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Defini on: The field of computer science concerned with the interac on between computers and
human (natural) languages.
Significance: Facilitates communica on, learning, and scien fic inquiry through language-based
interac ons.
Natural language is more user-friendly than formal languages like predicate calculus.
Learning:
Resources like Wikipedia contain extensive factual informa on not readily available in formal
logic.
U lizes AI techniques in conjunc on with linguis cs, psychology, and neuroscience to study
languages and language use.
Tasks in NLP:
Examines various models such as probabilis c models, neural networks, and symbolic
approaches.
Achievable Tasks:
Language Models:
1. Formal vs. Natural Languages:
Formal languages (e.g., first-order logic) are precisely defined with syntax and seman cs.
Natural languages (e.g., English, Chinese) are ambiguous and vague, varying in interpreta on.
They aid in predic ng word sequences, sugges ng comple ons, and performing various NLP tasks.
3. Bag-of-Words Model:
Describes word genera on as drawing from bags of words for each category.
Although simplis c, it's useful for tasks like classifica on (e.g., Naive Bayes) but disregards word order.
4. N-gram Models:
Depicts word probability based on context (preceding words), with varying lengths (unigram, bigram,
trigram).
Effec ve for classifica on tasks like sen ment analysis, author a ribu on, and language iden fica on.
Addresses low-frequency word combina ons with techniques like Laplace smoothing and backoff models.
Structured models like word embeddings capture seman c and syntac c rela onships between words.
Models like HMM and logis c regression are used, with features encoding word proper es and context.
N-gram models vary in fluency and novelty of generated text, with more complex models outperforming
simplis c ones.
Deep learning models like GPT-2 and CTRL produce fluent, diverse text but lack coherence in genera ng a
coherent thesis.
Difference between formal language (like first-order logic) and natural languages
Defini on and explana on of overgenera on (genera ng ungramma cal sentences) and undergenera on
(rejec ng gramma cal sentences)
Dis nc on between open classes (e.g., nouns, verbs) and closed classes (e.g., pronouns, preposi ons)
Challenges of lis ng all words in open classes due to their vastness and constant evolu on
Example of historical changes in closed class words (e.g., "thee" and "thou")
This breakdown organizes the informa on into clear topics and subtopics, making it easier to understand the
content.
Topic: Parsing
Subtopic 1: Introduc on to Parsing
Defini on: analyzing a string of words to uncover its phrase structure according to grammar rules
Challenges: inefficiency of pure top-down or bo om-up parsing strategies due to repea ng efforts
Limita ons: difficul es in dis nguishing between different sentence types (e.g., commands vs. ques ons)
Solu on: dynamic programming to store analyzed substrings to avoid reanalysis (e.g., chart parsing)
Transforma on: any context-free grammar can be automa cally transformed into CNF
Goal: find the most probable parse with a limited search space
Trade-off: not guaranteed to find the highest probability parse, but operates efficiently
Example: shi -reduce parsing, making decisions to shi or reduce cons tuents based on grammar rules
Approach: supervised learning using input/output pairs of sentences and parse trees
Automa c grammar recovery: reducing complexity and improving generaliza on using data-oriented parsing
Curriculum learning approach: star ng with simple sentences and gradually increasing complexity
Semisupervised parsing: combining a small number of annotated trees with a larger corpus of unparsed
sentences
U liza on of par al bracke ng in semisupervised parsing, leveraging annota ons like HTML tags
This breakdown organizes the informa on into clear topics and subtopics, making it easier to understand the
content.
Explana on of how not all words can appear in every context with equal probability
Example: representa on of noun phrase "I" as NP(Sbj, 1S, Speaker) for subjec ve case, first person singular
Use of phrase heads for assigning probabili es based on proper es of words in phrases
Example: lexicalized rules for verbs and nouns to capture word proper es in parsing
Augmenta on of categories with addi onal variables (e.g., subjec ve case, person, number)
Example: grammar rules augmented with seman c interpreta ons for English sentences
Challenges in learning seman c grammars from syntac c trees without seman c representa ons
Example systems that learn seman c grammars from ques on-answer pairs
Benefits of internal logical forms for efficient parsing without exhaus ve search space
This breakdown organizes the informa on into clear topics and subtopics, making it easier to understand the
content.
