Discrete Mathematics (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) by 1.6 TYPES OF SET (a) Universal set All sets under investigation in any application of set theory are assumed to belong to some fited large set called as universal set. - Denoted by U ~ In other words, universal set is the set of all elements ‘under consideration, ~ _ Allother sets are subsets of the universal set. ~ Misused in particular situation, ‘students in collage, set of animals on the earth, etc, (©) Singleton set or unit sot ~ When a set contains ‘only one element then that set is singleton set. - Example : A= (6},B=(xIx@N,x<2) (c) Finite set ~ When a number of elements in a set are finite then that Set is said to be finite. — Null or void set is also finite set. - Example: A=(5,0,8,9} Here, A is finite set. Infinite eet @ When a set has infinite number of elements, ~ Example, consider a set of natural number, considered 2s infinite set. INI = 0 (0) Empty set or Null set The empty set or null set is a set that has no elements for members in it. = Itisalso known as void set. ~ Its denoted as 6 oF { }. Empty set is a finite set because n(9) =0 - Example, A = (x1 xisa positive integer, x* = 3} Set A will contain no element. () Power set ~ Power setis a set ofall possible subsets ofa set. ~The power set of A is denoted by P(A). = PA)=(XIXCA] = Example : Let A= (a,c) Example, universal set can be considered as set of 16 (9) = Sot Theory tin Bary Then Power set of A is P(A), calculated a8 all possible subsets of A. Gis subset of A, (a), {e}. a,c} are also subset of A, So, P(A) = ( (61. fa}, (c}, (a,¢) } If set A contains n elements, then power set of A, P(A) will have 2 possible subsets, MWA=, then P(A) =>, , P()= (6) empty sot has only subset ¢. Disjoint sets Two sets are said to be disjoint, if they have no ‘common elements, Example A=(L.2}, B= (4,5,6} and C=(5,6,7,8) Here, A and B disjoint, A and C are disjoint. But B and C are not disjoint as B and C have some common elements ie. 5 and 6. In other words, If A ¢ B and B & A, then A and B are Overlapping sets Two sets are said to be overlapping, if they have at least one elements in common, Example A= (3,6,8]), B= [10,5,3} Here, A and B are overlapping sets since they have one elements i. 3 in common. Equal sets ‘Two sets A and B said to be equal if all the elements of ‘A belongs to B and vice versa. IFA and B are equal sets, then itis denoted by A=B Exampl A= (acd) B= Here, set A and B are equal sets. {d,a,¢} Equivalent set ‘Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if both sets contains same number of elements. If A and B are equivalent sets, then itis denoted by « Example : A= (a,d.f}, | B={c.t,m} Here, set‘A and B are equivalent sets. els are alviays equivalent. but tis’ nal | Necessary that equivalent sets are equal, Tech-Noo Publications. Where Authors inspire innovation snd SACHLV SHAH VeotareDiscrote Mathematics (SPPU. EM 3) % 1.6.1 Examples Based on Sets and Subsets a Ex. 1.6.1 :Which of the following sets are equal Azlabcl Be leb.ca} C=(babc}. D=(b.c,a,b} soln. : Az =C=D all are equal since order and repetition do not change a set. on Ex. 1.6.2: Which of the following seté are equal ? As (xix'—4x+3=0),B xIx7-3x42=0) C= (xlxe Nx<3}, De (x1x€ N, xis odd, x<5) B= (1,2), F= (1.2 1G= (3, 1),H= (11,3) @ soln: Here, A= D = G=H are equal and set B,C, B and F Ex. 1.6.3 : Write down following sets. @ Az (xt 24) {xlx?=9,x-3=5) Gi) C= (x 1x? + 1 =0, xis complex number} Gv)D = (x1x7 + 1=0, xis real number) Usotn.: @ A=(2-21 (i) B=(6) Gi) C=(i,- ww) oy Ex, 1.6.4: Find out which of the following sets are null, singleton ? @ A=[x1x=11, sis even integer } @) B=(0}, Gi) C= (x1 +6=6} iv) D=( x1x?=7,3x=5} © son. : Sets A and D are null sets as A= $.D=¢ Sets B and C are singleton sets as B has one element and C has one element that is {0} which satisfies given eoaaie x, 1.6.5: Which of the following sets are equal ? @) A=(1,22,3) ) B=(xix’-2x+1=0) Tecb-Neo Publications num (Where Authors inspire ianovation a) Set Theory (In Sem) Unit © C=(1.23} iL (@) D={xix’—6x" + L1x-6=0} G@ (@) EB=(3,2,1} Ex, 1.6.6 :Determine whether each of the following statements to is true or false, justify your answer. @oco woe d oc (9) doe (4) @ dso oe o @ (dS (9) (h) (oh e (0) @ {a,b} c (a,b,c, (a, b,c}} G) (a. bJe (abc,(a, b,c.) &) (a, b}S (a,b, ({a6}}} (adhe (ab, (fa, bHT ™) (91S (a O1} (a) (a6) fa, a.91) OA sotn.: (@) @) © @ © © @ (hy @ Oo &) Tre (False (on) False (a) Tre ‘True, since null set isa subset of any set. False, because, element can not belong to itself. True, because null set is subset of itself. ‘True, element belongs to set. False, null set can not be a subset of it’s element. False, True, null set is subset of itself. False, null set can not be the member of itself. ‘True, all the element of (a, b) are in (a, b,c.(a, b, ¢}} False Ex. 1.6.7 :1f A= (6, (6), (6, (9D), determine whether following statements are rue or false. Justify your answer. G@)oeA @) (4CA ©) (OF EA @RMHSA © {lO} EA Dsomn.: (@) True, As $ is element of set A. @) © @ © ‘True, As (6) is a subset of A. True, As (¢) isa member of A. True, As, all the elements of {¢ (}) are in A. False As {(¢}} is not a member of A. =A SAGHIN SHAH Venture13 al Discrote Mathematics (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) Ex. 16.8: Determine whether each of the following statements is true for arbitrary sets A. B, C. Justify your answer. () IAe Band BEC, then Ae C (i) WA Band BEC, ten ACC (ii) AG Band Be C.men ae c (i) HAC Band Be C,thenaACC S sotn.: (Tree foreg. A= (9),B= (1911.C= (101) ‘As Ais contained in B, it should aso belong to Csince Bisa subset of C. (i) False, As A isan element of B but not subset of B. 8 A= (0), B= (I61].C= (101) Filse.e.g. A=6, Gs) Falseceg. A= (0), (oH) Ex. te ¥ Oh (KT Identify each of the following statements as true of false, Justify your answers (i) Kea @) GEA Gil) (Rye A @) (NSA O) GKYICA WD (RIYA © sotn. : (i) True, As x is an element of A. (i) False, As (x) is subset of A rather it is not an element of A. ii) True, As {x, y) isan element of A. (iv) True, as (x, y) is subset of A. (W) True, as subset containing x, y elements in A. (vi) False, xis available in A but { y } not. 1 1.7 DUALITY Principle of duality suggest that any proved result involving sets. complements and operations of union and intersection gives a corresponding dual results by replacing U by 9. U by © and vice versa, From the Lows of Algebra, & is an equation of set Algebra. The dual E* of B is the equation obtained by replacing each occurrence of U,, U and 6 in E by A, U.G and U respectively. 