COMPREHENSIVE VIVA VOCE

REPORT

Submitted by

A.S.ARAVINTAKSHAN Reg. No.: 20TD0310

Submitted to the Pondicherry University in partial fulfillment of the

requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

in

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

MANAKULA VINAYAGAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

PUDUCHERRY – 605 107

MAY - 2024

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Register No : 20TD0310
Name : A.S.ARAVINTAKSHAN
Year/Semester/Section : IV/VIII/B
Branch : COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
Subject : COMPREHENSIVE VIVA VOCE

CERTIFICATE
Certified that this is the bonafide record of work done by the above
student in the COMPREHENSIVE VIVA VOCE Laboratory during the year
2023-24

STAFF-IN-CHARGE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Submitted for the University Practical Examination held on_____________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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 INDEX

S. No Subject Name Page No Signature

1. Object Oriented Programming and Design 01

2. Data Structures 09

3. Computer Organization and Architecture 15

4. Automata Languages and Computations 23

5. Design and Analysis and Algorithms 30

6. Graphics and Image Processing 35

7. Operating Systems 41

8. Computer Networks 46

9. Database Management Systems 53

10. Language Translators 59

11. Software Engineering 65

12. Web Technology 72

13. Enterprise Solutions 79

14. Artificial Intelligence 86

15. Platform Technology 93

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 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING AND DESIGN

1. Mention some of the disadvantages of conventional programming.

Following are the drawbacks observed in monolithic, procedural, and structured

programming languages:
 Large size programs are divided into smaller programs known as functions. These functions
can call one another. Hence, security is not provided.
 Importance is not given to security of data but on doing things.
 Data passes globally from one function to another.
 Most functions have access to global data.

2. What are the features of Object Oriented Programming?

 Programs are divided into objects

 Emphasis is on data rather than procedure
 Data Structures are designed such that they characterize the objects
 Functions that operate on the data of an object are tied together
 Data is hidden and cannot be accessed by external functions
 Objects may communicate with each other through functions
 New data and functions can easily be added whenever necessary
 Follows bottom-up approach

3. Define Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

Object Oriented Programming is an approach that provides a way of modularizing programs

by creating partitioned memory area for both data and functions that can be used as templates for
creating copies of such modules on demand.

4. List out the key concepts of Object Oriented Programming.

There are several fundamental or key concepts in object-oriented programming. Some of

them are
 Objects.
 Classes.
 Data abstraction and Encapsulation.
1
  Inheritance.
 Polymorphism.
 Dynamic binding.
 Message passing.

5. What are the stream classes in C++?

C++ has a number of stream classes that are used to work with console and file operations.
These classes are known as stream classes. All these classes are declared in the header file
iostream.h. The file iostream.h must be included in the program if we are using functions of these
classes.
Below figure indicates the stream classes.

6. What are the operators available in C++?

All operators in C are also used in C++. In addition to insertion operator << and extraction
operator >>, the other new operators in C++ are:
 : : Scope resolution operator
 : : * Pointer-to-member declarator
 ->* Pointer-to-member operator
 .* Pointer-to-member operator
 endl Line feed operator
 new Memory allocation operator
 setw Field width operators

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7. What is constructor?

A constructor (having the same name as that of the class) is a special member function
which is automatically used to initialize the objects of the class type with legal initial values.

8. What is operator overloading?

C++ has the ability to provide the operators with a special meaning for a data type.
This mechanism of giving such special meanings to an operator is known as Operator overloading.
Itprovides a flexible option for the creation of new definitions for C++ operators.

9. Define abstract class.

A class is said to be an abstract class if it satisfies the following conditions

 It should act as a base class
 It should not be used to create any objects

10. What is default constructor?

Default Constructor is also called as Empty Constructor which has no arguments and It is
automatically called when we creates the object of class but remember name of constructor is same
as name of class and constructor never declared with the help of return type. Means we cannot
declare a constructor with the help of void return type. , if we never pass or declare any arguments
then this called as the Copy Constructors.

11. What is copy constructor?

This is also another type of Constructor. In this constructor we pass the object of lass into
another object of same class. As name suggests you copy, means copy the values of one object into
the another object of class .This is used for copying the values of class object into an another object
of class So we call them as Copy Constructor and for copying the values we have to pass the name
of object whose values we wants to copying and when we are using or passing an object to a
constructor then we must have to use the &ampersand or address operator.

12. List out the member function accessibility.

 class member function

 derived member function

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  friend member function
 friend class member function

13. What is pointer?

Pointer variable stores the memory address of any type of variable. The pointer variable and
normal variable should be of the same type. The pointer is denoted by (*) asterisk symbol. Pointer
variables can be declared as below:

Example

 int *x;
 float *f;
 char *y;

14. What is void pointer?

 Pointers can also be declared as void type.

 Void pointers cannot be dereferenced without explicit type conversion. This is because
being void the compiler cannot determine the size of the object that the pointer points to.
 Though void pointer declaration is possible, void variable declaration is not allowed.
 Thus, the declaration void p will display an error message ―Size of ‗p‘ is unknown or zero‖
after compilation.
 It is not possible to declare void variables like pointers.

15. What is heap consumption?

The heap is used to allocate memory during program execution i.e., run-time. In assembly
language, there is no such thing as a heap. In various ways, C/C++ has a better programming
environment than assembly language. However, a cost has to be paid to use either C or C++.

16. What is virtual function?

Virtual function or virtual method is a function or method whose behavior can be overridden
within an inheriting class by a function with the same signature.

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17. What is array of pointers?

 Polymorphism refers to late or dynamic binding i.e., selection of an entity is decidedat run-
time.
 In class hierarchy, same method names can be defined that perform different tasks, and then
the selection of appropriate method is done using dynamic binding.
 Dynamic binding is associated with object pointers.
 Thus, address of different objects can be stored in an array to invoke function dynamically.

18. What is string?

 A string is nothing but a sequence of characters.

 String can contain small and capital letters, numbers and symbols.
 String is an array of character type.
 Each element of string occupies a byte in the memory.
 Every string is terminated by a null character. The last character of such a string is null
(‗\0‘) character and the compiler identifies the null character during execution of the
program.

19. What is a file?

 A file is a collection of inter related data stored in a particular area on the disk.
 Most of the applications will have their own features to save some data to the local disk and
read data from the disk again.
 C++ file I/O classes simplify such file to read/write operations for the programmer by
providing easier way to use classes.

20. What is streambuf?

The streambuf class does not organize streams for input or output operations. The derived
classes of streambuf perform these operations. It also arranges a space for keeping input data and
for sending output.

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21. What is ifstream?

 The ifstream provides input operations contains open() with default input mode.
 Inherits the functions get(), getline(), read(), seekg(), tellg() functions from istream.

22. What are the steps of file operations?

 File name
 Opening file
 Reading or writing the file (File processing)
 Detecting errors
 Closing the file

23. List some of the file modes.

 ios::in- Open file for reading only

 ios::out- Open file for writing only
 ios::ate- Go to end-of-file on opening
 ios::app- Append to end-of-file
 ios::trunk- Delete the contents of the file if it exists
 ios::nocreate- Open fails if file the file does not exist
 ios::noreplace- Open fails if the file already exists
 ios::binary- Binary file

24. What are the types of file accessing?

 Sequential access
This type of file is to be accessed sequentially that is to access a particular data all the
preceding data items have to be read and discarded.

 Random access
This type of file allows access to the specific data directly without accessing its preceding
data items.

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25. Define UML.

Unified modeling language is a visual language used for specifying, constructing and
documenting a system. It is a standard diagrammatic notation used for drawing, presenting pictures
related to software engineering.

26. Define five views in UML diagram?

1) User’s view: User‘s view defines the functionalities (facilities) made available by the system
to its users.
2) Structural view: The structural view defines the kinds of objects (classes) important to the
understanding of the working of a system and to its implementation.
3) Behavioral view: The behavioral view captures how objects interact with each other to
realize the system behavior. The system behavior captures the time-dependent (dynamic)
behavior of the system.
4) Implementation view: The implementation view captures the important components of the
system and their dependencies.
5) Environmental view: The models of different components are implemented on different
pieces of hardware in environmental view.

27. List out the UML diagrams?

1) Class diagram
2) Object diagram
3) Use case diagram
4) Sequence diagram
5) Collaboration diagram
6) Activity diagram
7) State chart diagram
8) Deployment diagram
9) Component diagram

28. What is the necessity for developing use case diagram?

 The utility of the use cases are represented by ellipses and the text description serves a
type of requirements specification of the system and form the core model to which all

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 other models must conform.
 Users (actors) is in identifying and implementing a security mechanism through a login
system, so that each actor can involve only those functionalities to which he is entitled
to.

29. Define Aggregation.

Aggregation is a special type of association where the involved classes represent a whole-
part relationship. The aggregate takes the responsibility of forwarding messages to the appropriate
parts. Thus, the aggregate takes the responsibility of delegation and leadership.

30. Define Realization.

Realization can be defined as a relationship in which two elements are connected. One
element describes some responsibility which is not implemented and the other one implements
them. This relationship exists in case of interfaces.

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 DATA STRUCTURES

1. What is data structure?

Data structure refers to the way data is organized and manipulated. It seeks to find ways to
make data access more efficient. When dealing with the data structure, we not only focus on one
piece of data but the different set of data and how they can relate to one another in an organized
manner.

2. When is a binary search best applied?

A binary search is an algorithm that is best applied to search a list when the elements are
already in order or sorted. The list is searched starting in the middle, such that if that middle value is
not the target search key, it will check to see if it will continue the search on the lower half of the
list or the higher half. The split and search will then continue in the same manner.

3. What is a linked list?

A linked list is a sequence of nodes in which each node is connected to the node following it.
This forms a chain-like link for data storage.

4. In what areas do data structures are applied?

Data structures are essential in almost every aspect where data is involved. In general,
algorithms that involve efficient data structure is applied in the following areas: numerical analysis,
operating system, A.I., compiler design, database management, graphics, and statistical analysis, to
name a few.

5. What is LIFO?

LIFO is a short form of Last In First Out. It refers how data is accessed, stored and retrieved.
Using this scheme, data that was stored last should be the one to be extracted first. This also means
that in order to gain access to the first data, all the other data that was stored before this first data
must first be retrieved and extracted.

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6. What is a queue?

A queue is a data structure that can simulate a list or stream of data. In this structure, new
elements are inserted at one end, and existing elements are removed from the other end.

7. What are binary trees?

A binary tree is one type of data structure that has two nodes, a left node, and a right node.
Inprogramming, binary trees are an extension of the linked list structures.

8. Which data structures are applied when dealing with a recursive function?

Recursion is a function that calls itself based on a terminating condition, makes use of the
stack. Using LIFO, a call to a recursive function saves the return address so that it knows how to
return to the calling function after the call terminates.

9. What is a stack?

A stack is a data structure in which only the top element can be accessed. As data is stored
inthe stack, each data is pushed downward, leaving the most recently added data on top.

10. Explain Binary Search Tree

A binary search tree stores data in such a way that they can be retrieved very efficiently. The
left sub tree contains nodes whose keys are less than the node‘s key value, while the right sub tree
contains nodes whose keys are greater than or equal to the node‘s key value. Moreover, both sub
trees are also binary search trees.

11. What are multidimensional arrays?

Multidimensional arrays make use of multiple indexes to store data. It is useful whenstoring
data that cannot be represented using single dimensional indexing, such as data representation in a
board game, tables with data stored in more than one column.

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12. What is FIFO?

FIFO stands for First-in, First-out, and is used to represent how data is accessed in a queue.
Data has been inserted into the queue list the longest is the one that is removed first.

13. What is merge sort?

Merge sort, is a divide-and-conquer approach for sorting the data. In a sequence of data,
adjacent ones are merged and sorted to create bigger sorted lists. These sorted lists are then merged
again to form an even bigger sorted list, which continues until you have one single sorted list.

14. What is the primary advantage of a linked list?

A linked list is an ideal data structure because it can be modified easily. This means that
editing a linked list works regardless of how many elements are in the list.

15. What is the difference between a PUSH and a POP?

Pushing and popping applies to the way data is stored and retrieved in a stack. A push
denotes data being added to it, meaning data is being ―pushed‖ into the stack. On the other hand, a
pop denotes data retrieval, and in particular, refers to the topmost data being accessed.

16. What is a linear search?

A linear search refers to the way a target key is being searched in a sequential data structure.
In this method, each element in the list is checked and compared against the target key. The process
is repeated until found or if the end of the file has been reached.

17. What is the advantage of the heap over a stack?

The heap is more flexible than the stack. That‘s because memory space for the heap can be
dynamically allocated and de-allocated as needed. However, the memory of the heap can at times be
slower when compared to that stack.

18. What is a postfix expression?

 A postfix expression is an expression in which each operator follows its operands.

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  The advantage of this form is that there is no need to group sub-expressions in parentheses
orto considers operator precedence.

19. How does a selection sort work for an array?

The selection sort is a fairly intuitive sorting algorithm, though not necessarily efficient. In
this process, the smallest element is first located and switched with the element at subscript zero,
thereby placing the smallest element in the first position. The smallest element remaining in the
subarray is then located next to subscripts 1 through n-1 and switched with the element at subscript
1, thereby placing the second smallest element in the second position. The steps are repeated in the
same manner till the last element.

