Globalization and Culture

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Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and

Governance pp 2462–2469
Globalization and Culture

Chantal Crozet
Reference work entry First Online: 01 January 2018

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Introduction
Given the wide interest in both globalization and

culture from diverse academic fields such as
anthropology, sociology, communication and media,
cultural and language studies, colonial and
indigenous studies, and political science and
international relations, it is not surprising to find little
consensus in the literature on the definitions of these
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This entry provides insights into the links between
globalization and culture, based on a selective review
of the literature, aiming to offer some reference
points for further reflection to professionals,
researchers, and students in public administration
and public policy. It reflects first on the concepts of
culture and of globalization, what characterizes both
and how they relate to each other. It then focuses on
the links between culture, globalization, and
language followed by concluding remarks.
Culture and Globalization
The cultural dimension of globalization, or “cultural

globalization” refers to the circulation and sharing of
ideas and of meanings and values across countries;
hence across cultures, with the effect of increasing
social contacts (Paul 2006), this presumably leads to
more positive human interconnectedness. Reflecting
on how culture has been understood and used so far
helps in turn understand issues associated with its
global circulation and sharing.
Culture
As humans, we produce culture to make and share

meaning over everything we do, feel, think, and
believe in. In this sense culture is an intrinsic part of
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human naturesuch
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culture Geertz
and accessibility. These cookies cannot be
(1973, p. off
switched 49)infurther argues,
our systems. Youmen
may(and women)
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be “unworkable monstrosities” and “mental basket
cases” incapable of making sense of themselves,
others and the world they live in. Culture helps
identify distinct collectivities (Grillo 2003). It can be
thought of as a blueprint left to individuals to share
and to adopt, or not. In any case, as pointed out by
Hearn (2006):
…. culture is not a private affair – it is by definition

shared, however imperfectly with other people.
(Hearn 2006, p. 170)
Traditionally a differentiation has been made

between high and low culture. High culture refers to
the dominant elitist form of a culture (e.g., its
literature and its fine arts), dominant in the sense that
it tends to be shared by a minority of people with the
highest socioeconomic power. By contrast, low
culture refers to the way of life shared by the majority
of a given people of all social backgrounds. It
includes, for instance, national cuisines and its
variations, national preferred sports, popular
festivities including popular music, and fashion.
However, democratic and global processes have
watered down the divide between high and low
culture by valuing all forms of cultural expression.
Nonetheless it is still a useful distinction to capture
power in culture dynamics in particular contexts.
French
switchedsociologist Bourdieu
off in our systems. You(1986) introduced
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these by
concept of “cultural capital,” in the context of his
work on class inequalities in education. It is however
a useful concept in many other contexts. Cultural
capital, according to Bourdieu, is acquired from one’s
particular socioeconomic background and degree of
formal education and would determine one’s place in
social hierarchies. It includes three dimensions of
culture: embodied, objectified, and institutionalized.
For example, one’s accent in speaking a national
language is embodied culture (with all its possible
social variables), the ownership of goods such as real
estate is objectified culture, and educational
qualifications represent institutionalized culture.
Critics of Bourdieu have pointed out a lack of
consideration given to individual agency in his theory
of culture reproduction, as well as of consideration of
the impact of the growth of the middleclass on class
inequalities (see Goldthorpe 2007; King 2000). (For
both praise and critics of Bourdieu’s key theoretical
concepts, see Coulangeon and Duval (2013).)
The concepts of high and low culture, of identifiable

collectivities on the basis of culture, and of cultural
capital, however useful they may be in understanding
the plays of culture in societies and individuals, must
take account of further characteristics of the nature
of culture.
Academics, insuch
functionality particular anthropologists
as security, for whom
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culture is central to their discipline, have fought wars
over this matter, trying to determine
process whether culture Dismiss
your information.
is a static/objective or a dynamic/subjective
phenomena (see Grillo 2003; Matera 2016, for
instance, for an account of these “culture wars”). The
static/objective, also called modernist, view of culture
represents a scientific and descriptive interpretation
of culture, articulated first by the British
anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor and for who
culture was a complex whole of fixed, clearly
identifiable attributes, such as: knowledge, belief,
arts, morals, law, and custom (Tylor 1871). The later
more dynamic/subjective, also called postmodernist,
view of culture is embedded in Geertz’s (1973) early
work. It focuses on the search for meaning in culture,
rather than mere description and categorization, in
his words:
Man is an animal suspended in webs of

