WHAT IS AN ACADEMIC ESSAY

Academic writing is clear, concise, focused,

structured and backed up by evidence.
 Principles of Academic Writing
• Cohesion
• Clarity
• Logical order
• Consistency
• Unity
• Conciseness
• Completeness
• Variety
• Formality
• Based on facts
 Different types of academic
writing include
• abstract.
• annotated bibliography.
• academic journal article.
• book report.
• conference paper.
• dissertation.
• essay.
• explication.
What is different about academic
writing?
1.Audience

2.Tone

3.Language

4.Content

5.Perspective

6.Aim
 Importance
• Culture of writing at a higher education
institution
• they make you think about an issue in depth;
• they help you develop the ability to think
logically, to argue a case
• they make you relate theoretical knowledge to
particular issues
• they help you to write cogently and fluently
• they help you to write according to the demands
of a particular discipline
 Keywords in academic writing
• Planning;
• Critical thinking;
• Referencing;
• Well-supported points (Structure)
• Evidence-based arguments;
• Logical development (Language)
• Grammar (Editing)
 A good essay structure
• Is made easier by prior planning.

• Makes it clear how you are going to address the question, where
you are going and why.

• Sets out your main ideas clearly.

• Makes it clear how the main ideas relate to each other.

• Takes the reader through your answer in a logical, progressive way.

• Helps the reader to remember what you have said.

• Organises groups of related information in paragraphs.

• Uses connecting words and phrases to relate each point/idea to

earlier and later points
 SOURCE
• Textbook; manual; encyclopaedia; instruction guide.
• Novel (descriptive writing; dialogue; characters; narrative)
• Biography/autobiography
• Review (book, film, restaurant, theatre, music)
• Advertisement; brochure; poster
• News article; magazine article
• News reports
• Speech; diary
• Prayer; sermon
• Letters (business, personal, to the press)
 Intention or Purpose
• Inform; state a fact

• Explain; give an instruction

• Advise; warn

• Provoke; inspire; stimulate thought

• Persuade; manipulate; preach

• Give an opinion; criticise; satirise

• Arouse a feeling, a response, an emotion

 Intention or Purpose (cont.)
• Record, share an experience

• Describe a scene/character

• Tell/narrate a story; create

excitement/suspense

• Arouse tension, shock, horror, sympathy

• Entertain, through humour/suspense

• Convince of a specific belief or point of view

 AUDIENCE: target readership
• Age: under 6, 6-12, 13-19, 20-34, 35-49
• Gender: male or female
• Family life cycle: young single, young married,
married, etc.
• Income: lower, middle, upper
• Education: primary, secondary, tertiary.
• Occupation: professional, manager, clerical,
craftsman, artisan, student, housewife,
unemployed.
 AUDIENCE: target readership (cont)
• Ethnic background: Asian, Black, White, Greek, Zulu,
Xhosa, etc.

• Social class: upper, upper middle, lower middle,

lower

• Personality: ambitious, self-confident, aggressive,

introverted, sociable, etc.

• Lifestyle: conservative, liberal, health and fitness

conscious, racy, adventurous.
 Essay writing – the main stages
1. Analyse the question
2. Make a rough outline plan (Brainstorm)
3. Use plan to guide research
4. Review, revise and refine the plan
5. Write first draft
6. Edit draft for structure and content
7. Edit draft for style
8. Check referencing
9. Proof read for spelling/punctuation
10. Produce final copy
 Don’ts of ACADEMIC WRITING
• Do not use slang, jargon, colloquialisms, or sexist
language.
• Do not use shortened verb forms (contractions),
such as they're, isn't, can't.
• Do not use common vocabulary, such as have got, a
lot, nice, the other thing.
• Do not use conversational opening phrases, such as
Well, you see, Yes…, Let's move on.
• Do not write I think - especially not at the beginning
of a sentence, i.e. do not write, for example, I think
James (2008) believes that global warming will…
• Avoid long sentences.
 Don’ts of ACADEMIC WRITING
• Do not use personal pronouns e.g. I, you, we (unless
specifically required), i.e. do not write We think that you
should be able to compete.
• Do not use sweeping generalisations
• Do not use bullet points or lists, unless it is in a report.
• Avoid making assumptions or giving your opinion (unless
specifically asked).
• Avoid waffling or repeating yourself.
• Do not plagiarize
• Do not pose (direct) questions in the running text, that is,
do not write, for instance Can carbon emissions be
reduced?
 Do’s of ACADEMIC WRITING
• Use formal language
• Use the full verb form instead, e.g. they are, is not, cannot
• Make more formal vocabulary choices, e.g. have found, a
great deal , attractive/ advantageous, the other
issue/problem/notion/idea/topic etc..
• Leave out conversational phrases. Use appropriate
connectors and introductory phrases.
• Leave out I think, e.g. James (2008) believes that global
warming will…
• State main ideas clearly and concisely in your own words in
topic sentences
 Do’s of ACADEMIC WRITING
• use complete sentences and link these into logical
paragraphs.
• Be objective.
• Be clear and concise.
• Provide references whenever you say something
that is not your own (Harvard technique)
• Check spelling, grammar and punctuation
etcetera.
• Proofread and use a dictionary.
• Use words for numbers nine and below and
numbers for 10 and above.
 Components/Essay structure
• Title
• Introduction
• Body
– First point/paragraph
– Second point/paragraph
– Third point/paragraph
– Fourth point/paragraph, etc.
• Conclusion
• Reference list
 General
Introduction
Specific