Robo cs
In which agents are endowed with sensors and physical effectors with which to move about and make mischief in the
real world.
Descrip on of effectors (legs, wheels, grippers) used by robots to manipulate the physical world
Explana on of how effectors cause changes in the robot's state, environment, and people around it
Introduc on to sensors (cameras, radars, gyroscopes) enabling robots to perceive their environment
Defini on of maximizing expected u lity for robots: choosing ac ons to assert physical forces that lead to
desired outcomes
Emphasis on robots aiming to accomplish tasks in the physical world by ac ng on their environment
Explana on of environments as par ally observable and stochas c, with unpredictable human interac ons
Descrip on of con nuous state and ac on spaces in robo c modeling, including high-dimensional spaces for
complex robots
Constraints of robo c learning in real-world environments due to me and safety concerns
Introduc on to the sim-to-real problem: transferring learning from simulated environments to real-world
robots
Importance of prior knowledge about the robot, environment, and tasks for quick and safe learning in
prac cal robo c systems
Discussion of how robo cs integrates concepts from AI, including probabilis c state es ma on, percep on,
planning, unsupervised learning, reinforcement learning, and game theory
Recogni on of robo cs as both a challenging applica on and a fron er for advancing AI techniques,
par cularly in con nuous domains
This breakdown organizes the informa on into clear topics and subtopics, making it easier to understand the
content.
Descrip on of specific examples such as industrial robo c arms and wheelchair-mounted assis ve arms
Explana on of various locomo on methods including wheels, legs, rotors, and wings
Differen a on between passive and ac ve sensors, with examples like cameras and sonar
Overview of range finders, including sonar and stereo vision, and their applica ons
Introduc on to ac ve op cal range finders such as me-of-flight cameras and scanning lidars
Descrip on of radar and tac le sensors for range sensing, and their uses in robo cs
Explana on of loca on sensors and their reliance on range sensing for determining loca on
Discussion of GPS as a common outdoor localiza on solu on and its limita ons indoors and underwater
Overview of alterna ve indoor and underwater localiza on methods including beacons and sonar beacons
Defini on of propriocep ve sensors and their role in informing the robot of its own mo on
Descrip on of sha decoders for tracking joint posi ons, odometry for measuring distance traveled, and
iner al sensors like gyroscopes
Explana on of force and torque sensors for measuring interac on forces with objects in the environment
Subtopic 5: Producing Mo on
Introduc on to actuators as mechanisms ini a ng effector mo on, including electric, hydraulic, and
pneuma c actuators
Descrip on of joints connec ng rigid bodies, including revolute and prisma c joints
Overview of grippers used for interac ng with objects, from basic parallel jaw grippers to complex humanoid
hands
This breakdown organizes the informa on into clear topics and subtopics, making it easier to understand the content
Overview of computa onal frameworks for robo cs problems, including MDPs, POMDPs, and game theory
Recogni on of the nondeterminis c, par ally observable, and mul agent nature of robo cs problems
Discussion of the robot's reward func on, o en ed to serving human goals or desires
Recogni on of the challenge in deciphering or approxima ng the user's true reward func on
Descrip on of the general structure where observa ons are raw sensor data, ac ons are electric currents to
motors, and state represents decision-making informa on
Acknowledgment of the gap between low-level percepts and high-level plans, and the need for simplifica on
through decoupling
Introduc on to the three-level hierarchy in robo cs problem-solving: task planning, mo on planning, and
control
Explana on of how task planning determines high-level ac ons, mo on planning finds paths to achieve
subgoals, and control executes planned mo ons
Discussion of preference learning for es ma ng user objec ves and people predic on for forecas ng others'
ac ons
Recogni on of the trade-off between reducing complexity and giving up opportuni es for synergy between
problem components
Recogni on of the push for reintegra ng separate areas to achieve be er overall performance and progress
in robo cs
This breakdown provides a concise overview of the key aspects of problem formula on in robo cs, organized into
clear topics and subtopics.
Percep on in robo cs involves mapping sensor measurements into internal representa ons of the
environment.
Challenges include dealing with noisy sensors, par al observability, unpredictability, and dynamic
environments.