significance he himself has spun. I take culture to
be those webs and the analysis of it to be
therefore not an experiential science in search of
law but an interpretive one in search of meaning.
(Geertz 1973, p. 6)
Since the 1970s, postmodern views on culture have

been dominant in academia, aware of the unreliability
of fixed metanarratives on what constitutes culture
(see Lyotard 1979). Some academics, concerned that
cultural discrimination
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essentialist our systems. You
interpretations may disable
of culture these by changing your browser settings, but this may
(an essentialist
interpretation of culture, also called
process“cultural
your information. Dismiss
essentialism” refers to an understanding and use of
culture as static and bounded. It does not recognized
the fact that all cultures have many variables, are
diverse, dynamic, and changeable within themselves.
Nationalist political movements commonly seek to
promote essentialist perspectives on culture.), go as
far as suggesting to abandon the concept altogether.
Wikan (1999), for instance, proposes to consider
instead only individuals and their rights. Wagener
(2015) proposes to replace the culture concept with
new theories capable of explaining better the
complexities of daily life, which implies considering
the role of power in the working of culture in social,
ethnic, and political tensions.
The notion of “intersectionality” captures succinctly

the interplay between power, culture, class, ethnicity,
and gender. Intersectionality (or intersectional
theory), as a concept, was first coined by Crenshaw
(1991), in the context of discrimination and violence
against women. It is now widely applied in other
contexts requiring an understanding of the dynamics
between power and cultural variables.
One way out of the controversy over the nature of

culture and its complexity is to go back to Williams’
(1977) concept
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culture as which
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residual, and emergent forms of culture, with the
caveat that those three forms process
of culture can
your be both Dismiss
information.
tangible and intangible. Tangible culture refers to
visible aspects of culture such as traditional French
cuisine, Japanese manga, or the practical dimensions
of religious rituals. Whereas intangible culture refers
to the less visible aspects of culture in the domain of
beliefs, myth, ideologies (religious, political, and
other), as well as aspirations and projections – what
Appadurai (1996) coined “imaginary work” (see
further discussion on this topic in the next section),
intangible culture in this sense operates on a more
subjective and also unconscious level; hence it is
harder to capture.
The notion of dominant culture in Williams can help

explain how dominant social structures are
maintained but also how they can be subverted by
dissident individuals or groups of individuals.
Residual culture is the influence of old cultural
patterns, either archaic, outdated but still influencing
the current culture, can be dominant, or not.
Emerging culture represents new cultural ideas and
practices, including those produced by minority
groups, potentially from all strata of society, and
which can become mainstream or not. The hippie
culture of the 1960s in Western countries is a good
example of what amounted to emerging culture at
the
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residual, is outdated, but still
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the website culture.
functions. Jihadism
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forms of Islamist militant movements in the
process your twenty- Dismiss
information.
first century, or ecosustainability as an environmental
movement, are other examples of new emerging
ideological forms of culture, both with their varying
national and local overtones.
In understanding varying approaches to

conceptualizing culture, it is also important to
acknowledge the significant gap between
popular/public versus academic discourses on culture
(see Grillo 2003; Steger 2014). In Grillo’s words:
…the disjunction between vernacular, common

sense and essentialist conceptions of cultures
which dominate public discourses and theorized
and intellectualised accounts of academics and
functionaries (postmodernist or modernist) with
their very different social and political agenda has
never been greater. Grillo (2003, p. 163)
Grillo makes this argument in the context of his call

for a better understanding of why cultural
essentialism is having such a popular grip in current
times. Even though essentialist interpretations of
culture are commonly dismissed in academic
discourse to be no more than a “figment of the mind”
(Wikan (1999) quoted in Grillo (2003, p. 158)), they
are nonetheless real under currents which can
undermine orsuch
functionality makeasany political
security, agenda.
network Brexit and
President
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popular essentialist sentiment toward British and
American culture which are real, alive, and kicking
and that neither politically nor academically correct
agenda could predict.
The Franco-Lebanese and renowned essayist Amin