20. What are dynamic data structures?

Dynamic data structures are structures that expand and contract as a program runs. It
provides a flexible means of manipulating data because it can adjust according to the size of the
data.

21. What are ARRAYS?

When dealing with arrays, data is stored and retrieved using an index that refers to the
element number in the data sequence. This means that data can be accessed in any order. In
programming, an array is declared as a variable having a number of indexed elements.

22. Differentiate STACK from ARRAY.

Stack follows a LIFO pattern. It means that data access follows a sequence wherein the last
data to be stored when the first one to be extracted. Arrays, on the other hand, does not follow a
particular order and instead can be accessed by referring to the indexed element within the array.

23. Give a basic algorithm for searching a binary search tree.

1. if the tree is empty, then the target is not in the tree, end search
2. if the tree is not empty, the target is in the tree

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 3. check if the target is in the root item
4. if a target is not in the root item, check if a target is smaller than the root‘s value
5. if a target is smaller than the root‘s value, search the left subtree
6. else, search the right subtree

24. What is a dequeue?

A dequeue is a double-ended queue. This is a structure wherein elements can be inserted or

removed from either end.

25. What is a bubble sort and how do you perform it?

A bubble sort is one sorting technique that can be applied to data structures such as anarray.
It works by comparing adjacent elements and exchanges their values if they are out of order. This
method lets the smaller values ―bubble‖ to the top of the list, while the larger value sinks to the
bottom.

26. How does selection sort work?

Selection sort works by picking the smallest number from the list and placing it at the front.
This process is repeated for the second position towards the end of the list. It is the simplest sort
algorithm.

27. What is a graph?

A graph is one type of data structure that contains a set of ordered pairs. These ordered pairs
are also referred to as edges or arcs and are used to connect nodes where data can be stored and
retrieved.

28. Differentiate linear from a nonlinear data structure.

The linear data structure is a structure wherein data elements are adjacent to each other.
Examples of linear data structure include arrays, linked lists, stacks, and queues. On the other
hand, a non-linear data structure is a structure wherein each data element can connect to more than
two adjacent data elements. Examples of nonlinear data structure include trees and graphs.

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29. What is an AVL tree?

An AVL tree is a type of binary search tree that is always in a state of partially balanced.
The balance is measured as a difference between the heights of the subtrees from the root. This self-
balancing tree was known to be the first data structure to be designed as such.

30. What are doubly linked lists?

Doubly linked lists are a special type of linked list wherein traversal across the data
elements can be done in both directions. This is made possible by having two links in every node,
one that links to the next node and another one that connects to the previous node.

31. What is Fibonacci search?

Fibonacci search is a search algorithm that applies to a sorted array. It makes use of a
divide- and-conquer approach that can significantly reduce the time needed in order to reach the
target element.

32. Briefly explain recursive algorithm.

Recursive algorithm targets a problem by dividing it into smaller, manageable sub-

problems. The output of one recursion after processing one sub-problem becomes the input to the
next recursive process.

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 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

1. What is big–endian?

Big-endian and little-endian are terms that describe the order in which a sequence of bytes
are stored in computer memory. The name big-endian is used when lower byte addresses are used
for the more significant bytes (the leftmost bytes) of the word.
The name little endian is used for the opposite ordering, where the lower byte addresses are used
for the less significant bytes (the rightmost bytes)of the word. The words ―more significant‖
and ―less significant‖ are used in relation to the weights (powers of 2) assigned to bits when the
word represents a number.

2. Write about program-controlled I/O.

The difference in speed between processor and I/O devices creates the need for mechanisms
to synchronize the transfer of data between them. There will be several I/O devices connected to the
processor; the processor checks the ``status'' input port periodically, under program control by the
I/O handling procedure. If an I/O device requires service, it will signal this need by altering its input
to the ``status'' port. When the I/O control program detects that this has occurred (by reading the
status port) then the appropriate operation will be performed on the I/O device which requested the
service.

3. What are data register and address register?

 Data register: Data register holds the operand read from memory.
 Address Register: Address register holds register for holding a memory address.

4. What are effective address and Instruction Register?

Effective Address: The effective address can be defined as address of the operand in a
computation type instruction or the target address in a branch -type instruction.
Instruction Register: The instruction read from memory is placed in the instruction
register (IR).

5. List the four phases of instruction cycle?

1. Fetch instruction

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 2. Decode
3. Fetch operand
4. Execute

6. Distinguish between isolated and memory mapped I/O?

The isolated I/O method

 Isolates memory and I/O addresses so that memory address values are not affected by
interface address assignment since each has its own address space.
 This is the case in computers that employ only one set of read and write signals and do
not distinguish between memory and I/O addresses.
 The assigned addresses for interface registers cannot be used for memory words, which
reduce the memory address (range available).

The memory mapped I/O

 Uses the same address space for both memory and I/O.
 The computer treats an interface register as being part of the memory system
 In memory mapped I/O organization, there are no specific inputs or output instructions. The
CPU can manipulate I/O data residing in interface registers with the same instructions that
are used to manipulate memory words.

7. What is meant by Block Transfers?

The IA-32 architecture also has two block transfer I/O instructions REPINS and REPOUTS
.They transfer a block lf data serially, one item at a time, between the memory and an I/O device.
The S suffix in the OP codes stands for string, and the REP prefix stands for ―repeat the item by item
transfer until the complex block has been transferred‖.

8. Define opcode with example and interrupt latency ?

Opcode:
In computing, an opcode (abbreviated from operation code) is the portion of assembly
language instruction that specifies the operation to be performed.
Eg: MOV,ADD,LOAD

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Interrupt latency:
The delay between the time an interrupt request is received and the start of execution of the
interrupt service routine is called interrupt latency.

9. What are the uses of interrupts in OS?

The uses of interrupts in OS are,

 To assign priorities
 Switch from one user program to another.
 Implementing security.
 Protection features.

10. What is time slicing?

Time slicing is a common OS technique that makes multitasking possible. With this
technique, each program runs for a short time period called as a time slice, then another program
runs for its time slice and so on. The period is determined by continuously running hardware clock,
which generates an interrupt every second.

11. What are the three states of a process?

A process can be in one of the three possible states.

1. Running,
2. Runnable,
3. Blocked.

12. What is DMA? Write the advantages of DMA.

A special control unit that may be provided to allow transfer of a block of data directly
between an external device and the main memory without continuous intervention by the
processor. This approach is called direct memory access.

Computer system performance is improved by direct transfer of data between memory and
I/O devices, bypassing the CPU. CPU is free to perform operations that do not use system buses.
DMA controller: The DMA controller performs the functions that would normally be carried out by
the processor when accessing the main memory.

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13. Define full handshake. List the two advantages of a full handshake.

An asynchronous logic uses hardware handshaking to exchange information on the bus.

Here the clock line is eliminated by two control signals master ready and slave ready.
The advantages of a full handshake are,
1. Highest degree of flexibility is provided.
2. Highest degree of reliability is provided.

14. What is the difference between serial port and parallel port?

Serial Port:
 It transmits and receive data one bit at a time.
 Serial format is much more convenient and cost-effective where longer cables are
needed.

Parallel Port:
 It transfers data in the form of a number of bits typically 8 or 16simultaneously to or
from the device.
 Parallel format is suitable for devices that are physically close to the computer.

15. Name and give purpose of widely used bus standards? Or What is standard I/O

interface? List their types? Or What are the standards used for connection?

I/O devices fitted with an interface circuit suitable for one computer may not be usable with
other computers. So a different interface may have to be designed for every combination of I/O
device and computer, resulting many different interfaces.
To overcome this standard I/O interfaces were introduced.
 PCI- Peripheral Component Interconnect Bus
 SCSI-Small Computer System Interface
 USB- Universal Serial Bus

16. What is memory mapped I/O, What is program controlled I/O?

a. With Memory mapped I/O, any machine instruction that can access memory can be used for
transfer data to or from an I/O device.
b. In program controlled I/O, the processor repeatedly checks a status flag to achieve the required
synchronization between the processor and an input and output device.

18
17. List the factors affecting performance of a storage device?

 Division of storage
 Wasted storage
 Distribution of disk I⁄O
 Lack of available storage

18. What are all the levels of RAID disks?

RAID stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive (Independent) Disks.

 RAID 0- A single large file is stored in several separate disk units by breaking the file into
number of smaller pieces and stored in different disk.
 RAID 1-Stores identical copy of data in two disk rather than one.
 RAID 2, RAID3, RAID4- Achieves increased reliability through various parity checking
schemes without requiring a full duplication of disks.
 RAID 5- Uses parity based error recovery scheme.
 RAID 10- is a combined feature of RAID 0 and RAID 1.

19. What are the types of ROM?

There are five basic ROM types:

1. ROM - Read Only Memory.

2. PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory.
3. EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory.
4. EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory.
5. Flash EEPROM memory.

20. What is memory interleaving?

When the main memory of a computer is structured as a collection of separate modules, each block
of data can be place in separate modules. Now, memory access operations may proceed in more
thanone module at the same time parallel.

19
21. Difference between cache and virtual memory?

CACHE MEMORY VIRTUAL MEMORY

 Cache is used to store frequently  Virtual memory extends the

accessed data, so that processor can available memory of the computer by
quickly access the data. storing the inactive parts of the
RAM to disk storage.

 It operates in the nanosecond range.  It operates in the millisecond range.

 Managed automatically by the  Managed by the operating system

hardware.

 Located on the processor itself  It is a part of the hard drive

(secondary storage).

22. Define hit ratio, miss ratio and miss penalty?

1. HIT RATIO:

2. MISS RATIO:

Miss ratio =1-hit ratio

3. MISS PENALTY: Processor loads data from Main memory and copies into cache, this
results in extra delay, called miss penalty.

23. Define memory access time?

 Access Time= Seek Time +Latency Time

 Seek Time: The time required to move the read/write head to the proper track.

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  Rotational Delay or Latency Time: The amount of time taken, after the head is placed on
the correct track till the desired address sector passes under the read write head.

24. What is Rambus memory?

The usage of wide bus is expensive. An alternative technology was use with narrow bus,
called rambus. It used fast signaling method to transfer information between chips. Rambus allow
foe a clock frequency of 400 MHz, which can be transmitted on both edges of the clock with
800MHz.

25. Difference between stack pointer and frame pointer?

Stack Pointer Frame Pointer

 A stack pointer is a small  Frame pointer is a reference pointer

register that stores the address of the allowing a debugger to know where local variable
top element. or an argument is at with a single constant offset.

26. What is the usage of circular buffer?

Circular buffer are used to limit the size of the queue. In the queue, the tail end is connected
to front end in a circular manner, so that when tail end is full, the free space after popping the
elements from the front end can be reused.

27. Define Pipelining.

Pipelining increases instruction throughput by performing multiple operations at the same

time (in parallel), but does not reduce instruction latency (the time to complete a single instruction
from start to finish) as it still must go through all steps.

Stall- If any of the operation such as fetch, decode, execute or write is paused for one or
more clock cycle, it is called as stall or stalling. These stalls are called hazards.

28. What is hazard?

Any condition that causes the pipeline to stall is called a hazard.

21
There are three types of hazards

1. Instruction hazard: The pipeline may be stalled because of a delay in the availability of an
instruction which results in cache miss. These hazards are called control hazards or
instruction hazards.
2. Data hazard: A data hazard is any condition in which either the source or destination
operands of an instruction are not available at the time expected in the pipeline.
Eg: A<--3+A
B<--4*A
3. Structural hazard: Structural hazard arises in a situation when two instructions require use
ofa given hardware resource at the same time.

29. What is deadlock?

A deadlock is a situation that can arise when two units, A and B, use a shared resource.
Suppose that unit B cannot complete its task until unit A completes its task. At the same time, unit
Bhas been assigned a resource that unit A needs. If this happens, neither unit can complete its task.

30. Write down the steps to execute an instruction.

o Fetch the contents of the memory location pointed by the PC and store that content into
instruction registers. IR [[PC]]
o Increment the PC value by 4 to point out the next instruction in the program.

o Carry out the actions specified by the instruction in the IR.

22
 AUTOMATA LANGUAGES AND COMPUTATIONS

1. What is meant by finite automata?

Finite automaton is a mathematical model of a system with discrete inputs and outputs. The
system can be in any one of the finite number of states. The state of the system summaries the
information concerning past inputs that is needed to determine the behavior of the systems on
subsequent inputs. A finite automaton consists of a finite set of states and set of transitions from
state to state that occur on input symbols chosen from an alphabet ∑.

2. What are the two main types of finite automata?

There are two types of finite automata,

i. Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA).

ii. Non deterministic Finite Automata (NFA).

3. Define Finite Automaton(FA)

FA consists of a finite set of states and a set of transitions from state to state that occur on
input symbols chosen from an alphabet ∑. Finite automaton is denoted by a 5-tuple (Q, ∑, δ, q 0 ,
F), where

Q is the finite set of states,

∑ is the finite input alphabet,
δ is the transition mapping function, q0 is the initial state.
F is the set of final state.