Various computa onal models like Kalman filters, HMMs, and dynamic Bayes nets are used to represent
transi on and sensor models in par ally observable environments.
Localiza on involves determining the robot's posi on, o en using techniques like Monte Carlo localiza on
(MCL) or the extended Kalman filter (EKF).
Simultaneous Localiza on and Mapping (SLAM) addresses scenarios where a robot simultaneously
determines its loca on and builds a map of its environment.
Robots perceive various quan es like temperature, odors, and sound, o en using probabilis c techniques.
Reac ve agents, not explicitly reasoning about probability distribu ons, are also employed in some cases.
Machine learning plays a vital role in robot percep on, including unsupervised learning for dimensionality
reduc on and adap ve percep on techniques.
Self-supervised methods enable robots to collect their own training data and adapt to changes in sensor
measurements.
This breakdown encapsulates the key aspects of robo c percep on, organized into clear topics and subtopics for
concise understanding.
2. Configura on Space: A representa on of all possible configura ons of the robot, considering its dimensions
and degrees of freedom. The configura on space helps simplify mo on planning calcula ons.
3. Mo on Planning Methods:
Visibility Graphs: Suitable for two-dimensional configura on spaces with polygonal obstacles. They
provide guaranteed shortest-path solu ons.
Voronoi Diagrams: Provide paths away from obstacles, ensuring safety. Useful for scenarios where
the robot's body is considered larger than its actual dimensions.
Cell Decomposi on: Discre zes configura on space into cells, making path planning a discrete graph
search problem.
Probabilis c Roadmaps (PRMs): Construct a graph of feasible paths based on random sampling,
useful for mul -query planning scenarios.
Rapidly Exploring Random Trees (RRTs): Incrementally builds trees from start and goal configura ons,
connec ng them to find a feasible path.
4. Trajectory Op miza on: Focuses on op mizing a cost func on over paths, considering factors like collision
avoidance and path efficiency. Gradient descent methods can be used for op miza on.
5. Post-processing Techniques: O en applied to improve the quality of solu ons, such as shortcu ng for RRTs
to remove unnecessary ver ces from the path.
Overall, mo on planning involves a balance between finding feasible paths, op mizing for efficiency, and ensuring
collision-free naviga on in complex environments. Various techniques and algorithms are employed based on the
specific requirements and constraints of the robot and its workspace.
Open-loop control: Turning a mathema cal path descrip on into real-world ac ons.
Re ming:
Approximate methods for re ming using maximum velocity and accelera on.
Control Laws:
Propor onal-Deriva ve (PD) controller: Adds a deriva ve term to dampen oscilla ons.
Op mal Control:
Techniques like mul ple shoo ng and direct colloca on for trajectory op miza on.
By understanding and implemen ng these control techniques, robots can efficiently track trajectories and navigate
complex environments with precision.
Choosing the most likely state from probability distribu on for faster computa on.
Guarded Movements:
Example: Coastal naviga on heuris c and incen vizing ac ons for informa on gain.
By incorpora ng these techniques, robots can navigate uncertain environments more effec vely and adapt to
changes in real- me, improving their overall performance and flexibility.
Hybrid Approaches:
By addressing these challenges and leveraging various techniques, reinforcement learning can be effec vely applied
to robo cs, enabling robots to learn and adapt in real-world environments more efficiently.
Coordina on:
Challenges include incomplete informa on, con nuous state and ac on spaces, and human
subop mali es.
Preference learning: inferring cost func ons from human demonstra ons.
Behavioral cloning: learning desired policies directly from human demonstra ons.
Challenges in generaliza on to new states and addressing errors through itera ve learning.
By addressing these challenges, robots can effec vely interact and collaborate with humans in various tasks,
improving overall performance and user sa sfac on.
Reac ve Controllers:
Example: Hexapod robot using simple rules for leg movement without explicit terrain modeling.
Control rules are o en based on reflex ac ons rather than high-level planning.
Subsump on Architectures:
Framework for assembling reac ve controllers from finite state machines (FSMs).
Scalability challenges for handling complex tasks with numerous condi ons.
Conclusion:
Robo cs employs a variety of approaches, including delibera ve, reac ve, or hybrid.
Ongoing research and engineering efforts aim to address challenges and improve effec veness in
real-world applica ons.