Grancoli (Ch 13) ® Temperature and Knetic. Theor “The. theory drat mater is made up of ooms and hat these atoms ave in conhnusus condom motor 1s coNed the Kinetic. theocy (Kinch! is Green 0 ‘moving’ ) ‘ W321 Atborme Theory et meter [Bn gle is tne Smallest )edwisebte- Unit of matters [The Greeks considered Me alos “indiwisible” tat we ido nok. The ale consists of A nudes Lontsnmng [protons and nesbons) and electrons, | Tre experimental eviderte for He atomic Heovg tome Hin tre 18h conbury from Te analysis of chemical [peackions. Tre velalve tnasces of atems and molecules ave leatled re atomic mass or moleculoc mass, respectively. The unified alomic onas> wort (U4) is used to express Hw relaive mass of atoms and molecules. | Vu = Wbbos xj077Kg | and 18 based On the Coroon lola Noving @ muss of exactly 12.0000 U. | The milecuve mass of a compound iS the Sum of lelome massa of He atoms mating up Har compound, 18 Aw elemenk is a subsience Such aS gold thal camot | be brian Aown mts Simpler Substance by ewer means, le A molecule & « group ot aloms bald toget by | Covalent bonds le A compound ‘ig a subshnce Composed of alms combind jn specific catios. | | | [Brovenian muverrent » in whith dust or pollen greats , move fim whic appeois to ba- random petles om tet. surface of shu waleym , was anole mpoclast piece of evidence [fer te ahomic Teag. Based on shidis of Srenien Imubion , in stein Ackeranined te dramabe of a typical lato to be, aback _1O- mn,Grancoli_ (Qn 13) Q The 4hree common Skteo of maha are Solid liquid, land gas. | Alam and molecule exec attrachv, forces (ot an lewetec acure) on each other, when molecules came Hoo close, He forces belweer Mem become repulsive ICelectne vepuision belwean tic outer electong J, | Kn a solid he athactive forces are ver Strong, So Hirt te atoms are neld in neacly fixed positions in an |Ocroy CaMed @ Crystal loHice, Kn sohds the atoms Mibrake about tir mean PoShONns , | En a hquid, the force bewen atoms or molecules io weak and te atoms or molecules move rapidly within Pre liquid, Adare te thie Pore ogi) | En & gas tne forces are SO Weak Hed the. molecules muve rvepidly im candom directions. A gas wilt Spread lowk to AM any contamecs On te average tr spel jave Nigh eMongin in @ 965 Anak When two molec a jcomrde » Te forces of attachin are not Stroma enough Ho Beep Han fugetau ana fey nv off, | TRamporecture is a mensuce. of how “nok oc" cold someting lis, and iS gereeniiy measured Ubiwrg @ specchic Saale, the. dempertsre of a suloslance 1S celled to its Kmobic lenagy. We will See thik for ar ideal gas tre tempershere is mecsure of the averaye Kirche envy oF the aloms a Make up tte gas. | Maw hes mabler ad on jemperthve. Foe lerummple., must materiale expend whan hacked ) the cleckreek jressbance of maker Charge wilt Kmmpewkye) ard we color adler by objels Cob least @ igh kmpeuteved). : | Thermomelers are inshunents designed to measue -bemperature. The OpereWory of teamomstay Ayainds on Some Propuhy lot ponte Hck changes with epucdure. ,ilormon ALamomulas consdt of actebe filed woth mucan Be alco) Aneck expands with an increcie in tempercture - Bimetahe strips (fig. 13-5) thet are made of two Hin steps of metal having different rates of expansion ace also used in termmombers, “This is common in air Hrormomekirs , ovenS, coffe pols , and room tecmosints. Very precise thermomekrs mate use of electvee |peoperhes, Such as cesistance sHror mo meters treqmo coups, land thermsters (dure offen have Aig fadout ). Temperature Scales © |CelsiuS or Contaendle Scale