Paragraph one

Body Paragraph two

Paragraph three

Paragraph four
Conclusion
 General

Introduction = approx.
10% of total length Specific

Paragraph one

Body = main part of

Paragraph two
essay, comprised of
sequence of linked
paragraphs Paragraph three

Paragraph four
Conclusion = sums up
argument
The real structure of an essay

Argument + evidence
 Essay structure
• Title  What you want to write about
• Introduction  outline argument
• Body
– First paragraph  first compelling point
– Second paragraph  next compelling point
– Third paragraph  you’re winning them over
– Fourth paragraph  they believe you
• Conclusion  summarise argument
• Reference list  all the evidence you need
 Introduction
• State the topic in your own words, providing some context
and interest for your reader
• Indicate your position on the topic and the argument you
will make
• Limit the scope of your discussion
• Arouse the reader’s interest
• Set the scene
• Explain how you interpret the question set
• Define or explain key terms if necessary
• Give a brief outline of which issues you will explore, and in
which order - Outline the structure and content of the essay
 Body
• Contains the points outlined in your introduction,
divided into paragraphs:
• Make one point per paragraph
• Start each paragraph with a topic sentence
outlining this point
• Ensure all sentences in the paragraph relate to the
main point and expand or explore it
• Think about what each paragraph needs to contain
• Include relevant examples, details, evidence,
quotations, references.
Argument
or point of
paragraph
Argument
Answer to
or point of
the topic
paragraph
question
 Evidence to support
argument or position
Argument
Answer to
or point of
the topic
paragraph
question
 Evidence to support
argument or position
Argument
Answer to
or point of
the topic
paragraph
question

Example, explanation
or expansion
of
main
point
or argument
 Evidence to support
argument or position
Argument
Answer to
or point of
the topic
paragraph
question