4f any equation E is an associative then its duality ‘equation B* is also associative. Example : @ UAAUEBMA)=Ais@UA\NBUA)=A (i) AUA=AiBANAZA Gil) (AUB) =(BUA)is(AMB)=BAA) Set Theory (hn Sen 1 1.8 SET OPERATIONS We can do many operations on sets. Some of te important operations ar listed below : (a) Union ~The union of two sets A and B, denoted as AU B, is the st ofall elements which belongs to set A or se B, AUB=(xIxe Aorxe B} In other words. A U B isthe set of elements which are either in A oF in B or in both sets. Example 1 : Let, A= (u,b, c,d}, B= (p,q.r, 8} then, AUB=(ab.od.p.q.rs} ‘Venn diagram Ave Fig. 18.1 Example2: Le, X= {6}. ¥ = (6.6, (0)) then, XU Y= {9,b, 10) =¥ since XY (0) Intersection ~The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all the ‘elements which belongs to both A and B. Itis denoted by ANB. ANB=(xIxe Aandxe B} - Example: Let, A= faboed) B= (e,xy,d} ANB = (c,d) bs Q Ans Fig. 1.8.2 Teck-Nc Publications... Where Authors nope fonoaton snd SHCUIN STAR Veta[Bloneweuaonaes sorust seh E set Toor in Som = oN SO iy [anoie: ) AnBGA and AnBee = Beample: 1 W AnB=o, then AancBaredsjamect,|| Gy astabedeh Bel hdany). (Wl) Angso in (W) AnUeA A-Belbee), B-Asiinyl 7 wrt Gi) A=(ab. O&fach}. A={ab}= (lack Oo. MnAQAZ’ lach-A=(c} (2 Complement of set enn diagram Let A be the given set. The complement of set A is the set of elements which belong 10 U but which do not belong to A. Itis denoted by A° or A’ or A. ASe(xixe xe A] Example: Ley A= (L234), Ue (123.45, c00510) A = (5,6,7,8,9,10} Venn diagram : Fig. 1.8.3 53 Propertles of complement of set @ US=9 and g=U (i) (A) © = A= Law of complement i) AUAS= ATU ASU (iv) ANAS = ASO AHO (AvuB) (i) (AUB)® = ASA B® (De Morgan's Law) (0) Difference ( Relative complement ) of sets Let A and B are two sets. The difference of A and B denoted as A ~ B or A \B, is the set of elements which belongs to A but which does not belong to B. A-Bz=(xIxe Aand xB} Similarly, B-A=(xIx@ Bandxé A} Dierence Fig. 18.4 = Properties of ditterence Let, A and B be two sets then, Gi) A-Az@ (iv) A-A=A.A-A Ww) A-g=A (il) A-9=U-a (iii) A-B=AAB (x) A-B=B-Aiffa=B () A-B=A iff AMB=9 (ie. Aand B are disjoint) Gi) A iff AGB (All the elements of A belongs to B) (e) Symmetric difference of sets ‘The symmetric difference of set A and B, denoted by A B, consist of those elements which belongs to A ‘or B but not belongs to both, A@B=(xlx¢ A-B or xe B-A} A@B=(A-B)U(B-A) A@B=(AUB)-(ANB) Examples : @ Az={abedef), B=(cdebgh) A-B= (a,b) B-A=(g.b} A@B=(a,b,e,h) Gi) A= (9). B= (x,9, (0), A-B=9, B-A=(x (O}}. s0.A@B=(x, (OH) Tech-Neo Publications... Where Authors inspire innovation =A SACHIN SHAH Venturelois Mathematics (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) 4-40 Set Theory (in Som) Venn diagram Only distinct or unique elements ate in se, So, AUB = (1,2,5,6,7] BUC = Elements either in B or C = (2,5.7,.1.3,5,7.9) AB BA = only distinct elements should be in set = (1235.79) (vy) A-B = Remove all the elements of B from A thatis A-B =(xIxe A, x B} AB (1.6) Fig. 185 A-C = baht all the elements of C from A ‘Properties of symmetric difference (vi) (AUC) -B = Remove all the elements of B- @ A@Az=g (i) A@G=A from (AUC) . . =(1,3,6,9) Gi) A@USU-AsA Gy) A@A=U B@C-A = Remove all the elements of A fromB @C @) A@B=(AUB)~(ANB) or (A-B)UB-A) B.9) Ex 1823 ba be subsets of U, given that % 1.8.1 Examples Based on Set AMB=Anc i Operations KR mB=K ACisienecessary that B= C7 justi Ex. 1.8.1 :Consider the universal set U = (1,2,3.4,...8.9) | & goin, and set A= (1,2,5.6],B = (2,5,7).C= (1,35.7.9) | yeu BeCisnecessay Find: () AABandAnc 5 ie 1 AP iba oF Justification : Consider = BAU=BO(AUA) (ii) A@BandA@c (iv) AUBandBUC () A-BandA-C (i) (AUC)-BandB@C-A @ son. : ( —AMB =Common elements between set A and B = (25) AB = Common elements between set Aand C = (15) “A 1,2,3,4,5,6,7, 8,9) ~(1,2,5,6) = (3.4,7,8,9) =c = (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) -(1,3,5,7,9} 2, 4,6, 8) (A-B)UB-A) = (1.610 (7) 21,67) (A~C)U(C~A) = (2,6) 0 (37,9) = (2,3,6,7.9} lements either from A or B = (1,2,2,5,5,6,7} ay Gi) A@B Aec AUB tiv) =@OA)UGNA)— by distributive law = (ANB) U(ANB)— by commutative law =(ANC) Une) given (AUA)AC — by distributive law Ex. 1.6.9 sLet, A, B, Cbe three sets @ given that A UB = A UC. is it necessary that B = C? i given that AB = AAC, is it necessary that @ son: (No, There is no necessary that B = C. Justification Let, A = (a,b,c), B= {a}, C= (o} AUB = [a,b,c] =A, AUC= (a, bye} =A AUB =AUCHA, bu. BeC Gi) No, There is no necessary that B= C Justification Le, A=(ab], B=(bed} C=(bim) ANB =(b}=ANC, bu Bec ‘Tec-Heo Publications... Where Authors inspite innovation “=A SACHIN STAH Vesare(Blowioesanenaie seeurrseu en Sat Theory (In Som), Ex, 1.84:For A = (a,b, {a,¢), 0} . determine the following | (ii) {9)-A= 6 — ‘null set relative difference with any @ Arta) Gi) Ang non-empty set then outcome will be null ie. OE ee ee (iii) P(A) = Number of possible subsets of A 0) A=fee} (4) A= fa.b)) Gi) A-((ac)) (vill) (a) - A aa ae as COLA (eee AUP(A)= [9.0] 19. [4] {b} 18,01) i) (acel-A GD lael) A @ 1). (B) 1.01.6) (iii) (3) - 1A} Ex, 1.86 : Let A, B,C be sets. Under what conditions the Sol following statements are tue 7 (i) Removing the element a from A. f) (A-B)U(A-C)=A A-{a) =(b, fac).o) Gi) (A-B)U(A-C)= 9. ) A~9 = (aK achQ)=A i) A~{6) = Removing the 6 from A. ab (ac) (iv) A= {a,b] = Removing a, b from A {a.e)91 Removing a and ¢ from A but, ‘c"is not member of A. (b. (2,€).9) Removing (a, b} from A, but {a,b} is not member of A. {ab (ac), o)=A (vi) A~ {{2, ¢)} = Removing (a, ¢} a8 a element from A @) A-fae) (vi) A-{(a,b)) {a,b 0) (sill) (2) =A Gy) o-A =e () 19)-A (si) (a,c) ~A = Removing the elements of A from (ac) atc) (xii) [{a,c]) - A = Removing the elements of A from{a,¢} =o (ip (a) - 1) = (2) Ex. 1.8.5 : Let A= (0, b) construct the following set A-0 Gi) O}-A GD AUPIA) Where P (A) is a power set. @ son. : Let A = {0,b) (given) @ A-9 =A 19,b) + any non-empty set relative difference with null then result will be the set itself © soln.: Let, A,B, Care three sets ® (A-BUA-O=A B and C should be