Maalouf (2009), greatly concerned about the
“imaginary certitudes” promoted by cultural
essentialists, advocates a new role for culture which
he equates to knowledge of cultural diversity for all,
with no value distinction between high and low
culture. He believes education urgently needs to
promote this kind of inclusive global culture as
“intellectual and moral tools” for global survival in the
twenty-first century, in his words:
Today the role of culture is to provide our

contemporaries the intellectual and moral tools
which will allow them to survive – nothing less.
(Malouf 2009 p. 203)
Having discussed some different ways of

approaching an understanding of culture and its
uses, consideration is given next to the impact of
globalization on culture. (Traduction from the author
of the French original: ‘Aujourd’hui, le role de la
culture est. de fournir à nos contemporains les outils
intellectuels et moraux qui leur permettront de
survivre – riensuch
functionality de moins’ Malouf
as security, (2009
network p. 203).) and accessibility. These cookies cannot be
management
Globalization andwebsite
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Globalization, alike culture, is very much a disputed
and slippery concept, too complex Steger (2014)
argues “to force into a single analytical framework.” It
is not the privileged study of any discipline. It
concerns and challenges all disciplines.
However, there is consensus, at least in the literature,

over the fact that cultural globalization (if not other
global processes) intensifies social interactions across
cultures, as mentioned earlier, and that current, as
opposed to earlier, forms of global cultural
interactions are of a new order.
This new order is the result of the increased global

flow of populations, involuntary (i.e., forced
migration) or voluntary (e.g., international trade and
tourism), of larger access to mass media and of new
technologies of communication. Appadurai (1996, p.
28) qualifies this new order as being “filled with
ironies and resistances,” meaning that the impact of
globalization on culture is experienced with hiccups
and contradictions by nearly every country on the
planet. One reason for this is that, although
globalization has an undeniable homogenizing effect
on culture, it is always experienced in, and affected
by, local contexts. Thus, it can reinvigorate local
cultural practices
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of “glocalization.” For the postcolonial theorist Homi
Bhabha (1994), there is however ever and only
cultural hybridity, especially from the minority
perspective. He warns not to read the representation
of difference as “the reflection of pre-given ethnic or
cultural traits set in the fixed tablet of tradition”
(Bhabha 1994, p. 2).
The tension between the homogeneity versus

heterogeneity/hybridity/and diversity of culture is a
common popular concern, in particular in relation to
cultural globalization. At the core of this tension is
the fact that cultural globalization is perceived to be
largely the Westernization, if not the Americanization
(Appadurai (1996, p. 32) notes that cultural
globalization should include not only the
Americanization of other cultures. It should also
consider other instances of dominance of a culture
over another, as in the case of the Japanization of
Korean culture or the Russianization of the people of
Armenia and of the Baltic Republics.) of the world’s
cultures, creating a palpable hierarchy of cultures,
especially in terms of the economic edge the
production and diffusion of global culture can give.
Marin (2010) dates the start of the cultural

Westernization
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the imposition of the capitalist (neoliberalism) model
as we know it today, worldwide.
Alike culture in a national context, cultural

globalization has tangible and more intangible
dimensions. The proliferation on the planet of
American fast-food chains like Kentucky Fried
Chicken, McDonald’s, or Starbucks, what Rizer calls
(1993) generally “the McDonaldization of society,” are
examples of tangible cultural global impact. Another
example is the increase of the “migrant presence”
(Martin 1985), which involves the increased visible
presence of the culturally different others in people’s
neighborhood, at least in Western countries. This
rapprochement of cultures as lived reality, or factual
multiculturalism, can promote more understanding
and appreciation across cultures, as well as more
desire for the supremacy of the dominant culture.
Hage (1998), for example, explored what he called
“fantasies of white supremacy” in an Australian
context, showing the limits of multiculturalism when
it only tolerates cultural difference rather than
embraces it.
Adding to the concept of “the migrant presence” is