4. What are the applications of automata theory?

Some of the applications of automata theory are:

 In complier construction.
 In switching theory and design of digital circuits.
 To verify the correctness of a program.
 Design and analysis of complex software and hardware systems.
 To design finite state machines such as Moore and Mealy machine.

23
5. Define the rules for transition diagram?

Rules for drawing transition diagram are:

1. The transition diagram starts with a arrow pointer.

2. The initial state is being represented by a circle.
3. Each alphabet or symbol is being represented above the edge or arcs.
4. The final state is represented by concentric circle.

6. Write down the operations of the regular expression.

There are main operations that are closed under regular expression,
i. Union.
ii. Concatenation.
iii. Kleene Closure.

Union :
Let r 1 and r 2 be the regular expressions and the union of these two regular expressions are
denoted as r 1
U r 2 or r 1 +r 2 the general form of representation of union operation is given by, M==(Q 1
UQ 2 U{q 0 ,f 0 },∑ 1 U∑ 2 ,∂,q 0 ,{f 0 }).
Concatenation:
Let r 1 and r 2 be the regular expressions and the union of these two regular expressions are
denoted as r 1 . r 2 or r 1 r 2 the general form of representation of concatenation operation is
given by, M==(Q 1 UQ 2 ,∑ 1 U∑ 2 ,∂,q 0 ,{f 0 })
Kleene Closure :
Let r 1 be the regular expressions and the union of these two regular expressions are
denoted as r 1 * or the general form of representation of kleene closure is given by,
M==(Q 1 U{q 0 ,f 0 },∑,∂,q 0 ,{f 0 })

7. What is meant by pumping lemma for regular language/regular set?

Let L be a regular set. Then there is a constant n such that if Z is any word in L, and
|z|≥n. we may write Z=uvw in such a way that |uv| ≤ n, |v| ≥ 1and for all L ≥0 then uv i w is in L.

24
8. What are the application of pumping lemma for regular set?

 The applications of pumping lemma for regular set are:

 The pumping lemma is a powerful tool providing and proving certain language is regular or
not.
 It is also useful in the development of algorithms to answer certain question concerning
finite automata, such as whether the language accepted by a given FA is finite or infinite.

9. Write down the components of CFG?

There are four components present in CFG, or just grammar. We shall represent a CFG G
by its four components, that is,
G=(V,T,P,S), where V is the set of variables, T the terminals, P the set of productions, and S
the start symbol.

10. What is meant by parse tree?

The parse tree is a tree that shows the essentials of a derivation. Interior nodes are labeled by
variables, and leaves are labeled by terminals or Є. For each internal node, there must be a
production such that the head of the production is the label of the node, and the labels of its
children, read from right to left, from the body of that production.

11. What are the applications of context free language?

Context free languages are used in:

a. Defining programming languages.
b. Formalizing the notation of parsing.
c. Translation of programming languages.
d. String processing applications.

12. What are the three ways to simplify a context free grammar?

a. By removing the useless symbols from the set of productions.

b. By eliminating the empty productions.
c. By eliminating the unit productions.

25
13. What is Push down automata?

Push down automata is mainly used to recognize the CFL. It is named as Push down
automata because it makes use of stack as Push down list. Here stack acts as Cache memory and
Auxiliary memory.

14. Why there is a need for stack in PDA?

In PDA stack acts as Cash memory and Auxiliary memory. Cash memory is used to store
the frequently accessing data and the data can be retrieved as fast as possible. If there is no enough
space in input tape then the data can be stored in external memory.

15. Write down the application of Pumping lemma for CFL?

The applications of pumping lemma for CFL are

 To check whether the given language is CFL or not.
 To check whether the given string is finite or infinite

16. Explain the actions used in Bottom up parsing.

The actions used in Bottom up parsing are:

a) Shift
b) Reduce
c) Accept
d) Error

Shift: Shifting action is that we shift the symbol from input tape to the stack.
Reduce: If handle is present at the top of the stack then it is replace by the left hand side of the
derivation. This action is known as reduce.
Accept: When the $ symbol encounter then the input string is accepted. Error: If $ symbol does not
encounter then it leads to error.

17. State the relationship between derivation and derivation tree.

Let G be the context free grammar indicated by G= {V, T, P, S} then S =&gt; α ifonly if
there is a derivation tree in G.

26
18. What are the different types of language acceptances by a PDA.

There are 4 types of language acceptances of a PDA. They are

 Acceptance by final state

 Acceptance by empty state
 From empty to final state
 From final state to empty state.

19. What are the components of Pushdown Automata?

The PDA usually consists of four components:

 A control unit
 Read unit
 Input tape
 Memory unit

20. What are the components of Turing machine?

The components of Turing machine are:

 finite control
 an input tape
 a tape head

21. What is Turing machine with two dimensional tapes?

This is a kind of Turing machines that have one finite control, one read-write head and one
two dimensional tape. The tape has the top end and the left end but extends indefinitely to the right
and down. It is divided into rows of small squares.

22. What is Turing machine with multiple tapes?

A multiple turing machine consists of a finite control with k tape heads and k tapes; each
tape is infinite in both directions. On a single move, depending on the state of the finite control and
the symbol scanned by each of the tape heads, the machine can:

27
 1. Change state
2. Prints a new symbol on each of the cells scanned by its tape heads;
3. Move each of its tape heads, independently, one cell to the left, or right, or keep it
stationary. Initially the input appears on the first tape, and the other tapes are blank.

23. What is a recursive algorithm?

A recursive algorithm is an algorithm applied to an problem then it can be solved or

decidable. The problem that can be solved by applying an algorithm is called recursive algorithm.

24. What is semi infinite tape?

In case of a Turing machine one side of the input tape is infinite hence it is called as the
semi infinite tape.

25. What are the techniques for Turing machine construction?

 Storage in finite control.

 Multiple tracks.
 Checking off symbols.
 Shifting over
 Subroutines.

26. What is computational complexity?

A computational complexity is based on the amount of time, space, or other resource needed
to recognize a language on some universal computing device such a Turing Machine.

27. What are the complexity of classes?

 DSPACE(S(n)) = deterministic Space complexity(S(n))

 NSPACE(S(n)) = nondeterministic Space complexity(S(n))
 DTIME(T(n)) = deterministic Time complexity(T(n))

 NTIME(T(n)) = nondeterministic Time complexity(T(n))

28
28. Define Hamiltonian Cycle or Hamiltonian Circuit and give an example.

A Hamiltonian cycle (or Hamiltonian circuit) is a cycle in an undirected graph which visits
each vertex exactly once and also returns to the starting vertex. Example: A complete graph with
more than two vertices is Hamiltonain Every cycle graph is Hamiltonian.

29. Define class NP ?

A language L is in the class NP (Nondeterministic polynomial) if there is a nondeterministic

TMM and a polynomial time complexity T(n) such that L=L(M) and when M is given a input of
length n, there are no sequences of more than T(n) moves of M.

Example: The Travelling salesman problem

30. What is a universal language Lu?

The universal language consists of a set of binary strings in the form of pairs (M,w) here M
is TM encoded in binary and w is the binary input string. Lu = { &lt; M,w&gt; | M accepts w }.

31. What properties of r.e sets are not r.e?

 L=Φ
 L = £ *.
 L is recursive
 L is not recursive.
 L is singleton.
 L is a regular set.
 L - Lu ≠ Φ

29
 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS ALGORITHMS

1. What is performance measurement?

Performance measurement is concerned with obtaining the space and the time requirements of
a particular algorithm.

2. What is an algorithm?

An algorithm is a finite set of instruction that, if followed accomplished a particular task.

 Input
 Output
 Definiteness
 Finiteness
 Effectiveness

3. What is recursive algorithm?

An algorithm is said to be recursive if the same algorithm is invoked in the body. An algorithm
that calls itself is direct recursive.

4. What is space complexity?

The space complexity of an algorithm is the amount of memory it needs to run to completion.

5. What is time complexity?

The time complexity of an algorithm is the amount of computer time it needs to run to
completion.

6. Define the asymptotic notation "omega”?

The function f(n)=0(g(n)). If there exist positive constant C and no such that f(n)< C * g(n) for
all n, n>n0.

30
7. Define the divide and conquer method?

Given a function to compute on ‗n‘ inputs the divide-and-conquer strategy suggests splitting
the inputs in to ‗k‘ distinct suggests. The sub problems must be solved, and their method must be
found to combine sub solutions into a solution it the whole.

8. Define control abstraction?

A control abstraction we mean a procedure whose flow of control is clear but whose primary
operations are by procedures whose precise meanings are left undefined.

9. What is the substitution method?

One of the methods for solving any such recurrence relation is called the substitution method.

10. What is the binary search?

If ‗q‘ is always chosen such that ‗aq‘ is the middle element(that is, q=[(n+1)/2), then the
resulting search algorithm is known as binary search.

11. Define external path length?

The external path length E, is defines analogously as sum of the distance of all external nodes
from the root.

12. Define internal path length?

The internal path length ‗I‘ is the sum of the distance of all internal nodes from the root.

13. What is quick sort?

N quick sort, the division into sub arrays is made so that the sorted sub arrays do not need to be
merged later.

14. Define optimal solution?

A feasible solution either maximizes or minimizes the given objectives function is called as
optimal solution.

31
15. Define dynamic programming?

Dynamic programming is an algorithm design method that can be used when a solution to the
problem is viewed as the result of sequence of decisions.

16. Define 0/1 knapsack problem.

The solution to the knapsack problem can be viewed as a result of sequence of decisions. We
have to decide the value of xi. xi is restricted to have the value 0 or 1 and by using the function
knap(l, j, y) we can represent the problem as maximum pi xi subject to wi xi < y where l - iteration,
j - number of objects, y – capacity.

17. Write about traveling salesperson problem.

Let g = (V, E) be a directed. The tour of G is a directed simple cycle that includes every vertex
in V. The cost of a tour is the sum of the cost of the edges on the tour. The traveling
salesperson problem to find a tour of minimum cost.

18. Define non-pre emptive schedule.

A non pre emptive schedule is a schedule in which the processing of a task on any
processor is not terminated until the task is complete.

19. Define preemptive schedule.

A preemptive schedule is a schedule in which the processing of a task on any processor

can be terminated before the task is completed.

20. Define Branch-and-Bound method.

The term Branch-and-Bound refers to all the state space methods in which all children of
the E-node are generated before any other live node can become the E- node.

21. What are the searching techniques that are commonly used in Branch-and- Bound
Method?

The searching techniques that are commonly used in Branch-and-Bound method are:

32
 FIFO
 LIFO
 Heuristic search
 LC

22. State 8 – Queens problem.

The problem is to place eight queens on a 8 x 8 chessboard so that no two queen ―attack‖ that
is, so that no two of them are on the same row, column or on the diagonal.

23. State Sum of Subsets problem.

Given n distinct positive numbers usually called as weights, the problem calls for finding all the
combinations of these numbers whose sums are m.

24. State m – colorability decision problem.

Let G be a graph and m be a given positive integer. We want to discover whether the nodes
of G can be colored in such a way that no two adjacent nodes have the same color yet only m
colors are used.

25. What are NP- hard and NP-complete problems?

The problems whose solutions have computing times are bounded by polynomials of small
degree.

26. What is maxclique problem?

A maxclique problem is the optimization problem that has to determine thesize of a largest
clique in Graph G where clique is the maximal subgraph of a graph.

27. Write some applications of traveling salesperson problem.

 Routing a postal van to pick up mail from boxes located at n different sites.
 Using a robot arm to tighten the nuts on some piece of machinery on an assembly line.

33
  Production environment in which several commodities are manufactured on the same set of
machines.

28. Give the time complexity and space complexity of traveling salesperson problem.

 Time complexity is O (n2 2n).

 Space complexity is O (n 2n).

29. Define flow shop scheduling.

The processing of jobs requires the performance of several distinct job. In flow shop we have n
jobs each requiring n tasks i.e. T1i, T2i, ......................... Tmi, 1<i<n.

30. What are the conditions of flow shop scheduling?

 Let Tji denote jth task of the ith job. Task Tij is to be performed on Pj number of
processors where 1<j<m i.e. number of processors will be equal to number of task
 Any task Tji must be assigned to the processor Pj.
 No processor can have more than one task assigned to it at any time. For any job I processing
the task for j>1 cannot be started until T(j-i),i has been completed.

34
 GRAPHICS AND IMAGE PROCESSING

1. Define Computer graphics.

Computer graphics remains one of the most existing and rapidly growing computer fields.
Computer graphics may be defined as a pictorial representation or graphical representation of
objects in a computer.

2. What is meant by scan code?

When a key is pressed on the keyboard, the keyboard controller places a code carry to the
key pressed into a part of the memory called as the keyboard buffer. This code is called asthe scan
code.

3. What is meant by refreshing of the screen?

Some method is needed for maintaining the picture on the screen. Refreshing of screen is
done by keeping the phosphorus glowing to redraw the picture repeatedly. (i.e) By quickly directing
the electronic beam back to the same points.