mull sets to get A (A-B)U(A-O)=6 A, B, and © should be Identical or equal sets 10 get. 1.9 VENN DIAGRAM ay = Venn diagrams are used to show pictorial representation of relation between two sets and their operations. = Named after the British Logician John Vena. = In Venn diagrams (Universal set (U) is represented by rectangle. (Gi) Subsets of universal sets are represented by circles. If A GB, then circle which represent A, lies inside circle represent set B. Ww) If set A and B are disjoint sets, then it is represented by two separated circles inside large rectangle If A and B are overlapping sets, then circles representing A and B have some common area. o ‘Tech Neo Publications Where Authors inspire innovation A SICUINSHAI Yeatare UnitSot Theory (In Son) N EV) eee) wl bel LEE Lz ol \ = Lid =(AUCn(AUB) “=~ A SACHIN SHAH Vesta rom A (Aeubestolunboral eal) (otAle ebsatofet 8) v | u nae Rand deptDiscrote Mathomat (SPPU.IT-SEM3) (URS) ‘A(RHS) @ From venn diagram (c) and (d) itis clear that (WU NAUBAA) “ssHence proved. EX. 1.9.2 : Using venn diagram, prove or disprove. @ A®@BOC)=(A@B)OC Gi) AMBOC=A-[(A-B)U(A-O)] © Soin. : () B® C= elements which are In B or In C, but not In both B and Gc. WAS (BEC) C. but not in both A and B @ C) ‘Set Thoory (In Som) Unit ot AGC) = (Elements which are either in A or B © Elements which are either in A or B. but notin both A and B. (A@B)= Step IT : Induction step 4 otis ep, sme sven stern Sri te forn eexotes sy valce cfm, then itis also tue bat Stn) i tre for r Step M1 : Conclasion 1 The stazerent is trae for all integral values of n equal to or 1 pee than hat for which twas verified in sep =. > Step 1: Basis of Induction % 1.14.1 Solved Examples Check S(n) is tue for n= 1 [US AEERI(SPPU IT. Q:2(a); May 19. 6 Marks) uis=TaTy = 2 ‘Use mathematica induction to show that: 1 Hagin tro se ee RIS = TT = 7 Pepe si 4 Seats Oe Sa Here, LHS = RHS.Hence, S(n)is tue for n= 1 » Step 2: Induction step ‘Assume, S(n) is tue for n= K feet 1 K Bat KD Kat @) Now, check $(n) is true for n=K +1 Sta) ofl) for alln>=1 {Tech Sen Palications Where Aathors inspire innovation A SUCHIN SHAT Feature ACe¥ BBlossroto Mathematics (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) 1-26 Sot Theory (In Som Skt Dad ehe 1 VEN 1.143 | (CEU RCOMEACEIETT Ty > snarl eae |Srate the principle of Mathematical Induction, wing *KeD Ke Ke2 {mathematical induction prove the feiorie Proposition: Solve the LHS of above equation. P= 14447 tics + 3n=2) -2Gnt) | tek gk fale See eet SK+:T3 +95 +34 KTR = | DW som: aGn=1 > Ten eS (From Equati Given: S(n): 14447 +... Ga-2)= K+ K+) K+d) (From Equation (2)) | Gi (n) > Step 1 : Basis of Induction KK+)K+DeK+ 1) KADIKK +2) +1 5 SKE DKED KH) > KD K+ KD Check S(n) is tue for n= 1 | K's 2K 41 K'+K4Kel S(1):3-2= 1 = LHS | =e aD | K+) K+ > Ke K42) (K+1)+0 K+ 1 Keene _ Aen Hence, Sais tre fora | Required RHS | > Step2+ Induction Step | _ Hence, The given S(n) is tre and validated using Assume, (0) is tue fora = K eae | mathematical Induction. S(K) = 144474... + 0K -2) =KGK=D Al) KTEGRREEASPPU - IT, Q.1(a), May 15, Dec. 16, Now, Check S(n) is true forn = K+ 1 Ee es ieds Mosler 221] sak 41): 144474 .t OK -2) #30 +1)-2 ye testament se sig material induction | K+DGK+)-1) K+ GK+2) j 2 = 2 4 2n is divisible by 3 for allin> = 1 © soin. = KORD, 3K 41)-2 ..Fromequation(1) | Given :S(n) :n? +2n is divisible by 3 for all n ok K42GK 43-2 > Step 1 : Basis of Induction 2 Forn=1 3K K+6K 46-4, 3K-K 46K 42 | S(I): 1 +2. 3 is divisible by 3. ia 2 2 | Hence, S(n) is true for 3K745K+2 | > Step -2: Induction Step 2 2 | ‘Assume, (n) is true for n = K, that is => MisiKemKes Oke K+) | S(K). = K’ +2kisdivisible by 3. K+) GK +2) ELD CK*D proved. Now, Check S(n) is tue forn =K +1 SK +1) (K+ 1) +2K +1) = KR 43K 43K +142K +2 = (K)+2K) 43K" 43K +3 = (K42K)+3(K 4K +1) Here, (+ 2K) = alvisibe by 3 (assumed) S(n) : The sum of the cubes of three consecutive | 30K" + K + 1) = divisible by 3. integers is divisible by 9 | Hence, S(a) is true forn=K +1 That is | So that, S(a) :(a~ 1)? + 0+ (n+ 1) is divisible by 9 =n’ +2n+ divisible by 3 for all n>= > Step 1 : Basis of Induction | Check S(n) is true for | S(t) :0° + 14+2°=1+8=9 = divisible by9 | | “Tech-Noo Publications ——..Where Authors inspire innovation A SHCHIN SHAH Weareflo > Step 2+ Induction Step ‘Assume, Sa) is true for n= K that is S(K): K-1) +k 4(K +1) = 3K" + 6K is divisible by 9. Now, Check S(n) is true for = K+ 1 SK+D Kel (Ke HK 42) K+ K+ +42) 3K) 49K" + 1ISK+9 = 3K 49K" 49K 6K 49 3K + 6K 49K" 49K 49 = GK + 6K) +9" + K+ 1) 1o Mathomatics (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) 1 Already assumed Divisible by 9 that, divisible by 9 Hence, S(n) is true for n= K+ 1. s+ proved. ‘vex 1.14.5: Gi BONE Prove by mathematics induction for i > 1: f n(n+ 1) (n+ 2) cmintas 1-2 0242) cA i Given: S(a):12423+...40(+1)= MANO? 3 forn>=1 > Step 1 : Basis of Induction Check S(n) is true for n= 1 S(1) : LHS: > 10 +.1)=2 1@)@) _6 Rs: 9 8 So that, Sn) is true for n= 1 > Step 2: Induction Step Assume, Sn) is tue for n = K Here, LHS = RHS KK +1) (K+2) S(K)= 124234 4 K(K 4 1 ol) Now, Check S(n) is tre forn= K+ 1 S(K+1):12423 + nt (K+ 1) +(K 41) (K +2) K #1) (K+ 2)(K +3) 3 - Kies) +2) , oD O42) From Equation (1) = KAD snes DED = Kl 2 K+3 Proved. S(n)is tue for n 1 by mathematical induction Teche Puli 1 canon Where Authors inspire innovation 1.37, ‘Set Thoory (In Sem) Ex, 1.14.6 : By using mathematical induction show that = 126344 a2MBE fat al nmber alae ofa. © son: Let Sin): 142434..¢0=-2OtD 7 el) > Step 1: Basis of induction Check $ (n) is true for n= 1 uns = 1, ris=t $03 2 LHS = RHS Hence, S(q) is true for > Step IL: Induction step Assume S(n) is true for a= k Thus we get St): 142434..+k-HEED gy Now, check S(n) is tue for n= k + 1 from Equation (1), Sk+1):14+2434..¢k+ke) ke ihe?) Now, solve the LHS of above statement Sk+1) 2 1+2434..4k+ +1 RIED sy «rom Bquton a) Kk +1) +241 2 BADE?) _pHsofs c+ 1) > Step il 202s ue Conclusion : S(n): 1 +243+..4+0 cing made inon x LAAT Prove ye mateo ton © sotn. > Step 1 : Basis of induction a +2 S(ny=14346+..42820 20+?) Forn= 1, putas 1 in LHS and RHS of S(a) su: iis = en pag = WO+DU+2 VG), ¢= A SACHIN SILT Veatare(Bl ose namenate peur SeH9 1-38 pees LHS = RHS Hence, S(n) is rue for n= 1 > Step II : Induction step Assume, S(n) is tre for n =k oo. “say: t 4346 eG DAEGEDESD oy Now. etek Sa) isu orn = | So, puta =k + 1 in Equation (1) then, Steet ed+64 AGED, Green _tenwenes a 6 Lets start from LHS. of S (k + 1) Ske :14346 AED, Green MKs2) Kengen a AOEDGD ODED Som gration) _ 2k K+) K+2)1 +6 (K+ +21 Set TH00Y (hn) S41) 12422 + tee ea tye =k 242 Taking LHS. of above equation, SK +1) 1242274 tee kt =(kK-1) 2714 2+K+ I> "J From Equation gy ae ‘Taking 2**'common = BRAKE A ED = 22k) +2 = Bethke 2 eye = BETH? Ske any 242 (W242 = RNS > Step III: Conctusion This shows that (0) is truc for n =k them iis aso me forn=k+! 