the notion of the “deterritorialization of culture” as
the
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culture and space (as in countries) are no longer
necessarily linked. The Irish cultural
processpresence in New Dismiss
your information.
York, the Turkish cultural presence in Germany, or the
Indian cultural presence in South Africa are examples
of the deterritorialization of culture that is of cultural
expression which has moved outside its original
physical environment to new foreign contexts. The
term “reterritorialization” is used when the migrant
cultural community is deemed to have become part
of the local culture.
Finally, the role of international mass media, satellite

television, and other new technologies of
communication are ought to be mentioned as they
are commonly considered to be the primary cause of
global mass culture, this because of the common
images and discourses they produce and diffuse
worldwide. The label “mass culture” refers to the
behavior, ideas, and values that are produced from
common exposure to the same media.
Scholars disagree over the level of impact of global

mass media on individuals and societies. Sparks
(2000), for instance, argues that no such mass media
can ever be so global in managing to reach a
majority of people on a world’s scale, even though
more and more people have access to new
technologies, such as Internet, but because it would
have to constantly
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technologies produce cultural hybridity, this very
hybridity can defy structures of power. A point
reinforced by Magu (2015):
… cultures are not ‘victims’ of globalisation or the

proliferation of mass media. Cultures actively
adopt and integrate globalization’s technological
artefacts. Globalization’s positive effects are
dynamic and span cultural interactions and
permeate structures of authority at personal,
national and global levels. (Magu 2015, p. 630)
Appadurai (1996:53) suggests that imagination has

acquired a new role and power in social life, due
greatly to the impact of global mass media on
individuals. He argues that more and more ordinary
people are provided with “a rich, ever-changing store
of possible lives,” a choice which can both empower
or disrupt. Imagination, he further argues, which in
the past was part of the creation of art, myth, and
legend, is now part of the mental work for “the
construction of imagined selves and imagined
worlds”:
More persons throughout the world see their lives

through the prisms of the possible lives offered by
mass media in all their forms. That is, fantasy is
now social such
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many societies. (Appadurai 1996, pp. 53–54)
The freeing of individual imaginations intrinsic to
global cultural growth no doubt impacts on the
construction of self and identity. It also increases the
opportunity for new collective transcultural
ideologies to develop based on imagined worlds. A
particular target for ideological reconfiguration is the
realm of religious beliefs, beyond the scope of this
entry to consider, though a key feature to a deep
understanding of global, national, local, and
individual culture making.
The many shapes and turns that cultural globalization

can take are explored further in a final section which
focuses on the important role language plays in
relation to culture and globalization.
Language, Culture, and Globalization
Language, culture, and communication are intimately

linked as humans cannot help but categorize and
express their experience of the world through
linguistic and cultural filters (Kramsch 1998; Liddicoat
2009). However, the relationship between language,
culture, communication, and globalization is highly
complex.
Firstly, the majority of people on the planet, roughly

80%, are multilinguals (Blanchet 2016). Multilinguals
use the various
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creative ways, constructing unique subjective realities
and identities in the process (Kramsch 2009).
Secondly, from a global standpoint, the relationship
between language and culture is increasingly no
longer one to one but one too many. That is, one
language can express and represent different
cultures, as in the clear cases of world languages such
as English, Arabic, French, and Spanish.
For instance, Mexico and Central and South American

countries share Spanish as their common dominant
language, but they are all inhabited by different
indigenous cultures (and languages) which have
mixed with different versions of Hispanic nationalist
history and culture. In a similar way though reversed
process, migrants to a new country in time express
the culture(s) of their original country through both
their first language(s) and the new language they
learn in their host country. In the current global era,
the increasing number of individuals with complex
linguistic and cultural biographies will keep
intermeshing both.
Beyond the increase of linguistic and cultural hybrids