4. Define Random scan/Raster scan displays?

Random scan is a method in which the display is made by the electronic beam which is
directed only to the points or part of the screen where the picture is to be drawn.
The Raster scan system is a scanning technique in which the electrons sweep from top to
bottom and from left to right. The intensity is turned on or off to light and unlight the pixel.

5. List out the merits and demerits of Penetration techniques?

The merits and demerits of the Penetration techniques are as follows

 It is an inexpensive technique
 It has only four colors
 The quality of the picture is not good when it is compared to other techniques
 It can display color scans in monitors
 Poor limitation etc.

35
6. Define Ellipse?

An ellipse can use the same parameters xc, yc ,r as a circle, in addition to the eccentricity e.
the eqn of an ellipse is:(x-xc)2/a2 + (y-yc)2/b2 = 1

7. Define polygon?

A polygon is any closed continues sequence of line segments ie, a polyline whose last node
point is same as that of its first node point. The line segments form the sides of the polygon and
their intersecting points form the vertices of the polygon.

8. Distinguish between convex and concave polygons?

If the line joining any two points in the polygon lies completely inside the polygon then,
they are known as convex polygons. If the line joining any two points in the polygon lies outside
the polygon then, they are known as concave polygons.

9. What is seed fill?

One way to fill a polygon is to start from a given point (seed) known to be inside the
polygon and highlight outward from this point i.e neighboring pixels until encounter the boundary
pixels, this approach is called seed fill.

10. What is scan line algorithm?

One way to fill the polygon is to apply the inside test. i.e to check whether the pixel is inside
the polygon or outside the polygon and then highlight the pixel which lie inside the polygon. This
approach is known as scan-line algorithm.

11. What is false contouring?

The effect caused by the use of an insufficient number of intensity levels in smooth areas of
a digital image is called false contouring. So called because the ridges resemble topographic
contours in a map. False contouring generally is quite visible in images displayed using 16 or less
intensity levels.

36
12. What is recognition and Interpretation?

Recognition means is a process that assigns a label to an object based on the information
provided by its descriptors. Interpretation means assigning meaning to a recognized object.

13. Specify the elements of DIP system?

 Image Acquisition
 Storage
 Processing
 Display

14. Explain the categories of digital storage?

a. Short term storage for use during processing.

b. Online storage for relatively fast recall.
c. Archival storage for infrequent access.

15. Define subjective brightness and brightness adaptation?

Subjective brightness means intensity as preserved by the human visual system.

Brightness adaptation means the human visual system can operate only from isotopic to glare
limit. It cannot operate over the range simultaneously. It accomplishes this large variation by
changes in its overall intensity.

16. What do you mean by Point processing?

Image enhancement at any Point in an image depends only on the gray level at That point
is often referred to as Point processing

17. What is Image Negatives?

The negative of an image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is obtained using the
negative transformation which is given by

s = L-1-rWhere s is output pixel r is input pixel

37
18. Define Derivative filter?

For a function f (x, y), the gradient f at co-ordinate (x, y) is defined as the vector

f=∂f/∂x
∂f/∂y

f = mag (_f) = {[(∂f/∂x) 2+(∂f/∂y) 2 ]} ½

19. Explain spatial filtering?

Spatial filtering is the process of moving the filter mask from point to point in an image. For
linear spatial filter, the response is given by a sum of products of the filter coefficients, and the
corresponding image pixels in the area spanned by the filter mask.

20. What is a Median filter?

 The median filter replaces the value of a pixel by the median of the gray levels in the
neighborhood of that pixel.
 The 100th percentile is maximum filter is used in finding brightest points in an image.
 The 0th percentile filter is minimum filter used for finding darkest points in an image.

21. What are the coding systems in JPEG?

1. A lossy baseline coding system, which is based on the DCT and is adequate for most
compression application.
2. An extended coding system for greater compression, higher precision or progressive
reconstruction applications.
3. A lossless independent coding system for reversible compression.

22. What are the basic steps in JPEG?

The Major Steps in JPEG Coding involve:

 DCT (Discrete Cosine Transformation)

 Quantization
 Zigzag Scan

38
  DPCM on DC component
 RLE on AC Components
 Entropy Coding

23. Define the procedure for Huffman shift.

List all the source symbols along with its probabilities in descending order. Divide the total
number of symbol l in to block of equal size. Sum the probabilities of all the source symbols
outside the reference block. Now apply the procedure for reference block, including the prefix
source symbol.
The code words for the remaining symbols can be constructed by means of one or more
prefix code followed by the reference block as in the case of binary shift code.

24. Define arithmetic coding

In arithmetic coding one to one corresponds between source symbols and code word
doesn‘t exist whereas the single arithmetic code word assigned for a sequence of source symbols. A
code word defines an interval of number between 0 and 1.

25. What is bit plane Decomposition?

An effective technique for reducing an image‘s interpixel redundancies is to process the

image‘s bit plane individually.
This technique is based on the concept of decomposing multilevel images into a series of
binary images and compressing each binary image via one of several well- known binary
compression methods.

26. What are the three methods of estimating the degradation function?

1. Observation
2. Experimentation
3. Mathematical modeling.

27. What are the types of noise models?

 Guassian noise
 Rayleigh noise
39
  Erlang noise
 Exponential noise
 Uniform noise
 Impulse noise

28. What is meant by indirect estimation?

Indirect estimation method employs temporal or spatial averaging to either obtain a

restoration or to obtain key elements of an image restoration algorithm.

29. Write any two basic area filling approaches on raster systems.

There are two basic approaches to area filling on raster system

 boundary filling
 flood filling

30. What do you mean by shift vector?

 To complete the data we need for classifying the groups, we need one more concept to add
tothe lattice L, the point group P, and the action of P on L.
 This is to allow for the fact that some reflections in P act as glides rather than as reflections
in G.
 Let AP be a reflection with Tv A G. Then the vector a = v + A (v) is called a shift vector
of A.

40
 OPERATING SYSTEMS

1) Explain the main purpose of an operating system?

Operating systems exist for two main purposes. One is that it is designed to make sure a
computer system performs well by managing its computational activities. Another is that it provides
an environment for the development and execution of programs.

2) What is demand paging?

Demand paging is referred when not all of a process‘s pages are in the RAM, then the OS
brings the missing (and required) pages from the disk into the RAM.

3) What are the advantages of a multiprocessor system?

With an increased number of processors, there is a considerable increase in throughput. It

can also save more money because they can share resources. Finally, overall reliability is increased
as well.

4) What is kernel?

A kernel is the core of every operating system. It connects applications to the actual
processing of data. It also manages all communications between software and hardware components
to ensure usability and reliability.

5) What are real-time systems?

Real-time systems are used when rigid time requirements have been placed on the operation
of a processor. It has well defined and fixed time constraints.

6) What is a virtual memory?

Virtual memory is a memory management technique for letting processes execute outside of
memory. This is very useful especially is an executing program cannot fit in the physical memory.

41
7) Describe the objective of multiprogramming.

The main objective of multiprogramming is to have a process running at all times. With this
design, CPU utilization is said to be maximized.

8) What is time- sharing system?

In a Time-sharing system, the CPU executes multiple jobs by switching among them, also
known as multitasking. This process happens so fast that users can interact with each program while
it is running.

9) What is SMP?

SMP is a short form of Symmetric Multi-Processing. It is the most common type of

multiple- processor systems. In this system, each processor runs an identical copy of the operating
system, and these copies communicate with one another as needed.

10) How are server systems classified?

Server systems can be classified as either computer-server systems or file server systems. In
the first case, an interface is made available for clients to send requests to perform an action. In the
second case, provisions are available for clients to create, access and update files.

11) What is asymmetric clustering?

In asymmetric clustering, a machine is in a state known as hot standby mode where it does
nothing but to monitor the active server. That machine takes the active server‘s role should the
server fails.

12) What is a thread?

A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization. In general, a thread is composed of a thread ID,
program counter, register set, and the stack.

13) Give some benefits of multithreaded programming.

– there is increased responsiveness to the user

– resource sharing within the process
42
 – economy
– utilization of multiprocessing architecture

14) Briefly explain FCFS.

FCFS stands for First-come, first-served. It is one type of scheduling algorithm. In this
scheme, the process that requests the CPU first is allocated the CPU first. Implementation is
managed by a FIFO queue.

15) What is RR scheduling algorithm?

 RR (round-robin) scheduling algorithm is primarily aimed for time-sharing systems.

 A circular queue is a setup in such a way that the CPU scheduler goes around that queue,
allocating CPU to each process for a time interval of up to around 10 to 100 milliseconds.

16) What are necessary conditions which can lead to a deadlock situation in a system?

Deadlock situations occur when four conditions occur simultaneously in a system: Mutual
exclusion; Hold and Wait; No preemption; and Circular wait.

17) Enumerate the different RAID levels.

RAID 0 – Non-redundant striping

RAID 1 – Mirrored Disks
RAID 2 – Memory-style error-correcting codes
RAID 3 – Bit-interleaved Parity
RAID 4 – Block-interleaved Parity
RAID 5 – Block-interleaved distributed Parity
RAID 6 – P+Q Redundancy

18) Describe Banker’s algorithm

Banker‘s algorithm is one form of deadlock-avoidance in a system. It gets its name from a
banking system wherein the bank never allocates available cash in such a way that it can no longer
satisfy the needs of all of its customers.

43
19) What factors determine whether a detection-algorithm must be utilized in a deadlock

avoidance system?

One is that it depends on how often a deadlock is likely to occur under the implementation
of this algorithm. The other has to do with how many processes will be affected by deadlock when
this algorithm is applied.

20) State the main difference between logical from physical address space.

Logical address refers to the address that is generated by the CPU. On the other hand,
physical address refers to the address that is seen by the memory unit.

21) How does dynamic loading aid in better memory space utilization?

With dynamic loading, a routine is not loaded until it is called. This method is especially
useful when large amounts of code are needed in order to handle infrequently occurring cases such
as error routines.

22) What are overlays?

Overlays are used to enable a process to be larger than the amount of memory allocated to it.
The basic idea of this is that only instructions and data that are needed at any given time are kept in
memory.

23) What is the basic function of paging?

Paging is a memory management scheme that permits the physical address space of a
process to be noncontiguous. It avoids the considerable problem of having to fit varied sized
memory chunksonto the backing store.

24) What is fragmentation?

Fragmentation is memory wasted. It can be internal if we are dealing with systems that have
fixed-sized allocation units, or external if we are dealing with systems that have variable-sized
allocation units.

44
25) How does swapping result in better memory management?

During regular intervals that are set by the operating system, processes can be copied from
main memory to a backing store, and then copied back later. Swapping allows more operations to
be run that can fit into memory at one time.

26) Give an example of a Process State.

 New State – means a process is being created

 Running – means instructions are being executed
 Waiting – means a process is waiting for certain conditions or events to occur
 Ready – means a process is waiting for an instruction from the main processor
 Terminate – means a process is stopped abruptly

27) What is a socket?

A socket provides a connection between two applications. Each endpoint of a

communication is a socket.

28) What is Direct Access Method?

Direct Access method is based on a disk model of a file, such that it is viewed as a
numbered sequence of blocks or records. It allows arbitrary blocks to be read or written. Direct
access is advantageous when accessing large amounts of information.

29) When does thrashing occur?

Thrashing refers to an instance of high paging activity. This happens when it is spending
more time paging instead of executing.

30) What is the best page size when designing an operating system?

The best paging size varies from system to system, so there is no single best when it comes
to page size. There are different factors to consider in order to come up with a suitable page size,
such as page table, paging time, and its effect on the overall efficiency of the operating system.

45
 COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Define Piggybacking?

In data transmission if the sender sends any data frame to the receiver then the receiver
should send the acknowledgment to the sender. The receiver will temporarily delay (waits for the
network layer to send the next data packet) the acknowledgment and hooks it to the next outgoing
data frame, this process is called as Piggybacking

2. Explain DNS?

DNS stands for Domain Naming Server. DNS acts as a translator between domain names
and IP address. As humans remember names, the computer understands only numbers. Generally,
we assign names to websites and computers like gmail.com, Hotmail etc. When we type such names
the DNS translates it into numbers and execute our requests.
Translating the names into numbers or IP address is named as a Forward lookup. Translating the IP
address to names is named as a Reverse lookup.

3. Explain the difference between baseband and broadband transmission?

Baseband Transmission: A single signal consumes the whole bandwidth of the cable
Broadband Transmission: Multiple signals of multiple frequencies are sent simultaneously.

4. How are networks classified based on their connections?

Networks are classified into two categories based on their connection types. They are
mentioned below,
 Peer-to-peer networks (P2P): When two or more computers are connected together to
share resources without the use of a central server is termed as a peer-to-peer network.
Computers in this type of network act as both server and client. Generally used in small
companies as they are not expensive.
 Server-based networks: In this type of network, a central server is located to store the data,
applications etc of the clients. The server computer provides the security and network
administration to the network

46
5. What is the difference between Hub, Switch, and Router?