Example, explanation Link to topic and to other

or expansion paragraphs through
of development of argument
main
point
or argument
 Body
• Focus on making and defending your
argument
• Address the topic and answer the question
• Guide your reader through your argument
• Establish a logical sequence of ideas
• Use transition words or phrases to link
paragraphs together smoothly
 Major thought relationships
• Exemplification: using examples to clarify ideas
• Contrast: identifying differences and the basis of
those differences
• Comparison: identifying the similarities or
commonalities
• Enumeration: listing and classifying items
• Chronology: ordering content around events or time
periods
• Causality: indicating a time relationship, incorporating
the idea that one thing might cause another
• Process: outlining a sequence of events or ordered
steps
• Spatial order: organising information according to
physical location or spatial sequence
 Ask yourself
• Why have I put my ideas in this order?
• What is the relationship between the ideas?
• How will I indicate this relationship?
• How does this advance my argument?
• How have I used evidence to support my
argument?
• How does this lead to my conclusion?
 Conclusion
• Sum up the argument you have made in the body of
your essay
• Refer back to the topic and introduction
• Draw conclusions from your findings
• Close your discussion
• Make an impression
• Summarise the main themes
• State your general conclusions
• Make it clear why those conclusions are important
or significant
 Conclusion
• Do not introduce new information
• Do not refer to anything not discussed in your essay
• Do not take a position which contradicts the one you
have taken in the introduction and body of your essay
• In the last sentence, sum up your argument very briefly,
linking it to the title
• Set the issues in a broader perspective/wider context
• Discuss what you have failed to do – answers not clear,
space limited
• Suggest further questions of your own
 Recap of Essay Structure
Introduction
• Purpose is to introduce or present the topic to
the reader. It can achieve this function by
following these guidelines:
• It must have a thesis statement. A thesis
statement is a sentence (or two) that
states what the essay is about. It familiarises
the reader with the main points covered in the
essay.
• The introduction must state the writer's point
of view or argument.
 Introduction
• It must include only the main ideas covered in
the essay.
• It must not go into supporting detail.
• It should signpost the essay. Signposting is when
the writer states the order in
which the information will appear. For example,
a sentence that signposts the
essay may sound something like: "Firstly,
positive points will be discussed,
followed by negative points and finally,
solutions will be suggested."
 Body
• The body of an essay is made up of different
paragraphs and explains in more depth the
statements made in the introduction.
• Each paragraph discusses one main idea, and is
made up of different types of sentences:
• Topic Sentence; this is usually, but not always,
the first sentence in a paragraph. It states the
main idea of the paragraph.
• Supporting Sentences: - these support the
main idea of a paragraph. They can expand on/
develop/ explain/ emphasise/ illustrate the
main idea.
 Conclusion
• The purpose of a conclusion is to conclude or
finish off the essay. The conclusion has the
following characteristics:
• It should sum up or briefly state the main
points covered in the essay.
• It should restate the writer's point of view or
argument.
• It should not introduce new facts or
information (information that did not
appear in the body).
 Descriptive writing (1)
• Different purposes:
• • To describe what happened: e.g. main
events. methods, findings.
• • To describe the main features or functions:
e.g. of a policy, practice,
• method.
• • To summarise the main points: e.g. of a
theory or article.
 Descriptive writing (2)
• Guidelines:
• • Identify relevant themes to include
• • Be clear, precise and accurate
• • Use a logical order
• • Keep to the point
• • Indicate the significance of what you
describe
 THE ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY (1)
• This type of essay also requires that you show a
balanced attitude by presenting both sides of the
subject under discussion; however, it is important
that you keep your point of view.

• Do some research so that you can support your

ideas with facts, examples, statistics and relevant
quotations.
 THE ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY (2)
• This type of essay aims to convince or persuade
the reader of something about which the writer
feels strongly.

• It has a clear introduction; opinions are logically

stated; and there is a definite conclusion.

• This type of essay needs careful planning .You

need to know something about the subject
under discussion.
 How to argue
• Recognise that there is more than one way of
seeing things
• Figure out how you see things and consider
why you see them that way
• Explain to your reader how and why you see
things the way you do
• Use reason and be persuasive
• Use evidence to support your statements
• An important feature of almost all academic
essays
 THE RESEARCH ESSAY
• This type of essay offers information based on
research, gives the advantages and disadvantages
of the topic under discussion, and uses arguments
and supporting evidence.
• The essay is formal and logically structured. The
introduction sets out exactly what the writer hopes
to achieve in his/ her essay.
• You need to plan paragraphs: BRAINSTORM,
SELECT, ORDER, DRAFT, REVISE.
 Reflective writing
• Allows you to engage personally with the material
• Enables you to think about what the concepts in the
essay mean to you
• Invites you to investigate the connections between
theory and practice
• Helps you reflect on yourself and your views
• Gives you the opportunity to demonstrate your
understanding of issues / concepts
 Elements of reflective writing (1)
• Personal reflection
– How do these issues or ideas relate to me and my
circumstances?
– What do I think of these issues or ideas, based on
my experience?
– Does one issue or idea fit better with my
experience than another? Why is this so?
– Do I believe or agree with one idea more than
another? Why?
 Elements of reflective writing (2)
• Engagement with resource materials
– How will I use resource materials to formulate my
ideas?
– How will I use resource materials to support my
opinion?
– How will I integrate my ideas with those of others in
my writing?
 Elements of reflective writing (3)
• Critical reflection and evaluation
– Do the issues or ideas reflect what really happens?
Are they valid?
– Is there anything missing from the issues or ideas?
Are they complete?
– Have I considered a range of views? Are some
more legitimate than others, in my opinion?
– Has my investigation of the issues or ideas
changed my understanding of my experience?
 Writing reflectively (1)

