either urban , rural and maritime + These operational environment supports the line of sight(LOS) communication ¢ But , there can be significant difference in the node density and mobility values in different operational environments , requiring different design of mobile network suit an operational environmentMANET Design Issues + Energy constraint * No fixed infrastructure exist in MANET. * The mobile node themselves store and forward pi S. + This additional role of mobile nodes as routers lead to nodes incurring perennial routing related workload and_ this consequently results in continual battery draining. + Though this overhead is indispensable if the network is to be kept operational, the energy spent can be substantially wing the nodes to go into a sleep modeRouting * Packet routing is usually a much more complex task in an ad hoc network compared to that in an infrastructure based network. * Main complications arise on account of continual topology changes and limited battery power of the nodes. * The purpose of routing is to find the best path between the source and the destination for forwarding packets in any store and forward network. * In a traditional network , routing is a relatively easy task because the routes to nodes can be uniquely and efficiently identified based on the subnet structure encoded in IP. *In a MANET, the nodes Making up a route may themselves move or shutdown down to low battery energy, in the process making the knowledge about routes at various nodes to quickly become obsolete. * It is therefore necessary to find a new route each time a node needs to transmit a message, making routing an expensive and difficult task.Routing Based on the above discussions, ‘Traditional routing protocols would not be suitable in an ad hoc network. ‘Each node in an ad hoc network needs to have routing capability and also needs to participate in routing to keep the network operational. Whenever there is an incoming packet in a MANET: (a) Forward the packet to the next node(hop). (b) While forwarding the packet, the sender needs to ensure that: (The packet move towards its destination. (i) The number of hops/path length is minimized. (iii) Delay is minimized. (iv) The packet loss is minimized. (v) The packet does not move around the network endlessly.Routing * Several types of routing protocols have been proposed for MANETs. * Different routing protocols essentially implement the above steps(a) and (b) while meeting the constraints inherent to the network, such as low energy consumption, through the deployment of various techniques.Essentials of Traditional Routing ProtocolsEssentials of Traditional Routing Protocols *The two important classes of routing protocols for traditional networks are the link state and the distance vector. * Both are extremely popular in packet-switched networks. * The shortest path is computed according to some specific cost metric such as the number of hops in the route.Approaches to Shortest Path Routin 1. Link State Routing or Link State Protocol (LSP) *Each node knows the distance to its neighbors. ‘The distance information (=link state) is broadcast to all nodes in the network. *Each node calculates the routing tables independently. 2. Distance Vector Routing Each node knows the distance (=cost) to its directly connected neighbors. *A node sends a list to its neighbors with the current distances to all nodes. ‘If all nodes update their distances, the routing tables eventually converge.Link State Routing * Each node must * discover its neighbors. * measure the delay (=cost) to its neighbors. + broadcast a packet with this information to all other nodes. * compute the shortest paths to every other router. * The broadcast can be accomplished by flooding. * The shortest paths can be computer with Dijkstra’s algorithm.Link State Routing - Basic rinciples . Each router establishes a relationship (“adjacency”) with its neighbors. 2.Each router generates link state advertisements (LSAs) which are distributed to all routers. The LSA contains + The identity of the router originating the message + The identities of all neighbors. * LSA = (link id, state of the link, cost, neighbors of the link) 3. Each router maintains a database of all received LSAs (topological database or link state database), which describes the network has a graph with weighted edges. 