Hub Switch Router

 The router is
 Hub is least expensive,  Switches work
similarly like Hubs but in smartest and most
least intelligent and least
a more efficient manner. complicated out of these
complicated of the three.
three. It comes in all
 It broadcast all data to  It creates
shapes and sizes.
every port which may cause connections dynamically
 Routers are similar
serious security and reliability and provides information
like little computers
concern. only to the requesting
dedicated for routing
 In a Network, Hub is a port.
network traffic.
common connection point for  Switch is a device in
 Routers are located
devices connected to the a network which forwards
at gateway and forwards
network. Hub contains multiple packets in a network.
data packets.
ports and is used to connect
segments of LAN.

6. What is a Firewall?

Firewall is a network security system that is used to protect computer networks from
unauthorized access. It prevents malicious access from outside to the computer network. A firewall
can also be built to grant limited access to the outside users.

7. What is DNS?

Domain Name Server (DNS), in a non-professional language and we can call it as Internet‘s
phone book. All the public IP addresses and their hostnames are stored in the DNS and later it
translates into a corresponding IP address.

8. What is Routers?

A router is a device which is responsible for sending data from source to destination over the
computer network.

47
9. Describe Hub, Switch and Router?

 Hub: Hub will broadcast all data to every port. It has a common connection point for all
devices.
 Switch: Switch will create the dynamic connection and provide information to the requesting
port.
 Router: Router is the devices which will be responsible for forwarding data packets.

10. What do you mean by TCP and UDP?

TCP stands for Transfer control protocol and UDP stands for User Datagrams protocol and
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol and UDP is a Connectionless protocol.

11. What is Ping?

Ping is a utility program that allows you to check connectivity between network devices on
the network. You can ping a device by using its IP address or device name, such as a computer
name.

12. What is peer to peer?

Peer to peer are networks that does not reply on a server. All PCs on this network act as
individual workstations.

13. What is IPv6?

IPv6, or Internet Protocol version 6, was developed to replace IPv4. At present, IPv4 is
being used to control internet traffic, but is expected to get saturated in the near future. IPv6 was
designed to overcome this limitation.

14. What is RSA algorithm?

RSA is short for Rivest-Shamir-Adleman algorithm. It is the most commonly used public
key encryption algorithm in use today.

48
15. Explain the importance of authentication.

Authentication is the process of verifying a user's credentials before he can log into the
network. It is normally performed using a username and password. This provides a secure means of
limiting the access from unwanted intruders on the network.

16. What is transport layer?

The Transport layer is the fourth layer of the OSI reference model. In computer networking,
a transport layer provides end-to-end or host-to-host communication services for applications within
a layered architecture of network components and protocols. The transport layer provides services
such as connection-oriented data stream support, reliability, flow control, and multiplexing.

17. What is Transmission delay?

In a network based on packet switching, transmission delay (or store-and-forward delay,

also known as packetization delay) is the amount of time required to push all of the packet's bits
into the wire. Transmission delay is a function of the packet's length and has nothing to do with the
distance between the two nodes. This delay is proportional to the packet's length in bits. It is given
by the following formula:

seconds

where

is the transmission delay in seconds N is the number of bits, and R is the rate of transmission
(say in bits per second)

18. What is round-trip time?

In telecommunications, the round-trip delay time (RTD) or round-trip time (RTT) is the
length of time it takes for a signal to be sent plus the length of time it takes for an acknowledgment
of that signal to be received.

49
19. What are the different types of Multiplexing?

There are two basic forms of multiplexing used:

 Time division multiplexing (TDM)

 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

20. Define UDP?

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a communications protocol that offers a limited amount of
service when messages are exchanged between computers in a network that uses the Internet
Protocol (IP). UDP is an alternative to the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and, together with
IP, is sometimes referred to as UDP/IP.

21. Define TCP/IP?

It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because its most important protocols, the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), were the first networking protocols defined
in this standard.

50
22. Define Error detection and correction.

Error Detection: Data can be corrupted during transmission. It is called as an error. For
reliable communication, the receiver must find out the errors occurred in the data which is called as
error detection. Error Correction: It is the mechanism to correct the errors and it can be handled in 2
ways.

a. When an error is discovered, the receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire data
unit.
b. A receiver can use an error correcting coder, which automatically corrects certain error.

23. Mention the types of errors.

There are 2 types of errors

a) Single-bit error.
b) Burst-bit error.

24. What is redundancy?

It is the error detecting mechanism, which means a shorter group of bits or extra bits may be
appended at the destination of each unit.

25. What is the purpose of hamming code?

A hamming code can be designed to correct burst errors of certain lengths. So the simple
strategy used by the hamming code to correct single bit errors must be redesigned to be applicable
for multiple bit correction.

26. Define router

A network layer device that connects networks with different physical media and translates
between different network architecture.

27. What are the functions of bridge?

1. Connecting networks

51
 2. Filtering information so that network traffic for one portion of the network does not
congest the rest of the network.

28. What is TCP?

TCP provides a connection oriented, reliable byte stream service. The connection oriented
means the two applications using TCP must establish a TCP connection with each other before they
can exchange data.

29. Define congestion

When too many packets rushing to a node or a part of network, the network performance
degrades. This situation is called as congestion.

30. What is multiplexing?

The job of gathering data chunks at the sources host from different sockets, encapsulating
each data chunks with header information to create segments, and passing the segments to the
network layer is called multiplexing.

52
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

1. What is database?

A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning, representing
some aspect of real world and which is designed, built and populated with data for a specific
purpose.

2. What is DBMS

It is a collection of programs that enables user to create and maintain a database. In other
words it is general purpose software that provides the users with the processes of defining,
constructing and manipulating the database for various applications.

3. What is data abstraction

Hiding the complexity from the users is called data abstraction. Three levels of abstraction are:

1. Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are stored.
2. Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data are stored in
databaseand what relationship among those data.
3. View level: The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire database.

4. What is Data Independence

Data independence means that "the application is independent of the storage structure and
access strategy of data". In other words, The ability to modify the schema definition in one level
should not affect the schema definition in the next higher level.

Two types of Data Independence:

1. Physical Data Independence: Modification in physical level should not affect the logical
level.
2. Logical Data Independence: Modification in logical level should affect the view level.

53
5. What is Data Model

A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships data semantics and
constraints.

6. What is meant by relational Model

 It uses a collection of tables to represent both data and relationship among those data.

 It describes the data at logical and view level abstracting the data storage.

 RDBMS (Relational Database management systems) is based on relational model. 

7. What is meant by primary key

 Minimal candidate key is called a primary key.

 Primary key is chosen such that its attribute value is never or rarely changed.
 Table has only one primary key.
 {e.no} is a primary key in relation employee.
 It is underlined and written first

8. What is an Entity, Entity type, Entity set

 It is a 'thing' in the real world with an independent existence.

 It is a collection (set) of entities that have same attributes.
 It is a collection of all entities of particular entity type in the database.

9. Define E-R diagram

It is a graphical representation of entities and their relationships, typically used in

computing in regard to the organization of data within databases or information systems

10. Define the term RAID

Redundant Array of Independent Disks is a way of storing same data in different places on
multiple hard disks.
Capacity of array = Number of drives * Capacity of disk Storing data redundantly increases Fault
tolerance

54
11. What is meant by Hashing

 Hashing is the transformation of a string of characters into a usually shorter fixed- length
value or key that represents the original string.
 It is used to index and retrieve items in a database because it is faster to find the item
using the shorter hashed key than to find it using the original value.

12. What is meant by Data Dictionary

A relational-database system needs to maintain data about the relations, such as the schema
of the relations. Such data about data is called metadata. The relation schemas and metadata about
the relations is stored in Data dictionary or System catalog.

13. How does a primary indices differ from secondary indices

 Primary index: It is the index whose search key specifies the sequential order of the file.
Also called clustering index .The search key of a primary index is usually but not
necessarily the primary key.
 Secondary index: an index whose search key specifies an order different from the sequential
order of the file. Also called non- clustering index.

14. Define Functional dependency

Functional dependency is a relationship that exists when one attribute uniquely determines
another attribute. If X and Y are the attributes of relation, then Functional dependency F: X Y
X uniquely determines Y(i.e.,) Y functionally depends on X

15. What is Normalization

It is a process of decomposing tables to avoid data redundancy, dependency of data,

insertion, update and deletion anomalies.

16. Expand BCNF and define it.

 BCNF – Boyce - Codd Normal Form . It is one of the most desirable Normal Form

55
  .It eliminates almost all redundancy that can be discovered using FDs . A relation r is in
BCNF with respect to set of FDs, if all FDs are of form α β, where α(alpha) is a subset of r
and β(beta) is a subset of r.

17. What is 1NF

 All the attribute values must be atomic (indivisible) and should not contain multiple values.
 It should not contain repeating groups of data. If so decompose it.

18. What is 2NF

 A relation schema R is in 2nd Normal Form, if it is in 1st Normal Form and should not
contain partial functional dependency.
 When removing one of key attribute, if we can‘t able to identify the other attributes of
relation, then Full Functional dependency must exist in a relation.

19. What is 3NF

A relation schema R is in 3rd Normal Form, if it is in 2nd Normal form and it should not
contain transitive dependency.

20. What is meant by 4th Normal Form and 5th Normal Form

4 NF is similar to BCNF except that it deals with multivalued dependency.

Relation R is said to be in 5th Normal Form, if
 Joining two or more decomposed table by means of candidate key, should not lose
recordsnor create new records.
 Composite key shouldn‘t have any cyclic dependencies.

21. What is meant by a Transaction

Transaction is a collection of operations that form a single logical unit of work. Each
transaction must support ACID property.

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22. Define ACID property

Atomicity (Indivisible)
 Either all operation or none of the operation is performed.
 Failed transaction must not change any values in the database.

Consistency:

After the execution of transaction (Transfer Rs.50 from Account A to Account B), total
amount of money in Account A and B is preserved (i.e.) A + B.

Isolation:

If transaction is isolated, execution of one transaction will not affect the other.
Durability:

After successful transaction, the updated value must persist even after the system crash or
failure.

23. Define the term Query optimization

Query optimization is a process of choosing Query evaluation plan with lowest cost. Costis
generally measured as total elapsed time for answering query.

24. What is meant by Lock

A lock is a mechanism to control concurrent access to a data item. Data items can be
locked in two modes: Shared mode, Exclusive mode.

25. What are the two types of Locks

 Shared lock : If the transaction Ti has obtained the shared mode lock(denoted by S)on data
item Q then Ti can read but cannot write Q .
 Exclusive lock : If the transaction Ti has obtained the exclusive mode lock( denoted by
X)on data item Q then Ti can both read and write Q.

57
26. What is meant by locking protocol

 Each transaction in the system follows the set of rules called locking protocol, indicating
when a transaction may lock and unlock each of the data item.
 Concurrency control manager is responsible for granting of locks.

27. What is timestamp

 Whenever a Transaction Ti starts its execution, it is assigned a unique timestamp

denoted as TS(Ti)
 If TS(Ti) <TS(Tj), Ti appears before Tj

28. What is meant by Fuzzy Check pointing

To avoid long interruption of normal processing during check pointing, fuzzy check
pointing allow updates to happen during check pointing

29. What is meant by SQL?

 SQL is a Structured Query Language. It can define structure of data, perform manipulation
of data in database and also specify security constraints.
 Several parts of SQL are DDL(Data Definition Language), DML(Data Manipulation
Language), Integrity, Authorization, Embedded SQL, Dynamic SQL, View definition,
Transaction control.

29. What is Constraints and List the types

Integrity: Prevent invalid entries to the database

Domain constraints: not null , check

Integrity constraints:
 Unique => attribute value should not repeat
 Primary key => attribute value must not null and unique

58
 LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS

1. Define system software.

It consists of variety of programs that supports the operation of the computer. This software
makes it possible for the user to focus on the other problems to be solved without needing to know
how the machine works internally. Eg: operating system, assembler, loader.

2. Define compiler.

Compiler is a set of program which converts the whole high level language program to
machine language program.

3. Define Interpreter.

An interpreter is a computer program that is used to directly execute program instructions

written using one of the many high-level programming languages.

4. Define loader.

Loader is a set of program that loads the machine language translated by the translator into
the main memory and makes it ready for execution.

5. What is Operating System?

An Operating system is a system software that manages both hardware and software and
provides services through computer.

6. What is the difference between the instructions LDA # 3 and LDA THREE?

In the first instruction immediate addressing is used. Here the value 3 is directly loaded into
the accumulator register. In the second instruction the memory reference is used. Here the address
(address assigned for the symbol THREE) is loaded into the accumulator register.

7. What is the use of SVC instruction?

Supervisor Call Instruction generates an Interrupt that can be used for communication with the
operating system.

59
8. Define loader.

Loader is a set of program that loads the machine language translated by the translator into
the main memory and makes it ready for execution.

9. What are the basic functions of loaders?

Loading – brings the object program into memory for execution

Relocation – modifies the object program so that it can be loaded at an address different
from the location originally specified
Linking – combines two or more separate object programs and also supplies the information
needed to reference them.