• Use of first person (I, my, mine) is acceptable

but not essential
• Appropriate academic style is required
– Formality, precision, relevance
• References must be used
• Write honestly and accurately
 Writing reflectively (2)
• Be analytical, rather than descriptive
– Why are you using this example or experience?
– How does it relate to the issues and ideas?
– What does it say about these issues and ideas?
• Think about the structure of your writing
• Think about the tense you will use
– Past tense for past events
– Present tense for current observations
 To indicate a contrast:
• However • But
• on the other hand • despite this
• in contrast • notwithstanding
• Alternatively • in spite of
• on the contrary • nevertheless
• conversely • for all that
• in comparison • yet
• rather • all the same
• in fact • instead
• another possibility • although
• better/worse still
 To provide an illustration
• for example • most importantly
• as follows • typical of this/such
• that is • notably
• that is to say • one such
• for instance • including
• say • especially
• in other words • not least
• namely • a typical/particular/
• such as • key example
• chiefly • in particular
 To extend a point
• similarly • too
• equally • besides
• indeed • also
• in addition • above all
• in the same way • as well
• in addition • furthermore
• likewise
To show cause and effect/conclusion
• so • in this/that case
• therefore • consequently
• accordingly • because of this/that
• thus • this suggests that
• hence • in conclusion
• then • in short
• it follows that • to conclude
• for this reason • In brief
• this implies • in all
To show cause and effect/conclusion
• it might be concluded from this
• accepting/assuming this
• resulting from/in consequence of this
• as a result/consequence
• owing to/due to the fact that
• accepting/assuming this
 To show the next step:
• first(ly) • after
• second(ly) • next
• to begin/start with • Afterwards
• lastly • third(ly)
• last but not least • first and most
• ultimately importantly
• first and foremost • in the first/second place
• finally
• another
• then
 Editing and proofreading
• Are distinct and different activities
• Should be done separately
• Should be done
• Will improve your writing and your marks
 Editing: What?
• Look at the big picture
• Aim to improve
– Focus
– Argument
– Organisation
– Clarity
– Coherence
 Editing: How?
• Allow time between finishing your final draft
and beginning to edit it
• Work from a printed copy
• Read your draft slowly and carefully
• Read aloud if you find it helpful
• Maintain concentration
• Focus on constructive improvement
 Editing: How?

• Look at the whole essay

– Have I answered the question?
– Have I expressed an argument?
– Have I supported that argument with evidence?
– Have I structured my essay logically and
effectively?
 Editing: How?
• Look at the paragraphs
– Does each paragraph contain only one main
idea?
– Does the topic sentence for each paragraph
express that idea?
– Does every sentence in the paragraph relate to
the main idea?
– Does each paragraph link smoothly to the one
before it and the one after it?
 Editing: How?
• Look at the sentences
– Is each sentence complete and grammatically
correct?
– Is the meaning of each sentence clear and
unambiguous?
– Is there any unnecessary repetition?
– Is this the best way of expressing this idea?
 Proofreading: What?
• Focus on the finer details
• Aim to correct
– Spelling
– Punctuation
– Referencing
– Presentation
 Proofreading: How?
• Allow time between editing your final draft
and beginning to proofreading it
• Work from a printed copy
• Try changing the appearance of your text
• Focus on one aspect of your text at a time
• Maintain concentration
• Correct errors
 Proofreading: How?
• Spelling
– Don’t rely on computer spellcheckers
– Keep a list of words with variant spellings
– Keep a list of words you often spell incorrectly
– Always check the spelling of names
 Proofreading: How?
• Punctuation
– Circle each punctuation mark and decide if it is
necessary and correct
– Understand how punctuation can change the
meaning of a sentence
 Punctuate this!
• Woman without her man is nothing

• Woman, without her man, is

nothing.

• Woman: without her, man is

nothing.
 Proofreading: How?
• Referencing
– Check your style guide
– Check that in-text references and reference lists are
complete and correct, and that they match up
– Check punctuation in direct quotations
 Proofreading: How?
• Presentation
– Check your unit guide for presentation guidelines
– Typed
– 2.5cm margins on left and right
– 12pt font
– 1.5 or double line spacing
– Page numbers
– Separate sheet for reference list
– Cover page