4. Each router uses its link state database to run a shortest path algorithm (Dijikstra’s algorithm) to produce the shortest path to each network.A router is connected to other routers through links Network Interface 4 Link <——)_ LineCard Line Card *——> <~—|_ Line Card Router Line Card “*——> <> LineCard Line Card }*#——> Tink L—____| Figure 7.2 Schematic diagram of a router.Link State Routing - Properties * Each node requires complete topology information. * Link state information must be flooded to all nodes. * All routers which are connected to the router added to the tree or in the candidate list. * The delay in the candidate list to every other router in the tree are compared *The shortest delay is moved in to the tree and attached to appropriate neighbor router and removed from the candidate list. * The above steps are repeated till there are no more routers left in the candidate list. *The network topology has been determined in the form of a shortest path tree a router forms its routing table and uses it to find the best route to any destination.Operation of a Link State Routing Protocol Roe Link State iN Database Pa LSAs are flooded enema cuteeAdvantages & Disadvantages Advantages *Builds a topological map -Full knowledge of the network. *Fast convergence -Floods LSPs immediately. *Event-driven updates -LSP sent when there is a change, only contains information regarding the affected link. *Hierarchical design -Areas can be used to separate routing traffic. Disadvantages *Significant demands on memory and processing resources. *Requires very strict network design. “Requires a knowledgeable network administrator. *Initial flooding can impede network performance.Distance Vector Routing +The term vector means that routes are advertised as vector (distance, direction)Each node maintains two tables: * Distance is the number of hops between the two nodes and direction is defined in terms of the next hop router to which the packets need to be forwarded. +The distance vector protocols are based on well known Bellman-Ford algorithm. * The protocol share everything in the network with neighbors by broadcasting the entire router table. * Router updates its own routing table by examining the received information and in turn informs its own neighbors of the changes, called ‘routing by rumor’ + The router do not have knowledge of the entire path, just know the following vector * Direction in which a packet should be forwarded. Its own distance form the destination. * The two popular DV routing protocol are RIP(Routing Information Protocol) and IGRP(interior Gateway Routing Protocol).Advantages & Disadvantages Advantages *Simple implementation and maintenance. Low resource requirements (memory, CPU). Disadvantages *Slow convergence (periodic updates). Limited scalability. “Routing loops (due to slow convergence).Popular Routing ProtocolsRouting in MANET Vs - Traditional Networks The three important ways in which a MANET routing protocol differs from routing of packets in traditional networks. *In MANET each node act as a router, whereas ordinary nodes in a traditional wired network do not participate in routing the packets. *In MANET the topology is dynamic because of the mobility of the routing, the routing table become obsolete and routing process complicated. ‘In the simple IP based addressing scheme deployed in wired networks, the IP address encapsulated in the subnet structures does not work because of node mobility. *To cope with the above three impermanent differences, MANET need to carryout route discovery and route maintenance.Types of communications The node initiate the following types of communication. “Unicast: The message is sent to a single destination node. *Multicast: The message is sent to a selected subset of the network nodes. *Broadcast: The message is sent to all node in the network. Since unrestrained broadcast can choke a MANET, applications usually do not use broad cast.A Classification of Unicast Routing Protocols REACTIVE PRO MANET routing protocol PROA\ 3 HYBRID PROT PROTOCOL DSR |ABR| ge fosr] fer} |cosr a RPAMIZRE, lOORPA Classification of Unicast Routing P, FPLACALSecos Traditional distributed shortest-path protocols Maintain routes between every host pair at all times Based on periodic updates; High routing overhead Little or no delay for route determination Consume bandwidth to keep routes up-to-date Maintain routes which may never be used Example: DSDV (destination sequenced distance vector) * Reactive protocols Determine route if and when needed Source initiates route discovery Example: DSR (dynamic source routing) Lower overhead since routes are determined on demand Significant delay in route determination Employ flooding (global search) Control traffic may be burstyA Classification of Unicast Routing Protocols * Hybrid protocols Adaptive; Combination of proactive and reactive Combine the good features of both the protocols To achieve increased scalability by allowing nodes with close proximity to work together to form some sort of backbone to reduce the route discovery overheads. - Proactive Routing Route discovery strategy - Determining routes to far away nodes Example : ZRP (zone routing protocol)Destination Sequence Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV) *DSDV is based on the table driven (Proactive) approach to packet routing, it extends the distance vector protocol of wired networks (Bellman-Foard routing algorithm). * Improvement made is the avoidance of routing loops through the use of sequence number scheme. * Each node maintains information regarding routes to all the known destinations. The routing information updated periodically. * Full Update or full dump: Send all routing information from own table. + Incremental