10. Define absolute loader

An absolute loader is the simplest type of loading scheme that loads the file into memoryat
the location specified by the beginning portion (header) of the file, then it passes control to the
program. The loader, which is used only for loading, is known as absolute loader. e.g. Bootstrap
loader

11. What is meant by bootstrap loader?

When the system is started or turned on, a special kind of program called Bootstrap Loader
will automatically run. It tests the available computer system resources like peripherals, hardware,
external memory devices are connected.
This is a special type of absolute loader which loads the first program to be run by the computer.
(usually an operating system)

12. List out the features of machine independent loader?

Program Relocation-the program move from one area to another in memory Program
Linking-connecting two or more separate subprograms

13. What are the 2 different techniques used for relocation?

Modification record method and relocation bit method.

Modification record: is used for program relocation. Each modification record specifies the
starting address and the length of the field whose value is to be altered and also describes the

60
modification to be performed.
If the relocation bit corresponding to a word of object code is set to 1, the program‘s
starting address is to be added to this word when the program is relocated. Bit value 0 indicates no
modification is required.

14. Define bit mask

The relocation bits are gathered together following the length indicator in each text record
and which is called as bit mask. For e.g. the bit mask FFC (111111111100) specifies that the first 10
words of object code are to be modified during relocation.

15. What is the need of ESTAB?

It is used to store the name and address of the each external symbol. It also indicates in
whichcontrol section the symbol is defined.

16. What is recognizer?

Recognizers are machines. These are the machines which accept the strings belonging to
certain language. If the valid strings of such language are accepted by the machine then it is said
thatthe corresponding language is accepted by that machine, otherwise it is rejected.

17. What are the Error-recovery actions in a lexical analyzer?

1. Deleting an extraneous character

2. Inserting a missing character
3. Replacing an incorrect character by a correct character
4. Transposing two adjacent characters

18. What is the need for separating the analysis phase into lexical analysis and parsing?(Or)

What are the issues of lexical analyzer?

Simpler design is perhaps the most important consideration. The separation of lexical
analysis from syntax analysis often allows us to simplify one or the other of these phases.
 Compiler efficiency is improved.

 Compiler portability is enhanced.

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19. What is a Symbol table?

A Symbol table is a data structure containing a record for each identifier, with fields for the
attributes of the identifier. The data structure allows us to find the record for each identifier quickly
and to store or retrieve data from that record quickly.

20. What does the Link Editing does?

Link editing:

This allows us to make a single program from several files of relocatable machine code.
These files may have been the result of several compilations, and one or more may be
library files of routines provided by the system and available to any program that needs them.

21. What is a sentinel? What is its usage?

A Sentinel is a special character that cannot be part of the source program. Normally we use
„eof‟ as the sentinel. This is used for speeding-up the lexical analyzer.

22. Mention the properties that a code generator should possess.

 The code generator should produce the correct and high quality code. In other words, the
code generated should be such that it should make effective use of the resources of the target
machine.
 Code generator should run efficiently.

23. List the terminologies used in basic blocks.

 Define and use – the three address statement a:=b+c is said to define a and to use b and c.
 Live and dead – the name in the basic block is said to be live at a given point if its value is
usedafter that point in the program. And the name in the basic block is said to be dead at a
given point if its value is never used after that point in the program.

24. What are basic blocks?

A sequence of consecutive statements which may be entered only at the beginning and when
entered are executed in sequence without halt or possibility of branch , are called basic blocks.

62
25. Mention the applications of DAGs.

 We can automatically detect common sub expressions.

 We can determine the statements that compute the values, which could be used outside the
block.
 We can determine which identifiers have their values used in the block.

26. What is a flow graph?

A flow graph is a directed graph in which the flow control information is added to the basic blocks.

 The nodes to the flow graph are represented by basic blocks

 The block whose leader is the first statement is called initial block.
 There is a directed edge from block B1 to block B2 if B2 immediately follows B1 in the given
sequence. We can say that B1 is a predecessor of B2.

27. Discuss back-end and front end?

 Back-end
Intermediate to binary translation is usually done by a separate compilation pass called back
end.
 Front end
There are several back ends for different target machines, all of which use the same parser
andcode generator called front end.

28. What is meant by peephole optimization?

Peephole optimization is a technique used in many compliers, in connection with the

optimization of either intermediate or object code. It is really an attempt to overcome the difficulties
encountered in syntax directed generation of code.

29. How the use of registers is subdivided into 2 sub-problems?

 During register allocation we select the set of variables that will reside in registers at a point
in the program.
 During a subsequent register assignment phase, we pick the specific register that a variable
will reside in.

63
30. How would you calculate the cost of an instruction?

 The cost of an instruction to be one plus the costs associated with the source and destination
address modes. This cost corresponds to the length of the instruction.
 Address modes involving registers have cost zero, while those with a memory location or
literal in them have cost one.

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 SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

1. What is software engineering?

Software engineering is a discipline in which theories, methods and tools are applied to
develop professional software.

2. What are the characteristics of the software?

 Software is engineered, not manufactured

 Software does not wear out
 Most software is custom built rather than being assembled from components

3. What are the challenges in software?

 Copying with legacy systems

 Heterogeneity challenge
 Delivery times challenge

4. What are the various categories of software?

 System software
 Application software
 Engineering/Scientific software
 Embedded software

5. What are the fundamental activities of a software process?

 Specification
 Design and implementation
 Validation
 Evolution

65
6. What are the umbrella activities of a software process?

 Software project tracking and control

 Risk management
 Software Quality Assurance
 Formal Technical Reviews
 Software Configuration Management
 Work product preparation and production
 Reusability management

7. What are the merits of incremental model?

 The incremental model can be adopted when there is less number of people involved in
the project
 Technical risks can be managed with each increment
 For a very small time span, at least core product can be delivered to the customer

8. List the task regions in the Spiral model?

 Customer communication - it is suggested to establish customer communication.

 Planning – All planning activities are carried out
 Risk analysis – The tasks required to calculate technical and management risks
 Engineering – tasks required to build one or more representations of applications
 Construct and release – tasks required to construct, test, install the applications
 Customer evaluation - tasks are performed and implemented at installation stage based on
customer evaluation.

9. Define association and link.

Association and link

Association is a common type of relation among classes. When two classes are associated, they can
take each others help (i.e. invoke each others methods) to serve user requests.
More technically, we can say that if one class is associated with another bidirectionally, then the
corresponding objects of the two classes know each others ids (identities).

66
As a result, it becomes possible for the object of one class to invoke the methods of the
corresponding object of the other class.

10. Define persistence and agents.

Persistence

Objects usually get destroyed once a program completes its execution. Persistent objects are
stored permanently. That is, they live across different executions. An object can be made persistent
by maintaining copies of the object in a secondary storage or in a database.

Agents

A passive object is one that performs some action only when requested through invocation
of some of its methods. An agent (also called an active object), on the other hand, monitors events
occurring in the application and takes actions autonomously. Agents are used in applications such as
monitoring exceptions.

11. What are the drawbacks of spiral model?

 It is based on customer communication.

 If the communication is not proper then the software product that gets developed will not
be the up to the mark.
 It demands considerable risk assessment.
 If the risk assessment is done properly then only the successful product can be obtained.

12. What are the steps followed in testing?

 Unit testing - The individual components are tested in this type of testing.
 Module testing – Related collection of independent components are tested
 Sub-system testing –Various modules are integrated into a subsystem and the whole
subsystem is tested.
 System testing – The whole system is tested in this system.
 Acceptance testing – This type of testing involves testing of the system with customer
data.

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13. What is the use of CMM?

Capability Maturity Model is used in assessing how well an organization’s processes

allow to complete and manage new software projects.

14. Name the Evolutionary process Models.

 Incremental model
 Spiral model
 WIN-WIN spiral model
 Concurrent Development

15. What is software engineering paradigm?

The development strategy that encompasses the process, methods and tools and generic
phases is often referred to as a process model or software engineering paradigm.

16. Define - Dynamic Verification.

Dynamic verification is performed during the execution of software and dynamically

checks its behavior.

17. Define - Static Verification.

Static verification is a process to check some requirements of software doing a physical

inspection of it. Example: software metric calculation.

18. Define - Software Prototyping?

Software prototyping is defined as a rapid software development for validating the

requirements.

19. What are the benefits of prototyping?

 Prototype serves as a basis for deriving system specification.

 Design quality can be improved.
 System can be maintained easily.

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  Development efforts may get reduced.
 System usability can be improved.

20. What are the prototyping approaches in software process?

 Evolutionary prototyping – the initial prototype is prepared and it is then refined through
number of stages to final stage.
 Throw-away prototyping – a rough practical implementation of the system is produced.
The requirement problems can be identified from this implementation.

21. What are the advantages of evolutionary prototyping?

 Fast delivery of the working system

 User is involved while developing the system
 More useful system can be delivered.
 Specification, design and implementation work in co-ordinate manner.

22. What are the various Rapid prototyping techniques?

 Dynamic high level language development

 Database programming.
 Component and application assembly.

23. What is the use of user interface prototyping?

This prototyping is used to pre-specify the look and feel of user interface in an effective
way.

24. What are the characteristics of SRS?

 Correctness – The SRS should be made up to date when appropriate requirements are
identified

 Unambiguous – When the requirements are correctly understood then only it is possible to
write unambiguous software.

 Complete – To make SRS complete, it should be specified what a software designer

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 wants to create software.
 Consistent – It should be consistent with reference to the functionalities identified.
 Specific – The requirements should be mentioned specifically.
 Traceable – What is the need for mentioned requirement?

25. What is data modeling?

 Data modeling is the basic step in the analysis modeling.

 In data modeling the data objects are examined independently of processing.
 The data model represents how data are related with one another.

26. What is a data object?

Data object is a collection of attributes that act as an aspect, characteristic, quality, or

descriptor of the object.

27. Define - Design Process.

Design process is a sequence of steps carried through which the requirements are translated
into a system or software model.

28. What is a cohesive module?

A cohesive module performs only ―one task‖ in software procedure with little interaction
with other modules. In other words cohesive module performs only one thing.

29. List the guidelines for data design.

 Apply systematic analysis on data.

 Identify data structures and related operations.
 Establish data dictionary.
 Use information hiding in the design of data structure.
 Apply a library of useful data structures and operations.

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30. What are data acquisition systems?

Systems that collect data from sensors for subsequent processing and analysis are termed as
data acquisition systems. Data collection processes and processing processes may have different
periods and deadlines.

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 WEB TECHNOLOGY

1. Define Web site and web page?

A website is a set of related web pages that are addressed with a common domain name or
IP address. A website is hosted on a machine called web server, which should be accessible via a
network.

The web pages of a web site are accessed using URLs (Uniform Resource Locator). The
web pages are organized into a hierarchy. They contain hyperlinks that guide the visitors navigating
the website.

2. What is protocol?

 A protocol is a set of rules or an agreement that specifies a common language that

computeron a
 network use for communication with other computers. It specifies on how the computer
talkwith
 each other.
 A protocol is a set of rules that define the syntax and semantics of the connection,
communication, and data transfer between two computing end-points.

3. Define proxy servers?

Proxy servers are related to firewalls prevents hosts on a network from making direct
connections to the outside world; a proxy server can act as a go-between. Thus a machine that is
prevented from connecting to the external network by a firewall would make a request for a web
page from the local proxy server instead of requesting the web page directly from the remote web
server.

4. What is meant by HTML?

 HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language.

 It is a markup language for describing web documents (web pages).
 A markup language is a set of markup tags.

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  HTML documents are described by HTML tags.
 Each HTML tag describes different document content.

5. What is meant by CSS?

 CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheets.

 CSS is a style sheet language that describes the presentation of an HTML (or XML)
document.
 It describes how HTML elements are to be displayed on screen, paper, or in other media.
 CSS saves a lot of work. It can control the layout of multiple web pages all at once
 External style sheets are stored in CSS files.

6. What is meant by JavaScript?

 JavaScript is an object-oriented programming language commonly used to create

 interactive effects within web browsers.
 JavaScript is the programming language of HTML and the Web.
 JavaScript is a lightweight, interpreted programming language. It is designed for creating
network-centric applications.
 It is open and cross-platform.
 JavaScript inserted into HTML pages, can be executed by all modern web browsers.

7. What is a Servlet?

Java Servlets are server side components that provides a powerful mechanism for
developing server side of web application. Earlier CGI was developed to provide server side
capabilities to the web applications. In CGI played a major role in the explosion of the Internet, its
performance, scalability and reusability issues make it less than optimal solutions.

8. What are Applets?

A program designed to be executed from within another application. Unlike an application

applets cannot be executed directly from the operating system. With the growing popularity of
OLE, applets are becoming more prevalent. A well-designed applet can be invoked from many
different applications.

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9. Define JSP?

Java Server Pages (JSP) is a Java technology that allows software developers to dynamically
generate HTML, XML or other types of documents in response to a Web client request. The
technology allows Java code and certain pre-defined actions to be embedded into static content.

 Java Server Pages (JSP) is an extension of servlet technology.

 JSPs simplify the delivery of dynamic web content.
 They allow web programmers to create dynamic content by reusing predefined components
and by interacting with components using server-side scripting.

10. What is meant by J2EE?

J2EE is the Java-centric enterprise platform specification. J2EE is used to built web sites and
application around Enterprise Java Bean (EJB). Recently it has been extended to include support for
XML and Web Services.