12 ‘Thus, by using mathematical induction, S(o) is tue fy KK+D E4143 0K+ K+) every integral valve of n zi : Ex, 1.14.9 : With the belp of mathematical induction row + +243) 2 2 20-1) @n+ 1 = RUS Of S (K+ 1) that, 17+ 3° +5*+ @n= 1)" = 7 > Step HI: Conclusion Soin. ‘This show that, if S(a) is true for a = k, then itis also | Let oer is =k +1. Thus, cal induction is 2 a @a-1)Qn41 Sto sou for nv + 1. Ths, matematea inden | 5 yyy St. anf OAH Ex. 1.14.8 Prove by mathematical induction ica S(o)s4-24228+ 4 a-2"e(a_ 1-242 > Step I: Basis of induction H son, Check (a) iste forn=1 E 2 a $0, LHS = @-1-)'=@-pis 1721 Given : S(o) :1-2+2-2°+... #0-2=(a= 1-2" 142 -) rus = 12-UC+)_WG)_3 > Step1: Basis of induction LHS = RHS Check, Sia) ists form = 1 Hence, § (a) is tre for Pu, a=1, LHS =12'=2 RHS =(1-1)-2'*'42=0x242=2 7 Here, LH.S.=RHS, Hence, S(a)is te forn = 1 > Step II: Induction step > Step: Induction step Assume S (n) is tue for n =k a Assume, S(o) is true for n =k SW): 437+ 5*4 + Ok Ie Pu, a= kin S(a) . a S(k) = 124224 RD =k 1) 4D Now, check (a) is true for n= k-+ 1 Sek + 1):1-2422%+ +k Oe (K+ D2! = eH 1 12042 2) “Tech-Neo Publications —— Where Authors inspire izaoration Now, check, S (n) is true forn=k +1 SRI P4574. HK 1+ (2R+D-1) Ge NOK) NAKED a 3 “=A SACHIN SHAH Veotoe |el Discrete Mathematics (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) 129 sertooy inom), , ‘Solve LHS of above statement ee eae) key kee ~ LONG asi gamtqatane) Tash atiaty rates 2 Beta’ -k+3@k+n) > eho +5k+3) naka nar Ok4 Ok + G41) ks NOks NOK+3 2 3 — = 3 +NOK+)-)-Cu+ ns ee GED OW ND COED Reauired RHS > Step iM: Conclasion : Hence S(n) is tue by mathematical indaction. Ex 1.44.0: Show that, i nis!) yaar ty = 2@n+1) sing mathematical induction. . ngs) Al) 35°" *@a-DGarT check, S(0) is tue for n= 1 Put, a= 1 in Equation (1) (Qn+ 1) r SU): LHS = @x1-N@xl+) - en Zz RHS = Joxieh) "67 Hence, S(a)is tue for n= 1. > Step IT: Induction step Assume, S(o) is true for n = k. a 2 Yo Kee SW)275 tZg tt Geo ake) “2Qk+ 1) Now, check S(a) is true forn=k+1 B ++ GRD Gk) «+i k+1)(k+1+1) *Rk+N-NRKD+N 22KFH+D eceiie CEL “+ @k=1) @k+ 1 + K+ 20k+3) Ske Su+n:t5 +5 + * @k+ 1 Qk+3) > a-From Equation (2) Take LHS. of Sk 1.then solve, kk+t) +L SQ +12 ery * Gee NRT D) K+ DL (2k +) Ok+ 391+ 2EK+ KHL [2(2k+ 1 -1@k+ 1) k+ 3) ing Kt ‘Taking Gey yy common k+t [: 2k +342 (k+l ] et 2@k+3) bell wiest«2| = dks TL 2Gk+3) KL [2K + dks ke 2] Dee iL” 2@k+3) se Sas) kat [ Oke) K+? = ATL 20k+3) e+ 1) (+2) 22k +3) > Step MII: Concluston This shows that, S(n) is tue for true forn=k+ 1. Thus, by using mathematical induction S(n) is true for ‘every integral value of n. = RES. of Sik+ 1) then it is also Ex. 1.14.11 : Use mathematical induction to show that n° - 4n’ is divisible by 3 for all n2 2. @ sotn.: Let S (n) :n? dn’ is divisible by 3 for all n2 2. > Step: Basis of Induction Check S (n) is rue for n= 2 S(2):2?—4 (2) 4-4-4 = 4-16 =- I2is divisible by 3s, S (n) is te forn=2 > Step II: Induction step Assume, S (n) is true for n =' S(k) : K-4k is divisible by 3 Check S (k + 1) is true forn=k+ 1 Skt : d+ -4Ken? = C+2K+ 1-4 +241) => (K+ 2k+ 1) 4K 8k 4 = (Kak) - (6K +3) = -4e)-3(k +1) +2) Tecb-Neo Peblications —— Were Authors ispire innovation —ASAGHIN STAT VeotareDiscrete Mathematica (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) ible by 3 from Equation (2) and X41) is divisible by 2. > Step Il : Conctaston S (n):n? ~ 4n’ is divisible by 3 for all n 2-2 by mathematical indoction pe Eee eee Ex. 1.14.12 : Use mathematical induction to show that Pita stide cnn tate( yet ae Soin. : Let, S(n): PAF ge EDM nee > Step1: Basis of Induction Check § (n) is true for: S(): LHS = ¢ RHS = n+ Hence, § (n) is true for > Step IT: Induction step Assume, S (a) is true for n =k S@:P-24F—a eee cor kk+ 1) eet AS --Q) Now, Check S (n) is true forn=k +1 Puede DR Shen: Pe CU G+ yk +2) (kt Ife ; +c) Solve LHS of above statement OED Chace oF .From Equation (2) =corarnitraen] eee ngs nfE2] = ey = Required RHS > Step III : Conclusion ae. 2 Hence, S (a): 1°=27437— ED len = enn nae, is true by mathematical induction rove by Mathematica Tato tt fo Tels 262143 -T etme ole (as ty Soin. n> Let, Sin): 12142-24331 > Step I: Basis of induction +nent=(ne tiny 4) Check S(n) is te for n= 1 So, LHS = Ie Mal, RHS = (1+ 1)l-1=2!- LHS = RHS Hence, S(a)is tue for > Step IT: Induction step Assume S(n) is true for a = k Sk): 1142-21433 4 HR OKI (K ND IOy ~Q) Now, check S(n) is tue forn =k + 1 SQ +1): 1-12-24 3-3l4 Ke RL +(k+ ID (k+ UIs (k+2)I-1 Solve above statement by taking LHS SU ME2-214 3-31 REREAD K+ DL f SuRSeseSBeSSgS senSseae 7 = k+ DI-1+ k++ DE K+ 2) (kt DIT = k+DI-1 = Required RHS > Step HI: Conclusion S(o): 1-1 +2-2143-314...¢nemle (ne la is true by mathematical induction Ex. 1 the help of mathematical induction prove that 83° is mulpe of 5, for n 1. © soin.: Let, S(n):8"—3" is multiple of S forn= 1 > Step I: Induction Basis Check $ (a) is true for n= 1 S(1): 8'-3'=8-3=5, Here, 5is multiple by So, S (n) is true for n= 1 > Step Il: Induction step Assume, S (n) is true for n = k that is 8° —3* is multiple bys Now, check S (k + 1)is tue forn=k+1 Tech-Neo Pablications Were Autbors inspire iagoratioa =A SACHIN STAN VeatareDiscrete Mathomatics (SPPUAT-SEM 3) ™ saen: we steshoateates'(543)-363 = stese(e'3-3.3) 8t-5430'-3) = 56843658 5.843 Here, 5+ 8*is multiple by 5 and S* 3 is multiple by 5 ‘Therefore, S**"~3**" is multiple of S > Step I Conctusto (a): 8-3" is multiple of $ for n2 1 Peed ae SENT ma enL Bi Soln.: we sey: PaP eaten eteEBEUT > Step + Basis of Induction Check S$ (n) is true for m= 1 $0, LHS = V=t 1dseny _ (2) 4 is = CS) -(5) 3-1 LHS = RHS, Hence, $(n) is te for n > Step II: Induction step ‘Assume, S (a) is rue for n= k Now, prove $ (n) is tue forn =k +1 141 Sat Theor (1 Som) Unit Ex, 1.14.16 : Show that : leby FY 25 forall natural number n. ae Soin. : Let, S (a) : 74 Q)"7?