Update: Send only entries that has changed. (Make it fit into one single packet) «This can be considered shortcoming - traffic overhead and maintain routes which they may not use.Destination Sequence Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV) + Steps in DSDV + Each router (node) in network collects route information from all its neighbours . + The node finds shortest path to destination based on gathered information . -A new routing table is generated based on gathered information . + Router broadcasts this table to neighbours for updating . * This process continues till routing information is stable.Destination Sequence Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV) Destination Next Hop | MetricSequence No| Install Nt Nt f 324 004 N2 N2 4 218 004 N3 N2. 2 043 002 N4 NS 4 163 002 + Sequence number: originated from destination. Ensures loop freeness. * Install Time: when entry was made (used to delete stale entries from table)DSDV (Cont.) Advantages: — Route setup process is very fast — Make the existing wired network protocol apply to ad hoc network with fewer modifications Disadvantages: — Excessive control overhead during high mobility — Node must wait for a table update message initiated by the destination node + Cause stale routing information at nodesDynamic Source Routing (DSR) + DSR is a source initiated on-demand (or reactive) routing protocol for ad hoc networks. * It uses source routing technique in which sender of a packet determines the complete sequence of nodes through which a packet has to travel. + The sender of the packet then explicitly records this list of all nodes in the packet's header. * Not exchange the routing table information periodically * Each mobile node in the protocol maintains a routing cache - which contains the list of all routes that the node has learnt and maintains a sequence counter called request id to uniquely identify the last request it had generated. * DSR works in two phases: |. Route discovery Il. Route maintenanceDynamic Source Routing (DSR) * Route discovery * First checks its own routing cache. If there is a valid route, sends the packet other wise + It initiate the route discovery by route request + The route request packet initiates a route reply by the destination node or by an intermediate node that knows a route to the destination. + Route maintenance * Route maintenance is the process of monitoring the correct operation of a route in use and taking the corrective action when needed. * As soon as the source receives the RouteError message, it deletes the broken-link-route from its cache. + If it had another route to the destination, it starts to retransmits the packets using alternative route otherwise it intimates the route discovery process again.Figure 7.10. Route establishment in DSR.Routing Maintain Figure 7.11. Route maintenance in DSR. ‘Network Link Selected Path RowteEsror Broken LinkDynamic Source Routing Protocol + Advantage — No need to updating the routing tables — Intermediate nodes are able to utilize the Route Cache information efficiently to reduce the control overhead — There are no “hello” messages needed (beacon-less) * Disadvantage — The Route Maintenance protocol does not locally repair a broken link — There is always a small time delay at the begin of a new connectionAd Hoc On-demand Distance-Vector Routing Protocol (AODV) Every node has a routing table. When a node knows a route to the destination, it sends a route reply to the source node The major difference between DSR and AODV — DSR uses source routing in which a data packet carries the complete path to traversed. — AODV stores the next-hop information corresponding to each flow for data packet transmission. Message types — Route Requests (RREQs) — Route Replies (RREPs) — Route Errors (RERRs). 38AODV RouteRequest packet carries: — SrelD, DestID, DestseqNum, BeastID, and TTL — DestSeqNum indicates the freshness of the route is accepted — An intermediate node receives a RouteRequest packet. It either forwards it or prepares a RouteReply if it has a valid route to the destination RouteReply packet: — Anode receives RouteReply packet will record the information as the next hop toward the destination AODV does not repair a broken path locally 39‘Network: Link Pathl: 1-6:10-14.15 Path2: 1541215 Figure 7.12. Route establishinent in AODV.en z 3 z 5 $ 3 i a z g i g 3 : = 1O} : i@) z a SS, 8 G) 2 & g £ 2 £ 5 3 2AODV Advantage — Establish on demand — Destination sequences are used to find the latest path to destination — The connection setup delay is less Disadvantage — Intermediate node can lead to inconsistent route — Beacon-base — Heavy control overheadZone Routing Protocol (ZRP) * Intra-zone routing protocol (Proactive routing) — It is only used in the routing zone. — It brakes all nodes in the routing zone into interior nodes and peripheral nodes. — Each node maintain routing path to all nodes in the routing zone by exchanging periodic route update packets. + Inter-zone routing protocol (Reactive routing)ZRP. Figure 2,26, Routing