nas water freezing at OC land beilwa at loo'e. othe Famhet Scale has watec freeze of BQ EF and boiling at 22°F, © The most impoceat seule br Saence 18 She. Kelvin Seale. Whe Kelvin Cor absotule ) Scale ism degrees Kelvin lor swaply as kelvivsk) witha the degree signs The inkevals are tre Some as tw calérus scale uc zero on tis scale (OK) is chosen as absolute Zero, Therfore, OC = ATBASK. Any dempectiwe 09 tee Celsius scale Can be chansy dA fe Kevins by ladding 273.15 40 vb, | Te) = The) + 273618 |Celsms/firsabet Convers.id0s' A range. om perce, of 180 Fibrenheit degrees is jefeenvatent 40 100 Gisius degrees, | F°s 9 € +(e) -ZErle)-32) oe The) 8 Tle) +32 + Dilereat mnudeviala donot expend ad tle seme nde over la wide femperadwe conga, Thety pe of termemeles thal Thus been Chsem aS @ Standord So Inbevosdube Hempecteres Can be precsely dfned iS the bonsten}-v2 Line. Gos Hermometer-Biles Schon 13-3 PilewS Setun (3-4 Grareahi Ov 13 @ (A Constant volume _qas Jrecmomeler works on he Principle Hot if dhe velume of 4 gas 1S constant, 15 peessuce lis Amearly propochooal Jo 45 temperatures Figure 13-F ) The. Jermomn consists of « bulb filled I Iwan gas (dilule) connected +b a : Jenedcucy aminemelt by a Yow dube. [Te volume of He Ges 15 maintained lconslant by raising ac lowecing the | riqut- bond ules of the manomehs, T's Fecmomeke gives the Same result fee Any works gad mm Ahe binid of reducing he pos pressure towered Zero. The resuthng Seale Serves [as a wasis for the stonddvd temperature Seales | 4. Theamal €xpansion Figure (2-4. A thin cod Linear expansion ot length Lo ab temperstere | Te change. in Jengts (AL) of To is eokd foo new unrkioy almost al\” Solids 15, 40 a seuperatue T and aquices feo Approximation, Atcecdly length Lywhee b+ bot AL |Propochonal te aAhe Le. lonenge im mpevatwe. at Te ICAL) and to the orignal ae} Lennie of the objecl (le), fat T ms lony as Hee fempacluce. cham is net too large. When he kmpectve of a Substene of leeytin Lo Ineresses by AL, where — ae eave COs-1a) = Ass the codficmb of Ine -expenson, Umis of X95 (C°) & diperds on He nahwe of the materials L=bo +AL feweike,, aaa L=Le (1+ 42 =nkR= consol | nome | T ore Con$h LEP, end Ty ore inidial PiVvi _ PeVe land) BL Va and Pe ae Anal then 5 a Mf we tmew amy 5 ot the winlables we Veen moive ferlmhe s0n,) ZF one of He 3 vaviables i$ Constork we ean smpity, Fic Lexample (E VWi2V2 then Peo, Pe | cola 13-9 Leleal Gas Law in eos of Molecules: Avogadvo's Number, 2 Amedeo Avogadro (V17%G-18St) stelea Ahab equed volumes of Iga ak tee came presure. and tempersdure Contew equet [oumbers of molecules (Aregadro's WypotnesiS), This is [eqawalent to "RR" berg Hee Sime fe a gassed | The number of molecules in one mole ot ary pure isubslance 16 Known as Avegadro's ens i | 23 r | : 7 Fast preenaly dderniat | Na = 6.022 x 10>? molecotes/ mote, Tht foe Bory,Gtancalr_(ch 3) @ TIL Nis the number of mvlecules of @ 905 then | NenNa —P Ary : N Pv=akRT = yy, RT Ri Bye 7 = EI PY: WkKT, (isa) El where K 1s the Boltzwnawy's Con Stent = Kak a PIA Tol Kk 350? TK Ny 602% 10° Yonel Helwil Cas Lew [a deems BAO Kinelic Theory and the Molecular Tnkerpretehon of | ees [Kinehe Theory is the analysis of matter in eee latoms im continuous Candom motion, he Keto Wwory Lot gasseo celates the macro scopic antdies (Such as pessore arbbempecsce)) fo The microscopic quantities such las the velocity of molecules | The basic _postulkes ot the Kmehetheory are t ¥ C1) Gasseo are composed of a lore Number yN, of identical péinthKe molecules (earn cf messm) moving | in random directors’ with a variety et Speeds. (2) The molecules are, far apect (much grecter than tne. Avomikee of e004 molecule) fom one another, (3) The molecu obey the laws of classical mechanics ,and ave. assumed to mlerack with one ancthar only when | coWide, (although moleciled evert weak ccthectve L forces on cacy othe lachween Collisions) The PE camciated | Wihh ture torees 18 Sosmall Compored to the KE Wat | we rqnore (+), G) Tne collisions ave elastic. We. can see how ais cxplaing Boyles law, The pressure on MMe wall of @ Conteanee 1S due to He Wombsrdmedt of muleculs. IEE te volume iS Ceclircech by halt Hen twice as inany KcollsSions witty thewall per sent So dwite {Le presure + eis Law expleune?Graneo\i Cr 13) @ Figure 13-1 (b) edrrows wdhtete He Momentum af one meleule oF + Gebounds fore tae end wall, : + Focus on the wall, oF acea Ay at the left and examines what happens aS One nolecule Ts rTc> Te), ¥ The dashed Curves ceprecenb behovier ; yf n gas as predickd by the ideal ja low Pere PV Sragramn Sor A Fett Substanle ee ew loaGiorceli Ceni3) & [The selid curve A represents behovior of a real gas at tempeaduc Ta) whereas, the cleshed Curve AY tepresenbs behevier of a gas preeiched by the ideal gas law ; Pyzconsiint, @ | The curves B and C cepresont tho gas at successively lower Herapertures , and we See that He beloviac deviates even move. from the Curves predicled by the idec\ gos bw Cor example curve B1), The deviation is qventer he. Closer Me gas is to liquefying. To explain is behavior we note nat oc higher pressnre Are MOUS are Closer 4togedhoc And, when de molecules are also lak lower Jenmpercclures the polental energy associated witli Ane iWroedive fortes between te mwlecutes 15 po longer nailgi ble counpered to Wve now cediaced Kmehic ergy af to molecdles, The athaclve foes tnd to put) The molecular close tesetter ard So at a diver pressure, te volume oS les 1653 than expecked « At skid lower temperatures Here forces Cause Wgarfication and the [melecules become very Close dayethers + | Curve C represents Ht bem ef a Substance at ‘Is erihcel LLempembace. The point "C” (Where the curve 18 honzorlal) is leaNea the Crchcal point. The comical temperature ig Hee Hemnperchice below which a gas will Change to tre Mique prose if subfcrent pressure is applitds Aove the entrcal Hemperatare , ne amburrrot pressure can cause & gas Jo Chane phase and Wecome a \iqurict. A Ashnchon con be mace bebe ter tems gas and Viper, A subsiance Wbelow 11S critica) demperoture wn the gaseous [Stabe e called a YaROC, above We Cvibcal Sewpembue y ob [IS called a gad « © Curve D represenls fre shuchion where liquetachon occurs. [Ab low pressure on cucve D CRAs Habe of Cope VND), the BubStene 1S gaseous (a vapor) and occuprs a large Volume. [As pressuce iS” yncversed re volume decreeses until pot" b” (S reached. Beyond “b" the volume decreases with 90 Chany in pressure A fe greta renges bom We Gus 10 [he Miguid prises Ab ponte” alll ob Yre sulsiance nas. | Grancol ni ) @ Cranaea to A Guid. Reeder pressure mereas ceduce Whe Volume only slightly Cuqaids are neorly incompressible) Sete curve S very Steep. The sinaded FLO Under the clashed line represents the region whyre the os jana Waid plirsea exnst toqethor in -erbbrin + a JA PT diagram lFque 13-20), S otter called a phase cbaqram, are [15 wsefal for com porns a |AFfercnt phases of 0 s | Substance. a ‘The curve labled 1-V¥ represends these pols gong nove tre bal and : \Vapor photos are 1 | i % leqabbrium. I+ is & graph of aie een (the boilwy