11. What is meant by session tracking?

A session is basically a conversation between a browser and a server. All the above
technologies can save information for the current session for a particular user visiting a site. The
session is important, as HTTP is a stateless protocol. This means that the connection between web
server and a web browser is not automatically maintained, and that the state of a web session is not
saved.

12. What is meant by cookies?

A cookie is a small amount of information sent by the web server which is stored on a user
system for lateral retrieval. The major use of cookies is to store user identification details such as
name and password.

13. What is meant by XML?

 XML stands for extensible Markup Language

 XML is a markup language much like HTML
 XML was designed to store and transport data
 XML was designed to be self-descriptive
 XML is a W3C Recommendation
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14. What is DTD?

 The purpose of a DTD(Document Type Definition) is to define the legal building blocks of
an XML document.
 A DTD defines the document structure with a list of legal elements and attributes.
 It is useful standard for validating the xml document.
 These standards are useful to creating a quality xml document.

15. What is PCDATA?

 PCDATA means parsed character data.

 Think of character data as the text found between the start tag and the end tag of an XML
element.
 PCDATA is text that WILL be parsed by a parser. The text will be examined by the
parser for entities and markup.
 Tags inside the text will be treated as markup and entities will be expanded.

16. What is CDATA?

 CDATA means character data.

 CDATA is text that will NOT be parsed by a parser. Tags inside the text will NOT be
treated as markup and entities will not be expanded.

17. What is XML Namespaces?

 XML allows document authors to create custom elements.

 XML Namespaces provide a method to avoid element name conflicts.
 This extensibility can result in naming collisions (i.e. different elements that have the same
name) among elements in an XML document.
 An XML namespace is a collection of element and attribute names. Each namespace has a
unique name that provides a means for document authors to unambiguously refer to
elements with the same name (i.e. prevent collisions).

18. What is XSLT?

 XSLT stands for XSL Transformations Language

 XSLT is a language used to transform an XML documents into another XML documents

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  XSLT uses XPath to navigate in XML documents

19. What is Search Engine?

A search tool that allows a user to enter queries. The program responds with a list of
matches from its database. A relevancy score for each match and click able URL is usually returned.

20. What is SVG?

Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) is an XML-based vector image format for two-
dimensional graphics with support for interactivity and animation. SVG images and their behaviors
are defined in XML text files. This means that they can be searched, indexed, scripted, and
compressed. As XML files, SVG images can be created and edited with any text editor, but are
more often created with drawing software.

21. Define E-Marketing?

E-marketing must be defined to include the management of the consumer‘s online

experience of the product, from first encounter through purchase to delivery and beyond. Digital
marketers should care about the consumer‘s online experiences for the simple reason that all of
them -- good, bad, or indifferent -- influence consumer perceptions of a product or a brand. The web
offers companies ownership and control of all interactions with customers and thus creates both the
ability and the need to improve their overall experience.

22. What is web crawling?

 Programs called Spiders; robots etc. collect pages of the Web for indexing.
 Start processing with a certain number of starting point URLs and follow other links.
 Visited pages or portions of pages are saved for analysis.

23. What are the different types of E-BUSINESS model?

 Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Business Models

 Business-to-Business (B2B) Business Models

24. Define multimedia?

The multimedia revolution occurred first on the desktop computer, with the widespread
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availability of CD-ROMs. This platform is rapidly evolving towards DVD technology, but our
focus in this chapter is on the explosion of sound and video technology that appears on the World
Wide Web.

25. What are Web Services?

 Web services are application components

 Web services communicate using open protocols
 Web services are self-contained and self-describing
 Web services can be discovered using UDDI
 Web services can be used by other applications
 XML is the basis for Web services

26. What are the various web services platform elements?

 SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol)

 UDDI (Universal Description, Discovery and Integration)
 WSDL (Web Services Description Language)

27. Write the syntax for SOAP?

The important syntax rules in SOAP

 A SOAP message MUST be encoded using XML

 A SOAP message MUST use the SOAP Envelope namespace
 A SOAP message MUST use the SOAP Encoding namespace
 A SOAP message must NOT contain a DTD reference
 A SOAP message must NOT contain XML Processing Instructions

28. What is WSDL?

 WSDL stands for Web Services Description Language

 WSDL is written in XML
 WSDL is an XML document
 WSDL is used to describe Web services
 WSDL is also used to locate Web services
 WSDL is a W3C recommendation
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29. Define UDDI?

UDDI is a platform-independent framework for describing services, discovering businesses,

and integrating business services by using the Internet.
 UDDI stands for Universal Description, Discovery and Integration
 UDDI is a directory for storing information about web services
 UDDI is a directory of web service interfaces described by WSDL
 UDDI communicates via SOAP
 UDDI is built into the Microsoft .NET platform

30. What is AJAX?

 AJAX = Asynchronous JavaScript and XML.

 AJAX is a technique for creating fast and dynamic web pages.
 AJAX allows web pages to be updated asynchronously by exchanging small amounts of data
with the server behind the scenes. This means that it is possible to update parts of a web
page, without reloading the whole page.
 Classic web pages, (which do not use AJAX) must reload the entire page if the content
should change.
 Examples of applications using AJAX: Google Maps, Gmail, YouTube, and Facebook tabs.

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 ENTERPRISE SOLUTIONS

1. Define ERP.

The ERP system is a set of software applications that organize, define and standardize the
business processes necessary to effectively plan and control an organization, integrated business
applications, or modules which carry out common business functions such as general ledger,
accounting, or order management.

2. Basic Concepts of ERP.

 Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is the planning of how business resources (materials,
employees, customers etc.) are acquired and moved from one state to another.
 An ERP system is based on a common database and a modular software design.
 The common database can allow every department of a business to store and retrieve
information in real-time.
 The information should be reliable, accessible, and easily shared.

3. Fundamental Components of ERP.

1. Financial Management
2. Business Intelligence
3. Supply Chain Management
4. Human Resource Management
5. Manufacturing Operations
6. Integration.

4. Define SAP.

 SAP ensures efficient and synchronous communication among different business modules,
such as sales and distribution, production planning, and material management, within an
organization.
 These modules communicate with each other so that any change made in one module is
communicated instantly to the. other modules, thereby ensuring effective transfer of
information.

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5. SAP R/2

The SAP R/2 system was introduced in 1980. SAP R/2 was a packaged software application
on a mainframe computer, which used the time-sharing feature to integrate the functions or business
areas of an enterprise, such as accounting, manufacturing processes, supply chain logistics, and
human resources.

6. SAP R/3

 SAP R/3, based on a client-server model, was officially launched on July 6, 1992.
 This version is compatible with multiple platforms and operating systems, such as UNIX
and Microsoft Windows.

7. Need for ABAP:

 ABAP is one of the first programming languages to include the concept of logical databases,
which provides a high level of abstraction from the centralized database of the SAP system.
 Apart from the concept of logical databases, you can also use Structured Query Language
(SQL)statements to retrieve and manipulate data from the centralized database.

8. Functional modules of SAP R/3.

1. Financial Accounting (FI)

2. Production Planning (PP)
3. Material Management (MM)
4. Sales and Distribution (SD)
5. Controlling (CO)
6. Asset Management (AM)
7. Human Resources (HR)
8. Project System (PS)
9. Industry Solutions (IS)
10. Plant Maintenance (PM)
11. Quality Management (QM)
12. Workflow (WF)

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9. Data sharing

Enables you to store data in memory at a central location. Different users and programs can
then access the data without copying it.

10. Exception handling

Helps define a special control flow for a specific error situation and provide information
about the error.

11. Data persistency

Enables you to store data permanently in relational database tables of the SAP R/3 system.

12. Making enhancements

Enables you to enhance the functionality of programs, function modules, and global classes,
without modifying or replacing the existing code.

13. The DATA Directory

 The DATA file system contains the data (.dbf) files of the Oracle database.
 Rapid Install installs the system, data, and index files in directories below several mount
points on the database server.
 You can specify the directory names of the mount points on the database server during
installation.

14. Server-Side Programming

PL/SQL (Procedural Language/SQL ):

 Client-side programming to embed SQL statements in applications written in procedural
languages .
 Server-side programming to develop data logic that resides in the database
 An application can explicitly invoke stored subprograms (procedures and functions), written
in PL/SQL .

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15. ORACLE EDI GATEWAY

 Oracle Applications provides users with the ability to conduct business electronically
between trading(deal-buy and sell) partners based on the Electronic Commerce standards
and methodology. One form of Electronic Commerce is Electronic Data Interchange (EDI).
 EDI is an electronic exchange of information between trading partners.
 Data files are exchanged in a standard format to minimize manual effort, speed data
processing, and ensure accuracy

16. Define ERP.

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) covers the techniques and concepts employed for the
integrated management of businesses as a whole, from the viewpoint of the effective of
management resources, to improve the efficiency of an enterprise.

17. What is an Enterprise?

An enterprise is a group of people with a common goal, which has certain resources at its
disposal to achieve that goal.

18. What are the main misconceptions about ERP?

 First is that ERP is a computer system.

 Second is ERP is for manufacturing organizations alone.

19. What are ERP packages?

ERP packages are integrated (covering all business functions) software packages that
support the ERP concepts. ERP software is designed to model and automate many of the basic
processes of a company, from finance to the shop floor, with the goal of integrating information
across the company and eliminating complex, expensive links between computer systems that were
never meant to each other.

20. Who are the main players in the ERP market?

SAP AG, PeopleSoft, Oracle, Baan, JD Edwards, QAD, Ramco, IFS, DataWorks etc.

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21. When do the ERP system’s set of generic processes produce dramatic improvements?

ERP software is a mirror image of the major business processes of an organization, such as
customer order fulfillment and manufacturing. Its success depends upon reach – a circumscribed
ERP system isn‘t much better than the legacy system it replaces. ERP system‘s set of generic
processes produce the dramatic improvements they are capable of, only when used to connect parts
of an organization and integrate its various processes seamlessly.

22. What are the reasons for the explosive growth of the ERP market?

 They enable improved business performance by achieving: cycle-time reduction,

increased business agility, inventory reduction, order fulfillment improvement etc
 They support business growth requirements.
 ERP systems provide flexible, integrated, real time decision support.
 ERP packages can now be afforded by even small and medium sized businesses and offers
increased functionality at a reasonable cost.
 They help companies in supporting new products and new customers by meeting their global
requirements, including multiple languages and currencies.

23. What are the direct benefits of ERP systems?

 Business Integration
 Flexibility
 Better analysis and planning capabilities
 Use of latest technology

24. Why is it said that ERP systems are flexible?

Different languages, accounting standards can be covered in one system, and functions that
comprehensively manage multiple locations of a company can be packaged and can be
implemented automatically.

25. What is cycle time?

Cycle time is the time between receipt of the order and delivery of the product.

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26. What is Business Integration and how do the ERP systems achieve it?

The reason why ERP packages are referred as being integrated is the automatic data
updation (automatic data exchange among applications) that takes place between related business
components.

27. What are the factors that are critical for the success of the ERP implementation?

 Selection of the right package

 Commitment of top management
 Participation and dedication of the system‘s future users
 Backing, support and cooperation of the IS/IT personnel
 Development of interfaces with current operational systems and with those under
development
 Effort of consultants, who have respect for the company‘s know-how and work
culture
 Spirit and collaboration on the part of all.

28. How do conventional application packages and ERP packages differ?

 First, ERP packages cannot have only individual business functions such as accounts and
inventory, but also the entire range of main business functions necessary for the company‘s
operations
 Second, ERP packages are targeted at everything from small businesses to the largest
organizations, and that they can be composed of a highly flexible decentralized database and
an information system cluster linked by a network
 Third, is global adaptation, represented by ERP packages’ multilingual and multi- currency
capacity.

29. What are the limitations of ERP?

 Managers cannot generate custom reports or queries without help from a programmer and
this inhibits then from obtaining information quickly, so that they can act on it for
competitive advantage
 ERP systems provide current status only, such as open orders. Managers often need to look

84
 past the current status, to find trends and patterns that aid better decision-making.

 The data in the ERP application is not integrated with other enterprise or division
systems and does not include external intelligence.

30. What are the phases of BPR?

 Begin organizational change

 Building the reengineering organization
 Identifying BPR opportunities
 Understanding the existing process
 Reengineering the process
 Blueprint of the New Business System
 Perform the transformation

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 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

1. What is Artificial Intelligence?

The theory and development of computer systems able to perform tasks normally requiring
human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making, and translation
between languages.

2. Define Heuristic Search?

Uninformed or blind search strategies use only the information available in the problem definition.
Strategies that know whether one non-goal state is ―more promising‖ than another are called informed
search or heuristic search strategies.

3. Give the applications of AI?

The areas where AI can be applied are

 Autonomous planning and scheduling

 Game playing
 Autonomous control
 Diagnosis
 Logistic planning
 Robotics

4. Define an ‘Intelligent agent’?

An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through sensors and acting
upon that environment through actuators. E.g.: vacuum cleaner.