Zone for node & inZone Routing Protocol (ZRP) When a nade s has packets to be sent to a node d - It checks whether node d is with in its zone. - Ifdisn’t in the zone, s broadcasts (uses unicast routing) the RouteRequest to its peripheral nodes. - If any peripheral node finds d in its zone, it sends a RouteReply back to s indicating the path. — Otherwise, the peripheral node rebroadcasts the RouteRequest again. The query control must ensure that redundant or duplicate RouteRequests are not forwarded. The zone radius has significant impact on the performance.Routing Zone for Node 8 Figure 7.27. Path finding beween node 8 and node 16,ZRP - Advantage — ZRP reduces the control overhead employed in on-demand approach and the periodic flooding of routing information in table-driven. + Disadvantage — In the absence of a query control, ZRP tends to produce higher control overhead. — The decision on the zone radius has a significant impact on the performance of the protocolMulticast Routing Protocols for MANETs the delivery of a message to a group of destination nodes in a single transmission as shown in figure. * Providing Efficient bandwidth, Reducing communication cost, Efficient delivery of data, Supporting dynamic topology Multiple unicast. * Minimizing network load, Providing basic support for reliable transmission, Designing optimal routes, Providing robustness, efficiency, and adaptability. «There are tw icast routing protocols: Tree °o _@ protocols. —Multicast Routing Protocols for : Establish a single path between any two nodes in the multicast group. Minimum number of copies per packet to be sent in the tree. Bandwidth efficient . + Example: Multicast Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (MAODV) routing protocol * Mesh-based_ protocols: Establish a mesh of paths that connect the sources and destinations. They are more resilient to link failures as well as to mobility. *Drawback - Multiple copies of the same packet are disseminated through the mesh., resulting in reduced packet delivery and increased overhead under highly mobilized conditions. * Example: On-Demand Multicast Routing Protocol (ODMRP)Vehicular Ad Hoc networks(VANET) * VANET is a special type of MANET in which moving automobiles from the nodes of the network * Vehicle can communicate with other vehicle that are within a range of about 100 to 300 meters - Multi- hop communication. * Any vehicle that goes out of the signal range in the network excluded from the network. + A vehicle come in the range of a vehicles of a VANET can come in the range can join the network. * A VANET can offer a significant utility value to a motorist. + It can help drivers to get information and warnings from a nearby environment via message exchange. * It can help disseminate geographical information to drivers as he continues to drive.Vehicular Ad Hoc networks(VANET) * The driver can get road condition ahead or a warming about the application of emergency electronic brake by a vehicle ahead in the lane. * Drivers may have the opportunity to engage in other leisurely tasks, VoIP with family, watch news and participate in an office video conference etc. * Two vehicles are involved in a collision. The trailing vehicle get advance notification of the collision ahead on the road. The scenario shown in figure. Accident site Figure 7.7 A VANET use scenario.MANET Vs VANET A mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET) is a self-configuring is a subclass of mobile Ad Hoc infrastructure- less network of networks (MANETs). mobile devices connected by wireless. Each device in a MANET is free to These networks have no fixed move independently in any infrastructure and instead rely direction, and will therefore on the vehicles themselves to change its links to other devices provide network functionality. frequently. Dynamic topologies The very high speed of the * variable capacity links nodes. * Energy constrained operation Vehicles that are not subjected * Limited physical security to the strict energy, space andSecurity issues in MANETs MANETS are much more vulnerable to attack than wired network. This is because of the following reasons “Open Medium - Eavesdropping is more easier than in wired network. ‘Dynamically Changing Network Topology - Mobile Nodes comes and goes from the network, thereby allowing any malicious node to join the network without being detected. ‘Cooperative Algorithms - The routing algorithm of MANETs requires mutual trust between nodes which violates the principles of Network Security. sLack of Centralized Monitoring - Absence of any centralized infrastructure prohibits any monitoring agent in the system: ‘Lack of Clear Line of Defense The important characteristics of ad hoc networks that can be exploited to cause security vulnerabilities sLack of physical boundary - difficult to deploy firewalls or monitor the incoming traffic. Low power RF transmission - signal jamming lead to denial of service(DoS) attack ‘Limited computational capabilities - Inability to encrypt messages - spoofing and routing