among individuals, it is also important to note the
impact of globalization on linguistic diversity on a
collective level,
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how this in turn affects both cultural and biodiversity.
Two decades ago, Weber (1999) identified what he
called The World’s 10 most influential languages using
as criteria: the number of native speakers, of
secondary speakers, the number of population and
countries using the language, the number of major
fields using the language (science, diplomacy, etc.),
the economic power of countries using the language,
and socio-literary prestige. His classification, arguably
still valid today, ranks the most influential languages
internationally in the following order: English, French,
Spanish, Russian, Arabic, Chinese, German, Japanese,
Portuguese, and Hindi/Urdu.
English is the modern world lingua franca, it is ahead

of all other world languages in terms of its global
impact; however only one out of four users of English
in the world is a native speaker of the language
(Crystal 2003). Englishes, such as Chinglish or Indian
English, have globalized English by importing into it
cultural features originally foreign to it. English and
Englishes as the dominant lingua francas contribute
greatly to the reduction of linguistic diversity on the
planet, but it has not erased multilingualism as the
dominant feature of the logosphere (Krauss 2007),
that is, the global web of cultural and linguistic
diversity. It is for this very reason that the All-Party
Parliamentary Group
This website sets on Modern
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conduct of international trade but for many other
sociocultural and political benefits:
English is an important world language, but the

latest cutting-edge research shows that, in the 21st
Century, speaking only English is as much of a
disadvantage as speaking no English. (APPGML
2014)
The ten global languages mentioned above are

among the only few hundred languages commonly
taught through education systems, out of the about
7,000 languages spoken in the world today (Paul et
al. 2016). It is estimated that about half of these will
be extinct by the end of the twenty-first century, an
alarming loss if one considers the correlation
between linguistic diversity and biocultural diversity.
Indigenous languages as smaller languages tend to

struggle the most in surviving the force of global
languages, and of globalization generally, their loss
leading to the loss of biocultural knowledge on local
natural environments (Robertson 2014). Evans (2010)
further argues that the loss of indigenous languages
leads to the loss of invaluable knowledge on how
language works as a feature of humankind and on its
role in human cognition. However, their relationship
to functionality
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historical factors, as well as local communities’
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What can be argued is that language rights for all

language minorities (not only indigenous minorities)
matter. The right to use one’s mother tongue in
particular is an existential issue, closely linked to
one’s identity and sense of self, hence of one’s well-
being. Further and to the point, in the complex
domain of language rights, especially when it
involves minority groups, Robertson (2014, p. 935)
warns against “unhelpful dichotomies between
modern/traditional and indigenous/non-indigenous”
and further “to privilege cultural and linguistic
‘nativism’ and insularity over transcultural contact
and exchange.”
Tensions between the important gain in maintaining

linguistic diversity and their associate culture(s), for
existential reasons and in terms of safeguarding
world knowledge/heritage, and the equal need for
successful intercultural communication, facilitated by
the use of English (and other lingua francas), and the
watering down of cultural difference, are not easily
solved.
Concluding Remarks
To understand
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off in our complexities ofdisable
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affectglobalization,
cultural how the website
it functions. Please
is useful to view our first
understand privacy policy for further details on how we
the nature, purpose, and uses of culture, as proposed
in this entry. In summary, the nature of culture is
dynamic, its purpose is to create meaning and share
it, and its uses intermix with matters of power,
history, personal subjectivity, and collective identities,
as well as other variables such as gender and social
categorization. It is hard to contain culture within
clear boundaries, and at the same time it is hard to
dismiss its existence.
Cultural globalization can both increase and decrease

human interconnectedness. This is because the
global unleash of cultural information requires an
increased capacity to make and negotiate meaning
out of information about and across cultures. The
negotiation of cultural meaning is complex; it
involves the ability to communicate successfully
across cultures (Wolton 2003). “Cultures” as abstract
entities do not communicate between themselves,
people do (Scollon and Scollon 2000), and people do
not communicate in a vacuum. In the current global
era, people communicate through increasing
complex linguistic and cultural filters. When they do,
not only language and culture come alive but also
world, national, and local history as well as personal
histories, with layers of positive outcomes but also
unresolved
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interact, connect, or not. It calls for discernment
process and Dismiss
your information.
the choice of collaboration over power in
approaching difference.
The active support of, and engagement with,