port YS. pressure « ima (26) INoke as you lower We Pressure you Figure 13-20 & Phase. ieee ue boibing porrk (hes? Araqrann CPT dvaqram) han foo% on « mamlaiatop Je foc worer, Sccler mot linea) The s-£ aueve represents pomls where the Sond and Wqaid pheses exsh in equibbram and Hnms is a graph of the freezing Pomb YS. pressure , As Hee pressure decreases te freezing Pom mcrecsers The curve labled s-¥ ae pork whee ave Sod ant gos pretia ace in eplibowns. This is a Sublimehon pow Vo. pessure curve, Sublmahon refers Jo the process minereby at low pesSures & solid changes diveclty into Te Vapor pease. The inlersaction of the eee Curves is the tiple paint. [Eb is only at He biple port tha the three phases, can emdt fogatler in equalibrimm, The dnp e-podct 16 preciseh Ceproducile Ond iS Er Ube ab a pomh ob reference. || Granca\i (On 13) + ANolice. Athek the SL curve for woler 6 upward to rw taf (Fig 13-20). This 15 dere only of Substances ned “eapand wpon freeznng } od a Wyner pressue ) a lower Fonpircture 1S needed to conse the pal to freeze, [Most substances contact upon freezing and Ye s-l curve upward to the nigish ) as Shown for coro dioxide we Aqure 13-21. Aba qh pacsuve & Vre heg Aevmpuccbe 1S nreel -b conse Me dqwot to freeze. « [We hwe dscnssed Common Phese transhions. However, [Some subslances Can ext in Several fens im the satid Fplwse (for exemple ice ab very 4h pressures Je Hebum he Awo Aichwe} Viquad proces Chanws Ean d helen IP), Helwan Tr lextabils superfluddy . Gr has essenhally zero yiseosih land exnibis strange popeches sicch aS climbiny up the sides of an open Ccontamec. o [Note] nole the Chad Poh where od Kuga lempercchices JE Substance GOSS Only asa gas « KB Fique 13-20 134 ape Ss adi “Evaporation Can be explimed on tre bosis of te Knee Pheory, Evapocetion curs when Moles wo He quid Phase Gttean speeds gn enough to escape into 4a GjaS Pruse, Evaporion cote is qreitst oh kqner Aenipecotoes Since He average muletulir enuqy iS Aiqhers Because, The Fastest molecules escape in evaporation y the cue lof the Cemaining molecules » and ence ) tha temperrue , 1S lles$. Evaporation ig a@ coolin LesSe ke] Because wala motels must overcome tC forces of- hydegen bonds With adsacer} waka molecules mn orc Ho evaporide., Tb ever oO orqe mow of "laleud best” with Whe The eveperrtion of water iS a very | Reayon 9s, . Concent bien Conentahon, in candom meohon. Ye =ty zor [here will bo a net flow of molecules to He left Let us exomme why. Consider He section of tube of keg AX, Molcuks trom reson One and two cyes$ into this central sechon, + |The move molecules thet ace in a rej ue more frat Wl Stake @ gwen avea oc cress @ boundary, Eo there iS a gvater convertor of molecules i'n, [region V tren 2 y more molecules C$ nto We cnbal |seckon Gam veyron Vo han 2. There iS fen a neh Ffiow of molecules fom ett to ght fiom bah concentrechion to low. The net flow becomes Leco only when the concenbechons become equck. > «the ale of diffusion, T (number of pnolecules or moles or Ko per second), 1 curect ly Pevpochenal 40 Wwe chan in concentecchon per wnt distance , (Q-e2V ay (wid 5 Al lis Called Ahe Contention Gradient), and do the 4 leress-Sechonal area A (Fiqure 13-26), 3 - a) q ana Or Ca (13-10) 2 AX tags gen in mekas) a Dis a constart of pepohonality called the clffuses constant. Epuction (3-10 1S Known as the Adfision | on), OF Fick's law. : + lit Fasion 15 very sinpoclind te Wife (ies O2.2h Hasion nls certs), EF concenbichoas ore quer mds Peon T is de numba ot méles Passing @ Sven pont per Second,