attacks. ‘Limited power supply - attacker attempt exhaust batteries.Characteristics of secure ad hoc networks... should have the following characteristics: ‘Availability - able to survive denial of service(DOS). ‘Confidentiality - Prevent unauthorized users to access confidential information. ‘Integrity - no tampering of transmitted messages. ‘Authentication - Guarantee about the true identity of peer node. * Non-repudiation- Should ensure that a node having sent a message can not deny it.Attacks on Ad Hoc Networks + MANET attacks are classified into passive and active attacks. * Passive attacks: + Target to monitor and steal the data exchanged in the network without disrupting the network operations. + Very difficult to identify since these do not have any perceivable symptoms. + Can be reduced by using suitable encryption techniques. * Active attacks: + Destructive and disturbs the normal functionality of the network. Snooping, Wormhole, eavesdroppi black hole, ng, traffic grey hole, analysis, resource monitoring consumption R routing attacks Application Layer ‘Transport Layer Network Layer Data link layer Physical layer Malicious code, repudiation, data corruption Session hijacking, SYN flooding Wormhole, black hole, fabrication attack, grey hole Resource consumption Traffic analysis, monitoring, disruption, iahareing: tnberosohione: eovocuminiinn:Attacks on Ad Hoc Networks * Routing loop + By sending tampered routing packets, an attacker can create a routing loop. + Data packets being sent endlessly, consuming bandwidth and causing dissipation of power for a number of nodes. + As a result, the packets are prevented from reaching their intended recipients. * Type of Denial-of-service (DoS) attack. * Malicious code attack + A malicious code can be a virus, worm, spyware, or a Trojan * An attacker can propagate malicious code and can slow down the nodes, overload the network, or even crash the nodes. + Repudiation attack + Refers to the denial of participation in a communication. + A malicious user can deny a credit card or bank transaction.Attacks on Ad Hoc Networks * SYN flooding attack + An attacker creates a large number of half-opened TCP connections with the victim nodes by sending a large number of SYN packets to them. + This causes the victim nodes to overflow * Session hijacking + The attacker can spoof the IP address of a node that has just started a session and hijack the session from the victim and perform a DoS attack. + Fabrication attack + A malicious node sends a false route error message to the packet to the sender, even when the next hop link is not broken. * Black hole + A node can set up a route to some destination via itself, and when the actual data packets are received from other nodes are simply dropped. + This node forms a black hole, to which data packets enter but never leave.Attacks on Ad Hoc Networks + Grey hole + Special case of black hole attack. + The attackers selectively drops some kinds of packets that pass through it. + More difficult to detect this attack. * Partitioning + The attacker partitions a network by causing some nodes to spilt up from the other nodes. + One set of nodes is not able to communicate with other set of nodes. + By analyzing the network topology the attacker can choose to make the partitioning between the set of nodes that causes the most harm to the system a Blackllse This attack tries to exploit a loophole in security mechanisms. + Keeping a list of perceived malicious node to tackle this problem Each node has a blacklist of bad nodes and thereby avoids using them when setting up routing paths. + An attacker might try to get a good node blacklisted, causing the other good nodes to add this node to their respective blacklists and so avoid it.Attacks on Ad Hoc Networks * Wormhole + Adirect link (tunnel) between the two nodes is established. - wormhole link + Through the wormhole link, one node eavesdrops messages at one end, and tunnels them through the wormhole link to the other node which then replays them. + The tunnel essentially emulates a shorter route through the network and so naive nodes prefer to use it rather than the alternative longer routes. * Once a wormhole is established, a malicious node an use it for traffic analysis or make a denial-of-service attack by dropping certain data or control packets. * Dropping routing traffic + In an Ad-Hoc network, all nodes participate in the routing process. * A node may act selfishly and process only the routing information that is related to itself either maliciously or to conserve energy. + This attack can create network instability or can even segment the network.Security Attack Countermeasures oo Attneks Data link layer Use of spread spectrum transmission and directional antennae. Network Layer Use of authentication measures and keeping track of the trust nodes. Transport Layer Securing and authenticating end-to-end communications through data encryption techniques. Application Detection and prevention of virus, worms, Layer malicious code through code analysis.