- Gy" isdivisible by 25 (1) > Step 1: Basls of Induction Check S (a) is tue for n= 1 (1): PD? 3%=9 4941+ 1 = 50 divisible by 25 So, S (n)is true for a= 1 > Step Il: Induction step Assume, $ (n) is tue for n Sw): THM isd Now. check S (n) is rue forn=K + 1 Stet) = PNM gpeeDe? gee! ore =P (7) +2 PCE LP ae Et = 4907 PEM gg (ZF) = 49-250 -49(27.36') 42.3 From Equation (2) ) eategt hat te by 25, @ =3.49-25C-49(2’ = 49-250-49 (279-38!) 424-2"? = 49+25C-25(2"7?-3"') Here, 49 -25C «divisible by 25 Sel): PHP4d stk +H)? 25 (287? -3*°') < divisible by 25 -[senesay > Step a 2 Conclusion : $ (n): 7 + 2°*~? « )*" is divisible by 25 by Solve LHS to get required RHS ‘mathematical induction, Ske): P+Peve oe sce? Ex. 1.14.17 : By using mathematical induction show that pepe ere (a beat i 1243+... +0282) for att naurat number values SEYF wer = tonsreine | 2 eur Esaen] som: a LV afte i Let (0) 2142434 en ED eal) =I) [E4] ser (e] 2 ‘ > Step: Basis of induction =[e4 +297 required RHS Check S (o) is tue form =1 tis = 1, rHs-14 2. > Step IIT : Conclusion LHS = RHS so given $a) 217422 37+ 0 [2S UP iste | Hens So) iste for : ray > Step IT: Induction step y See Assume S(o) is true for n =k Teoh Neo Peliations Where Actors inspire inoraton A SUCHIN STAI Veatare[Blovecroto matnomaties (SPPUAT-SEM 3) Thos we get 1 SO) 2142434. 4k MED =) Now, check S(n) is true for n =k + 1 from Equation (1), (ks +2) Sh+Nil4 243+ tke (kel 2 Now, solve the LHS of above statement SHI 2 142434 kE (KEL) amine = ERED set + From Bquation 2) - AK +1) + 2k +1 2 = GADD _uisorsik+1) > Step M1: Conclusion : S(n):1+2+3+...+ seh is true using mathematical induction, Ex, 1.14.18 : Prove by mathematical induction : ia 8 13°35 * QD Gat Ine OMe! Soin. : Le, Sq: eo em 1-3 *3.5*@n-D@aeh “aed ~() > Step 1: Basis of Induction ‘Check S (n) is wue forn=1 sd): 1 1 US= Gana y = 3 1 RES = Hence $ (n) is true for > ‘Step IL: Induction step Assume S(n) is true fora =k sw@:co yy Ek 16373.5 (2k-1) (2k + 1)=2k+7 Now, have to prove $ (n) is true forn =k +1, ken: 1 SOT 355 ORD 2) +o Fe Pk+D-NRED +H “Bese ‘Solve LHS of above statement Lo 1 13 *Qk- Gk 1 * RaFD-TRarDey ‘Tech-Neo Publications Where Authors inspire aooratioa Sot Theo, 1.42 by ; ey go = el tke N-URK+NeN * om Bata 1 1 ] = ike «eae Ass 2(k+1)-1 = Qk+) y Uk+DHL = 243 1 kaxeao1) 1 (2S = aL kes JP WT aa I kQk+1 +t) = 2keIL” 2k+3 1 2b 1) (kb [eet] > KAT 2k +3 Lakes. k+l > Fee per > Reaired RHS > Step II: Conclusion : Hence S(n) is true by mathematical indi, | Ex. 1.14.19 Prove by mathematical induction, forn>g tant! T-a | Sn): Ttataha ota” © somn.: Given: S(o):1+a¢a'+... 4a" ol) > Step 1: Basis of induction | Check, S(n) is true for For n=0, LHS. } LHS.=RAS, Pen - | | 14a) (1 +a) T-a> (1 a) +a “LHS=RHS Here, S(n) is true for o ) 1 that is S(O), S(1) are true, > Step Il: Induction step Assume, S(n) is true for n= (some value of n) So, Si): ttataty tat of) | check, S(n) is true forn =k + 1, | tet Sk+ 1st batars tata att! Sk+D:1eatate pate att | ~=A SACHIN SHAH Vets | |Discrole Mathomatics (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) 143 ‘Sot Thoory (In Som) Salve above equation by taking LIULS. Unit tatae.ceated Hence, (k-+ 1)*~ Gk + 1)is divisible by 5. safom Equation (2) |» Step IIL: Conetusion > Step Il: Conclusion ‘This show that, S(n) is true for n = k then it is also true forn=k+ 1. ‘Thus, by using mathematical induction, S(a) is true for every integral valve of n. Ex. 1.41420 : Prove that for any positive integer n, the umber n' ~nis divisible by 5. @ son: S(a): n° — nis divisible by 5 > Step: Basis of induction Check, S(n)is rue n=1 So, putn=1 in S(0) S(1) 10° -0 = Ois divisible by 5 because, Ois divisible by every number : So, S(a) is true for n= 1 > Step IT: Induction step Assume S(a)is true for n =k sw Now, check S(a) is true forn =k-+1 Sik+1):(k+ 1)*~(k+1) SURFS KFS 45, 45K +S.) +D Sk is divisible by 5 mo K+ Sk'4 10k + 10K 4 Sk-+ 1-k=1 C=combination a! > @=n) Ix) OPW) SR + 2k + 2k +] Here, (k° — k) is divisible by 5. (Assumed when ‘This show that S(n) is tre for n = k then it is also true fornek +1 ‘Thus, by using mathematical induction S(n) is true for every integral value of n ned Ex. 1.14.21 : Prove that for n2 1 by using mathematical induction Soln, 2 2 faa Sie) 3+ Bett a > StepI: Basis of induction Check S(n) is ve for n= 1 Put, n= 1 in Equation (1) S():3= LHS, Heo oP 3 RHS 2 RHS Here, LHS, Hence S(1) is true. > Step IT: Induction step Assume, S(n) is true for n= k +02) Set 2 Now check S(n) is tue for n=k+1 2 800: 5 +954 sern:ded 5k! + 2k? + 2k? + kl] is also divisible by 5. Teche Publications —— Where Authors inspire innovation “=A SACHIN SHAH VeorureBlower vatnomatc SPPU-T-SEM 9) 144 Sot The9Fy (In Sem (2k+4~k-1 =2- [73st-2] ts 22-(S8) anus Conclusion This, show that S(n) is true for n = k then it is also true ‘Thus, by using mathematical induction, S(n) is true for every integral value of n. for Ex. 1.14.23 : Let n be a positive integer. Show thay any 2° x 2° chessboard with one square removed can be coverey by L-shape pieces, where each piece covers three squares atime. © sotn. : Let. S(o) be the proposition that any 2° x 2° chess boary with one square removed can be covered by L-shape piece, > Step 1: Basis of induction Check, S(a) is tue for n= 1 S(1) + Implies that any 2 x 2 chessboard with one square removed can be covered using L-shaped pieces P(1) is true, as shown in Fig. P. 1.14.23. Bx 1.14.22: Show that, 1942743744 9) = OED © sotn.: Dept S(0): PsP 434... 4a DOr call) 4 > StepI Basis of induction Check, S(n) is tue for n= 1 Therefore, put n= 1 in Sin) LHS=> Pst tant Rus= -Gt) L Hence, S(n) is true for n= 1 Assume, S(n) is true for n = . Now, check S(n) is true for Sk+: PHP 43s. kts te? 4 Sk+ PHP HD+ hs ey? “a Solve LHS of S(k-+ 1) Sk+: PHP are .+R 4 (k+1)? a8 as saer [Learn] 2 Face? Skt ees] ooo RHS > Step HI: Conclusion This show that S(o) is tue for n = k then it is also true for n= k + 1. Thus, by using mathematical induction S(n) is true for every integral value of n RHS uf) ske+l. ++ (41) Ree? aca Fig. P. 1.14.23 > Step IT: Induction step Assume S(n) is true for n = k that is any 2 x 2! chessboard with one square removed can be covered using L-shaped pieces. Now, we have to check that S(n) is tue for n =k + 1 that is S(k + 1) is, tue. For this consider a 2¢*! x 2**! 