linguistic and cultural diversity helps the growth of
positive cultural globalization, but it is not enough.
After all, as noted by Lo Bianco (2001, p. 458), there
are many polyglot and multicultural fanatics, and
conversely there are many “culturally sophisticated
monolinguals.”
It is the new work of the imagination as social act, as

posited by Appadurai (1996), which will keep playing
a major role in global cultural processes, feeding
greatly, though not exclusively, from electronic
resources and opportunities given to it to access
cultures. However, the empowerment of the world
imagination is double edged. It can create new
patterns of connection across individuals and
collectivities leading to increase positive international
interconnectedness. It can also disconnect from the
real as cultural globalization tends to facilitate more
virtual than face-to-face contact, giving free range to
imagined subjectivities. Globalization and culture will
keep interacting in nonlinear and unpredictable ways.
It will keep navigating between universalizing and
localizing tendencies.
References
Appadurai A (1996) Modernity at large: cultural
dimensions of globalisation. University of Minnesota
Press, Minneapolis
APPGML (2014) Manifesto for languages. Available

at https://www.britishcouncil.org
Bhabha H (1994) The location of culture. Routledge
Blanchet P (2016) Discriminations: combattre la

glottophobie. Editions Textuel, Paris
Bourdieu P (1986) The forms of capital. In:

Richardson J (ed) Handbook of theory and research
for the sociology of education. Greenwood, New
York, pp 241–258
Coulangeon P, Duval J (2013) Trente ans après la

Distinction de Pierre Bourdieu. La Découverte, Paris
Crenshaw K (1991) Mapping the margins:

intersectionality, identity politics, and violence
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Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and

Reference work entry First Online: 01 January 2018

Access provided by Pontificia Universidad Javeriana

Given the wide interest in both globalization and

Culture and Globalization

The cultural dimension of globalization, or “cultural

As humans, we produce culture to make and share

…. culture is not a private affair – it is by definition

Traditionally a differentiation has been made

The concepts of high and low culture, of identifiable

Man is an animal suspended in webs of

Since the 1970s, postmodern views on culture have

The notion of “intersectionality” captures succinctly

One way out of the controversy over the nature of

The notion of dominant culture in Williams can help

In understanding varying approaches to

…the disjunction between vernacular, common

Grillo makes this argument in the context of his call

The Franco-Lebanese and renowned essayist Amin

Today the role of culture is to provide our

Having discussed some different ways of

However, there is consensus, at least in the literature,

This new order is the result of the increased global

The tension between the homogeneity versus

Marin (2010) dates the start of the cultural

Alike culture in a national context, cultural

Adding to the concept of “the migrant presence” is

Finally, the role of international mass media, satellite

Scholars disagree over the level of impact of global

… cultures are not ‘victims’ of globalisation or the

Appadurai (1996:53) suggests that imagination has

More persons throughout the world see their lives

The many shapes and turns that cultural globalization

Language, Culture, and Globalization

Language, culture, and communication are intimately

Firstly, the majority of people on the planet, roughly

For instance, Mexico and Central and South American

Beyond the increase of linguistic and cultural hybrids

English is the modern world lingua franca, it is ahead

English is an important world language, but the

The ten global languages mentioned above are

Indigenous languages as smaller languages tend to

What can be argued is that language rights for all

Tensions between the important gain in maintaining

Cultural globalization can both increase and decrease

The active support of, and engagement with,

It is the new work of the imagination as social act, as

APPGML (2014) Manifesto for languages. Available

Bhabha H (1994) The location of culture. Routledge

Blanchet P (2016) Discriminations: combattre la

Bourdieu P (1986) The forms of capital. In:

Coulangeon P, Duval J (2013) Trente ans après la

Crenshaw K (1991) Mapping the margins:

Geertz (1973) The interpretation of cultures-

Giddens A (1990) The consequences of modernity.

Goldthorpe JH (2007) ‘Cultural capital’: some critical

Grillo RD (2003) Cultural essentialism and cultural

Hage G (1998) White nation: fantasies of white

Hearn J (2006) Rethinking nationalism – a critical

King A (2000) Thinking Bourdieu against Bourdieu: a

Kramsch C (1998) Language and culture. Oxford