5. What are the four types of agent program?

The four types of agent program:

 Simple reflex agents

 Model based agent

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  Goal-based agents
 Utility-based agents

6. Explain Discrete vs. continuous environment?

If there are a limited number of distinct, clearly defined percepts and actions we say that
the environment is discrete. Chess is discrete—there are a fixed number of possible moves on each
turn. Taxi driving is continuous—the speed and location of the taxi and the other vehicles sweep
through a range of continuous values.

7. What is Knowledge Representation?

Knowledge representation is to express knowledge in computer-tractable form, such that it can be

used to help agents perform well. A knowledge representation language is defined by two aspects:

1. The syntax

2. The semantics

8. What is Unification?

Unification: The job of the unification routine, UNIFY, is to take two atomic sentences p
and q and return a substitution that would make p and q look the same. (If there is no such
substitution, then UNIFY should return fail.) Formally,
UNIFY (p,q) = 6 where SuBST (p) = SuBST(q) is called the unifier of the two sentences.
,

9. What is meant by Natural Deduction?

In logic and proof theory, natural deduction is a kind of proof calculus in which logical
reasoning is expressed by inference rules closely related to the "natural" way of reasoning. This
contrasts with the axiomatic systems which instead use axioms as much as possible to express the
logical laws of deductive reasoning.

10. Give the four fundamental parts of Semantic Net?

The four fundamental parts of Semantic net are

 Lexical part

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  Structural part

 Procedural part

 Semantic part

11. What is forward chaining?

Start with the sentences in the knowledge base and generate new conclusions that in
turn can allow more inferences to be made. This is called forward chaining. Forward chaining is
usually used when a new fact is added to the database and we want to generate its consequences.

12. What is backward chaining?

Start with something we want to prove, find implication sentences that would allow us to
conclude it, and then attempt to establish their premises in turn. This is called backward chaining,
because it uses Modus Ponens backwards. Backward chaining is normally used when there is a goal
to be proved.

13. Explain Bayesian Network.

Bayesian network is used to represent the dependencies among variables and to give a
concise specification of any full joint probability distribution.

14. What is non – monotonic reasoning?

Non – monotonic reasoning is one in which axioms and / or rules of inference are extended
to make it possible to reason with incomplete information. These systems preserve the property that
at any given moment, a statement is either believed to be true, believed to be false, or not believed
to be either.

15. Give the difference between ATMS and JTMS.

ATMS
 An ATMS simply labels all the states that has been considered at the same time.
 An ATMS keeps track for each sentence of which assumptions would cause the sentence to
be true.

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JTMS:
 JTMS simply labels each sentence of being in and out.
 The maintenance of justifications allows us to move quickly from one state to another by
making a few retractions and assertions, but only one state is represented at a time.

16. Write down Bayes’ Rule

17. What is meant by Fuzzy Logic?

Fuzzy logic is a form of many-valued logic in which the truth values of variables may be
any real number between 0 and 1, considered to be "fuzzy".

By contrast, in Boolean logic, the truth values of variables may only be 0 or 1, often
called "crisp" values.

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18. Write about Dempster.

The Dempster–Shafer theory (DST) is a mathematical theory of evidence It allows one to

combine evidence from different sources and arrive at a degree of belief (represented by a belief
function) that takes into account all the available evidence. The theory was first developed by
Arthur P. Dempster and Glenn Shafer.

19. What are the effects of non- planning?

 Infinite branching factor in case of many tasks.

 Choosing heuristic function and works in the same sequence/order.

20. What is fully instantiated plan?

A fully instantiated plan is formally defined as a data structure consisting of the following4
components
 A set of plan steps
 A set of step monitoring constraints
 A set of variable binding constraints
 A set of casual links

21. What is conditional planning?

Conditional planning

 Plan to obtain information (observation actions) Subplan for each contingency.

 Example: [Check(Tire1); If(Intact(Tire1); [In_ate(Tire1)]; [CallHelp])] Disadvantage:

Expensive because it plans for many unlikely cases .Similar to POP If an open condition can
be established by observation action. Add the action to the plan, complete plan for each
possible observation outcome.

22. What are the types of learning?

i. Supervised learning
ii. Unsupervised learning
iii. Reinforcement learning

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23. How could you differentiate normal and decision tree?

 Decision Tree is a flow-chart with only if then else statements, drawn using insights from
data.The process of making a decision tree involves extracting out if- else divisions (and
their order) greedily such that the total entropy(or some other measure) of the leaves is
lesser than the root.
 Whereas Normal Tree nodes have many useful properties. The depth of a node is the length
of the path (or the number of edges) from the root to that node. The height of a node is the
longest path from that node to its leaves. ... Binary: Each node has zero, one, or two
children.

24. What is inductive Learning ?

Inductive learning is a kind of learning in which, given a set of examples an agent tries to
estimate or create an evaluation function. Most inductive learning is supervised learning, in which
examples provided with classifications. (The alternative is clustering.)

More formally, an example is a pair (x, f(x)), where x is the input and f(x) is the output of the
function applied to x. The task of pure inductive inference (or induction) is, given a set of examples of f, to
find a hypothesis h that approximates f.

25. Define expert system.

An expert system is a computer program that simulates the thought process of a human
expert to solve complex decision problems in a specific domain.
SSAn expert system is an interactive computer-based decision tool that uses both facts and
heuristics to solve difficult decision problems based on knowledge acquired from an expert.

26. What are applications of expert systems?

 Interpreting and identifying

 Diagnosing
 Designing
 Planning
 Monitoring
 Debugging and testing

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27. What is robotics?

"A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or

specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks‖.

28. What is MINIMAX?

Given a game tree, the optimal strategy can be determined by examining the minimax value
of each node, which we write as MINIMAX-VALUE (n). The minimax value of a node is the utility
of being in the corresponding state, assuming that both players play optimally from there to the end
of the game.

29. Define knowledge acquisition?

Knowledge acquisition is the process of extracting, structuring and organizing knowledge

from one source, usually human experts, so it can be used in software such as an ES. This is often
the major obstacle in building an ES.

30. What is Expert system shell?

A rule-based, expert system maintains a separation between its Knowledge-base and that
part of the system that executes rules, often referred to as the expert system shell. The system shell
is indifferent to the rules it executes.

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 PLATFORM TECHNOLOGY

1. What is NET Framework?

Microsoft programming infrastructure for creating, deploying, and executing

applications and services that use .NET technologies. .NET Framework comprises three major
components - Common Language Runtime (CLR), Framework Base Classes andASP.NET .

2. Explain with diagram the .NET Framework

3. Define Common Language Runtime (CLR)

CLR is the .NET runtime environment responsible for program execution management
and for providing container services—debugging, exception management, memory management,
profiling, and security. The CLR is a major subsystem in the .NET Framework which
implementsthe Common Type System. Also this is called as Virtual Execution System (VES).

4. List out the components of CLR

a) Common Type System

b) Intermediate Language (IL)
c) Execution Support Functions
d) Security
e) Garbage Collection
f) Class Loader
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5. What is Managed code?

Code that is executed by the Common Language Runtime (CLR) is called managed code.
Managed code provides metadata to enable the CLR to handle exceptions, locate methods encoded
in assembly modules, and manage security information. Managed code can access both managed
data and unmanaged data.

6. What is unmanaged code?

It is, also called unsafe code, code that executes outside of the control of the Common
Language Runtime (CLR). Unmanaged code may perform unsafe operations such as pointer
arithmetic. Unmanaged code is used for accessing unmanaged memory, calling Windows APIs,
interfacing to COM components, and coding performance‐critical methods which avoid the
overhead of the CLR.

7. State the C# Program Structure.

C# program contains following sections in it:

a) Documentation Section
b) Using Directive Section
c) Interfaces Section
d) Classes Section
e) Main Method Section

8. What are the types of tokens available in C#?

C# has five types of tokens. They are,

a) Keywords
b) Identifiers
c) Literals
d) Operators
e) Punctuators

9. What are keywords?

Keywords are an essential part of a language definition. They implement specific features of
the language. They are reserved, and cannot be used as identifiers except when they are prefaced by
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the @ character. There are 79 keywords in C#. Ex: public, private, if, while etc..

10. Classify the C# operators.

C# operators can be classified into a number of related categories as below:

 Arithmetic operators
 Relational operators
 Logical operators
 Assignment operators
 Increment and decrement operators
 Conditional operators
 Bitwise operators
 Special operators

11. Write a note on interface.

An interface can contain one or more methods, properties, indexers, and events but
none of them are implemented in the interface itself. It is the responsibility of the class that
implements the interface to define the code for implementation of these members.

Syntax:

interface InterfaceName
{
Member declarations;
}

12. What is Exception?

When an unplanned or unexpected event occurs, an associated exception object is thrown.

The exception will be caught by an exception handler at some level and appropriate action
taken. A fatal exception—catastrophic error—is an event that cannot be properly handled to allow
the application to continue.

13. Describe about Visual basic.NET?

This is used in conjunction with Microsoft .NET platform and is a successor to visual basic
sixth version. Visual basic is used in conjunction with.NET Framework. This tool has a serious
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defect it is not compatible with Microsoft visual basic sixth version. It has a huge library which
assists programmers.

14. Define class in VB.NET?

A class is simply an abstract model used to define new data types. A class may contain any
combination of encapsulated data (fields or member variables), operations that can be performed on
the data (methods) and accessors to data (properties).

Namespace Animals

Dog is a class in the namespace Animals

Class Dog

Bark is a function in this Class

Function Bark()

Console.Writeline ("Dog is barking")

End Function

End Class

End Namespace

15. Briefly explain the inheritance?

VB.Net uses the Inherits keyword to indicate inheritance. Suppose we have a class named
Student with the following fields; mRegistrationNumber, mName and mDateOfBirth along with the
corresponding properties. The class also has a function called GetAge() which calculates and
returns the age of a Student.

16. Write about operator Overloading

Operator overloading is the ability for you to define procedures for a set of operators on a
given type. This allows you to write more intuitive and more readable code.

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17. Write about FOR NEXT Loop

The FOR NEXT Loop , execute the loop body (the source code within For Next code
block) to a fixed number of times.

For var=[startValue] To [endValue] [Step][loopBody] Next [var]

var : The counter for the loop to repeat the steps.

starValue : The starting value assign to counter variable .
endValue : When the counter variable reach end value the Loop will stop .
loopBody : The source code between loop body

18. What is objects in VB .NET?

A Method is a procedure built into the class. They are a series of statements that are
executed when called. Methods allow us to handle code in a simple and organized fashion. There
are two types of methods in VB .NET: those that return a value (Functions) and those that do not
return a value (Sub Procedures).

19. What is an Event?

An event is a message sent by an object to signal the occurrence of an action. The action
could be caused by user interaction, such as a mouse click, or it could be triggered by some other
program logic. The object that raises the event is called the event sender. The object that captures
the event and responds to it is called the event receiver.

20. What is a delegate?

A delegate is a class that can hold a reference to a method. Unlike other classes, a
delegate class has a signature, and it can hold references only to methods that match its signature. A
delegate is thus equivalent to a type-safe function pointer or a callback.

21. What is ADO .Net?

ADO.NET is a set of classes that expose data access services to the .NET programmer.
ADO.NET provides a rich set of components for creating distributed, data-sharing applications. It
is an integral part of the .NET Framework, providing access to relational data, XML, and

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application data. ADO.NET supports a variety of development needs, including the creation of
front-end database clients and middle-tier business objects used by applications, tools, languages, or
Internet browsers.

22. Explain with diagram .NET Data Providers

23. Explain with a diagram the ADO.NET Dataset

24. What is J2EE?

J2EE is an environment for developing and deploying enterprise applications. The J2EE
platform consists of a set of services, application programming interfaces (APIs), and protocols that
provide the functionality for developing multitiered, web-based applications.

25. Write about the J2EE architecture?

J2EE architecture supports component-based development of multi-tier enterprise

applications. A J2EE application system typically includes the following tiers:

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  Client tier: In the client tier, Web components, such as Servlets and JavaServer Pages
(JSPs), or standalone Java applications provide a dynamic interface to the middle tier.
 Middle tier: In the server tier, or middle tier, enterprise beans and Web Services
encapsulate reusable, distributable business logic for the application. These server-tier
components are contained on a J2EE Application Server, which provides the platform for
these components to perform actions and store data.
 Enterprise data tier: In the data tier, the enterprise's data is stored and persisted, typically
ina relational database.

26. What is the container?

Containers are the interface between a component and the low-level platform specific
functionality that supports the component. Before a Web, enterprise bean, or application client
component can be executed, it must be assembled into a J2EE application and deployed into its
container.

27. What are types of J2EE clients?

Following are the types of J2EE clients:

 Applets
 Application clients
 Java Web Start-enabled rich clients, powered by Java Web Start technology.
 Wireless clients, based on Mobile Information Device Profile (MIDP) technology.

28. Explain about the J2EE multi tier application?

J2EE multi-tiered applications are generally considered to be three-tiered applications because

they are distributed over three different locations

 Client machines
 The J2EE server machine
 The database or legacy machines at the back end

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29. Explain diagrammatically the J2EE Server and Containers?

J2EE Server and Containers

30. What are the best practices to be carried out in development phase?

 Use proven design patterns

 Automate the build process
 Integrate often
 Optimize communication costs.

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