24 chessboard with one square removed, Divide the chessboard into four equal 2° halves of size 2" x 2* as shown in Fig. P. 1.14.23(a), Fig. P.1.14.23(@) The square which has been removed, would have beea removed from one of the four chessboard say S,. Then by induction hypothesis, S, can be covered using L-shaped Pieces. Now, from each of the remaining chessboard, remove that particular piece or tile, lying at the centre ofthe large chessboards. gy te 2 a Fig. P.1.14.23() ‘Then, by induction hypothesis each of these 2* x chessboards with a piece or tile removed can be covered by the L-shaped pieces. Also the three tiles removed from the Tech-Neo Publications ——— Were Authors inspire innovation ‘=A SAGUIY STAB Veotarefa Discroto Mathomatics (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) *d by one L-shaped piece. Hence, the can be covered by L-shaped Hence Proved. Fi. 1.14.24 : Using mathematical induction show that 1 @n-1)Qn+1) =F A +1 @ sotn. Given Sia): 1 a Gr-N@ath “nat ) > Step 1: Basis of induction Check S(a) is tue for n= 1 at td LHS = GHAI “HH “3 Here, LHS 1 RS = T4773 Sin) is wve form =1 > Step I: Induction step ‘Assume, $(0) is tue forn =k 1 1 Ak 577 * GRD AR HHT (2) 1 @k-N AK poe el * PRED AK DSN ~2k+ FT WS Solve LHS of above equation 7 RMS * EG DMR DT 1 + Oke Gk+3) > RT KQk+ 1) 2k+3) +041 = RkFT Ok+ 1 AK+3) Ok 1) Ik Ok+3)+ 1 > QAI) OR + 1) RRS) 2 eskel — _OADOSD = Bs CFD > (244 1) C+) ST I > Step IIL: Conctuston is show that S(o) is true for n = k then itis also true +1. ‘Thos, by using mathematical induction S(n) is true for ‘every integral value of n, forn= Ex, 1.14.25 : Show that for any positive integers, (117+ (12) Tis divisible by 133. © soin.: Sea): 11)" 74 12°" “is divisible by 133. > Step 1: Basis of Inductton Forn=0, (1N)'+ (12)! = 121-412-133 Which is divisible by 133 Forn= 1, (11)'+(12)' = 133141728 = 3059 So, S(n)is tre for n =O and 1 > Step Il: Induction step Assume, S(n) is true for sqm) (1h? now, check S(o) is true for n= k+ 1 S&ED: AN ?*4 darn! . Sat }e's "12 > (11-1) 4 144.1297 = at??4 0334112" Tint?4 111244 13312"! Van? ¢ 12°) 4133.12" Here, 11*? 4 12**!— divisible by 133 (Assumed inn =k) 133.12"! divisible by 133 ‘onclusion =U 12)" is: Ex. 1.44.26 : Use mathematical induction to show that in (a? ~ 1) is divisible by 24 where n is any odd positive number. © sotn.: Given : n+ (n° ~ 1) is divisible by 24 where n is any dd positive number. => (n° =n) is divisible by 24 = Sn): (nn) ASCH SHAD VeatareDiscroto Mathomatics (SPPI > Step 1: Basis of Indu Cheek s(0) is tue for n syst Here 0 is divisible by 24, SQ): Y-2 = 24, 24 is divisible by 24, > Step IU: Induction step Assume, S(n) is tye for n= k. Stk) : k—kisdivisible by 24 Now check, S(n)is tue for n= K+ 1 SEN CHIP e+) W439 ake Tk Wa dhl 2k (RK) 9K) 4 Bk kt k > (Wk) AK + Ok WC) + 3k(k+ 1) ae Le ) > > Ak + 1) is multiple of 8, for k2 3 Prom Equation (1) We C\+3+(8°C) W-C\+ 2 (C+) WG, So, Stk + 1) true because 24 + C, is divisible by 24. Hence, > Step HT: Concluston Sin) : nfe? — 1) = a? any odd positive integer. = nis divisible by 24 where n is x, 1.14.27 : Show that for natural no, Peeve & sotn. : > Step 1: Basis of Induction Let $(): 142743 +t 424.4? +m e424... 40) (1) Check S (n)is true for small value of i.e. LHS = =I, RHS= P= Here, LHS = RHS So, $ (n)is wue for n= 1 > Step It: Induction step Assume, $ (n) is wue for n=k 1-46 S01 Theor Son S05): PHP 4S Ho APMED yt Now, we have to show that $ (n) is tue for n= k + 1 So,putn = k +E InS(n) a then S(k+ I: Pa2ave ek #(Ke 1)! = (1424. 4(K 4 1)? Now, lets start from LHS of S (K + 1) S(K+1) = PHP 444K H(K EL) aS a(lt24..4 1)74+ 06+ 1) — by Equation area 2 RO aay 2 (424. +n) Aor Pea (K+ 1) wor[S + us ] a ae gy? 4K +4] _(K4+1 = (ca 17 [EARS] Ke Ue ah (142434..4(K4 DP = RHS,S (n) is tue forn=K +1 > Step UT: Conclusion SQ): PH P4744 (1424.04) iste by mathematical induction, meu umber. ofelements of A. 2 AAC Dand BCA then, A=B : 3. WACBand BCC then ACC % 4. AGA, (every setts. subsel of iielf) 5. @ 55 \(oull set isa subset of any set) 6. MAB andB SA, then, A and B are disjoint set 7. Related to unton operation AUB=(xIxe Aorxe B) AUG =A ‘Teeh-Neo Publications — Where Authors inspire innovation A SAQHN STM YestareDscrrte Mathematics (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) 4 2.1 INTRODUCTION = Logic is a fundamental concept for mathematical reasoring. = Logic is very important to understand: mathematical statements, = The rules of logic helps us to understand complex mathematical statements about reasoning. = In computer science field, it has many practical applications including designing of computing machines, artificial intelligence, computer programming, designing of algorithms and many more. = Proofs are the base of understanding correct mathematical arguments = Proofs are used to prove a mathematical statement is true or not. Once it is proved true, then we call it as theorem. = Itplay important rule in computer science field. In fact, to verify that computer programs produce the correct, ‘output for all possible input values, to check algorithms always produce the correct result, to implement the security of a system. In this chapter, we will learn about what makes up comect mathematical argument and will introduce techniques to constructs these arguments. i 2.2 PROPOSITION Definition: Proposition or. statement is. a| declarative sentence which is either true or| false, but not both at the same time. = Tounderstand the defi 0 ion, lets take some examples, Mumbai is a capital of Maharashtra, Tee floats in water. Gi) 2+3=6 Gv) Teil rain tomorrow. @) 342=5 From the above examples, it can be understand that, ‘example number (j), (i) and (v) are propositions which holds TRUE VALUES. Other side, example number (ii) also a proposition which holds FALSE truth value. In example (iv), it’s truth value can not be predicted at this moment, it will be definitely determined tomorrow rin future. So it is a statement or proposition. ~ Eg (i, Gi), (ii), Gv), (¥) are propositions. Tecb-New Publications Where Authors spire innovation 23 ‘and Proofs (In Som) Lets take another set of examples (Whats your name ? Gi) Where are you going ? Gil) x43=8, In example (iii), It's truth value depends upon the value of x. If x = 5, the sentence is true, if x # 5, then the sentence is false. So it is not proposition. While example, (i) and (ii) are not statement or Proposition since it was question sentence. 2.2.1 Notations used for Proposition ‘The proposition usually denoted by capital letters or small letters ¢.g. A,B,C, ... 0F B,C, ane ‘The truth value of particular true statement is denoted by ‘T’ or ‘I’. While false statement is denoted by ‘F* or - Examples (@)_ P:3+2=5, which holds true value. «i , which holds false value. ii) x : Delhi is capital of India, which holds true value. % 2.2.2. Examples Based on Proposition Ex.2.2.1 : Use: p :| will study discrete structure 4: Twill goto a movie +: amin a good mood. Write the English sentence that corresponds to each of the following : @-r3q © soin.: Let, pI will study discrete structure 4:1 will go toa movie F:Tamin a good mood. @ -r3q if 1 am not in good mood then I will go to a movie. (i) -qap 1 will not go to movie but I will study discrete sturcture. Gi) ~qap Gil) q>~p (iv)-p>~ Gi) q>-P If I will go to a movie then I will not study discrete structure, A SACHIN SHAH Veature UnitDescroto hathomatics (SPP IT-SEM 3) () -poer TEL will not study discrete structure then {am not ta ___ wim Bx 222: Trandate into symbolic form (Atul and Ram going to movie. GH He run fast while he went to ground. Gi AniLiscich but unhappy. © son. (ps Atal going 10 movie GD _ qs Ram going to movie. Here, Atul and Ram, bath are going t movie, So, it can be written in symbolic form as: paq Gps Herun fast, 4: He went to ground, Here, p and q are happen at the some time, So, It ean tbe written as : Pag ii) ps Anitis rich, 4: Anil is unhappy Itean be writtenas. paq Be 229: Using the following statements 1p: Ragini is hand worker. q: Ragin is intelligent Write the following statements in symbolic form, @ Raging is handworker and intelligent, Gi) Ragin’ is hardworker but not intelligent. Tis false that Ragin is not handworker or intelligent. Gv) Ragiai is bandworker or Ragi inteligent. © son: @ pag ) pana i) —(-pyva@) @) PycPad Ex 2247 Using the following statements p: The food is good. 4: The service is good. 2 The rating is three - star. Write the following statements in symbolic form. (i) Either the food is good, or the service is good, or both. (Gi) Either the food is good or the service is good, but not both. is not hard worker and 24 270 Pro0ts (In Seny (lily The food Is good while the service Is poor. iv) It is not the ease that both the food is goog and rating is three sta. (w) If both the food and services are g00d, thea the rating will be three-star. (vi) Te isnot true that a three star rating always ‘means good food and good service. @ sotn.: @ pva diy @VMA~@A) dy pa-a is) -(@AD M @AMrr (WI) ~ > PAA) Ex. 2.25: Let, p? The material is interesting. 1: The exercise are challenging. : The course is enjoyable. Write the following statement in symbolic form. (a) The* material is interesting and the exercise are challenging. (b) The material is uninteresting, the exercise are not challenging, anu the course is not enjoyable. (©) If the material is not interesting and the exercises are nt challenging, then the course is not enjoyable. (@) The — material is interesting means the exercises ure challenging, and conversely. (©) Either the material is interesting or the exercises are not challenging, but not both. Soln.: @ pag © Cpa-g—-r fe) (pv~a)a(-pva) Ex. 2.26: Let p: The weather is nice, 4: we have a picnic, ‘Translate the following in english and simplify if possible. ) (PAC DACD @ peq @pr-a pq ~4>-P W)-CPva*~@A-” © son: : (_pA~4q: The weather is nice but we do not have a picnic. (il) p eq: If the weather is nice then we have a picnic and conversely. (li) ~q> ~ pf we do not bave a picnic then the weathet is not nice. Gv) © pv a) - [- (pa ~ gp] : The weather is nice but ‘we do not have a picnic. ‘Tech Nco Publications Where Authors inspire inoovatioa A SICHN SHAH Featereal Discrote Mathomatics (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) (©) tnverso ~ The inverse obtained by negating both hypothesis and conclusion of a conditional statement. If p+ qis conditional statement then inverse of it will be-po-q. - Example: Ifp—>q : If itis raining then the grass is wet. Inverse is, ~ p> ~ qs “Ifitis not raining then the grass is not wet.” [Note : Proposition may be true but i's inverse may be falso, = Inshort, Statement Ifp, then q Converse fg, then p Inverse Ifnot p, then not q Contrapositive Ifnot q, then not p [rote . l1. -A conditional. statement and it's contra positive are| ‘equivalent. nts 2 The converse and the inverse of a conditional statement! ‘are also equivalent, : Ex, 2.5.1 : Write contrapositive, converse and inverse forms of the following statement if 3 Given, if 3 () Contrapositive (1 (pag) 2-r>epv~a) Thatis, ifsin¥ #4 then 3> bor 1+ 122 (i) Converse r3@Aq) Thatis, ifsinG => then 3~F a That is, f32 bor 1 +1 #2then sing #3 Ex. 252 1 The converse of statements is given. Wrie inverse and contrapositive statements (i) If he is considerate of others, then a man is g gentleman. (ii) Ia stee! rod is stretcher, then it has been heated. © som. : Let, the converse of statements is () Ihe considerate of others, then a man is a gentleman Here, a: Amanis gentleman b : Heis considerate of others that is b—> a ~b— ~aif he is not considerate of others then Inverse + a men not a gentleman. Contrapositive ~asnb If a man is not gentleman then he is not considerate of others. (i) If steel rod is stretcher, then it has been heated a: Steel rod is stretchable = Ithas been heated Converse: bra Inverse; ~a~b It the steel rod is not stretchable then it has not been heated Contrapositive :~b——a If the steel rod has not been heated then it is not stretchable Here, Ex. 25.3: Write converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following : (i) IFtoday is easter, then tomorrow is monday. (i) Hea triangle is not isosceles, then it is not equilateral (ii) If nis prime, then nis odd or nis 2. © son. : (Converse + If tomorrow is Monday, then today is Easter. Inverse : If today is not Easter then, tomorrow is not Monday. Contrapositive : today is not Easter. If tomorrow is not Monday then ‘=a SACHIN SHAH Venture Lople and Prool (In SonDiscrete Mathomatics (SPPI M9) (i) Converse + If tangle Is not equilateral wen it Js not isosceles Inverse : Ia triangle Is isosceles then it i equilateral. Contrapositive + If a triangle is equilateral then It is isosceles. (i) Converse If n is odd or nis 2 then n is prime, Inverse : If nis not odd or nis 2 then n is prime, Contrapositive : If nis odd and n fs not 2 then nis not prime. Pre Ex. 2.54: Write the contrapositive, inverse, converse and negation of following sentence. “fx is rational, then xis real”. © soln. : Let, P: xis rational, q: xis real. In symbolle form: pq (© Contrapositive -a>-P) That is, “IF x is not real, then x is not rational”, (Inverse -p>-4a That is, “IF x is not rational, then x is not real”, (W) Converse ap That is, “Ix is real then x is rational”, (is) Negation ~~ >~P-PYg=>pr~q ‘Thats “x is rational and not real”. wi 2.6 TRUTH TABLES - Truth table is mathematical table which is used to find truth value of compound statement. ‘As truth table has rows and columns. The rows contain the Boolean logic true or false values while columns ‘contains list of premises as well as conclusion. - Truth table uses five basic operations including conjunction, disjunction, negation, conditional and bi-conditional. If statement or proposition contain a distinct variables then there will be 2” possible values. 209 1 2. z "© Examplos Proots (In £ Conjunetton (p 4.4) JP} od) pad) jr) tT) 7 | jr jeje | Pere Pee Disjunction (p vq) pila y. T|T| T [tir } 7 oe ee [e[r] P Nogation Pi~Pt Tir FUT Impltcatton (pq) plalp—a T|T| T rle[ F\T T rlelt Blimplication pilaiperq pe hae Tir F F\T iJ . tele[ t NOR (pq) plalpta See re F(t| F Flel tT XOR (pq) [p | a | nye T|T| F |T|F\ F[t| T Fiel & ‘Tech-Neo Publications. Where Authors inspire innovation A SIU SIA[Boiscrote Matnomatics (SPPU-T-SEM 9) 214 Logic and Proots (in Sem 1 2.14 NORMAL FORMS = While finding, whether given statement is tautology or contradiction or contijency, We use the truth tables. If statement has n distinct variables then truth table will have 2" possible combination of truth valves. ~ But, if number of variables are more, then constructing, ‘uth table is not convenient or impractical. = To resolve the above mentioned issue, normal form will be the best choice to find truth values or to declare given statement tautology of contradiction or not. = In normal form, a formula which is a conjunction (product) of the variables and their negation is said to be an fundamental product. CB. P.~Pi~PAGPA~G~PA~GeUe. = Inthe same way, a formula which is disjunction (sum) of the variables and their negation is said to be an fundamental sum, 8 P~Pe~PYGPYGPY~Gete. 2.14.1 Types of Normal Form 2.14.2 Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF) = A:statement form which consist of a disjunction (v) of fundamental conjunctions (A) is called a disjunctive normal form. ~ —Itis abbreviated as DNF. = Examples @ (enn, v_, (ena, SEG erga disjunction (Conjunction) @ @rdv@v-qap)= Disjunctlon (v) of fundamental conjunction (A) Gil) Cpany(-qanven ‘= Rules to find disjunctive normal form (DNF) of given statement (i) Replace conditional (+) or bi-conditional (4) by using logical connectives ~, a , v etc. like Tech-Neo Publications Where Authors inspire innovation poqe-pyg.perascPpy@awey-@ (i) Use De-Morgans law to eliminate ‘-" before sum er product. (iii) Apply distributive laws repeatedly and eliminate product of variables to obtuin the required norma) form. Ye 2.14.3 Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) A sstatement form which consist of a conjunction (a) of fundamental disjunction (v), is called conjunctive ‘normal form. — Ibis abbreviated as CNF. ‘= Examples @ pa(pva) Here p and (p v q) are combined using conjunction Hence it is conjunction of disjunction. a“ (vaqvin A Pvi a y-qv % 2.14.4 Problems Based on Normal Form Ex 2.14, (i) Find DNF of :((p> QA @> PVP (i) Find CNF of: pes (-pv-q) & son: @ Le (@>aa@>p)vp (Gpyq@at-qvp))vp a-bs-avb (GPA-@vQa~Qvi-pap)y@ap))¥P distributive law p (qv 1) = (pag) (PAN) = -pa-dv®vHvengv(p) absorption law pv (pa@=P 2 Cpa-gvep) = Required DNF A SACHIN SHAH ear& scrote Mathomatics (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) 215 Logic and Proots (In Som) @ ue pocpy-a = PYEPY~@)A(~Y~(-pv—q) . pe aa(-pyaawv-q (-pvPpv~@)a(pvipag) (pyepy-@) AP (-py-p)v-a)ap= -PY-a) A(P) * pv p=p absorption law pv (p-Aq)=p = Required CNF Fx 2142 + Obuain the conjunctive normal form and Gjonctive normal form of the following formulae given teow: @ pPAer® © soin.: 0 pae>” pat-pvq)@ CNF @r-Pvera ®vera (@AQeDNE -@vdeCrsD --@vMY OAD AL-Cvgv- Org) Speqecpy@agv-o (@vdv erg) ale pv-Mv Pag} WW --=p Gi) -E¥YeE~ag “2 @A~p) = Contradiction “pv F=p (identity law) yveBuuy u lev@lalpy~ay~p)apv~qv-@) 2 distributive law “ PYP=P S PAP=P lev@lal-py-gaCpy~o) (evga(-py—q)=CNF Further, levglal-py-@) > l@vga~ply((pvq)a~q) distributive law (@a-pyvqa~p)lv(pa~a)¥(an-4a)] “S distributive law 2 [Mv @a-Plvier-dvP) ce “Negation law: pa~p=F > Wan~pviipa~a) => DNF -2 pv F=p (Identity law) Ex. 2.143 + Find the conjunctive and disjunctive normal forms for the following without using uth tables @ G>MrarP) Gi) (@AP>M>9 @ sotn.: ® @>9aG>P) > CPvaarcave) Spoastcpy@ = CNF Fore, (-pva)a(-avp) > Icpv@a-alvicpvanpl *» distributive law n over v = IC PA-MIviga~@l vi papry @ap)l “: distributive law» over v = [GPr-9VPlviAyviprg +s Negation law ~ pap => F = CPA-Mv(Prg “2 Identity law pv Fs p > DNF W @rQr>no > ~(rcpvanva p3a=-pva = bpy-Cpvalva > CPver-av@ = DNF Further, (-p)v(pa~@v@) = Cpvpacpy-av@ vopypsT > Maqv-avep) = MaMvep) = M=@v-p) = CNF (ingle disjunct) Ex, 2.14.4 Find DNF of ((p—> @) 4 (a PY) P © sot (@>9AG>P)vP => [epvaacavplyp Spo qstpya => (pyCpyalalpyGavp)) ibutive law v or a = (pv~p)valal@vp)v-aq) = [Mv@]alr)v(-@] ¥ py~p=Tandp vp=P = Maev-9 Identity law pv T=T = Vea “ Edentity taw => DNF paT=p oe ‘Tech Nea Pablcatioos__—— Where Authors inspire lonovalion A SHUN SHAH YeatareDiscrete Matherates (SPPUAT-SEM3) 246 Logic and Proofs (In Som Ex2145 2 Fiod the conjunctive normal form and disjunctive normal form for the following : WOv-939 Gi) Popv-a © sotn.: @ @v-g>4 = -ey-ova “pq=-pva = Cpagva = DNF Further, (-pagyvq > Cevaaqva Distributive law => ©pvqaq@=>CNF @ pecpy-@ = Lpvepv-alat-Cpy-ovpl <“peqe(-pygaCavp) = (Cpy-pyv-alatipagvel ““pyp=p > [epy-@al@vp) aye) _ ~ distributive law > CPv-@al)a(avp) > CNF Punter, ((-pv-q)a(p)la(qvp) = UGPAPYGaApACyp) —~ distibutive law = (PvCaaplacve) pA~p=F > Canpataved “Identity aw ‘pyF=p = Caapadyanpar) => (ap)v-anp) = ®Mv-qap) 2 Identity law DNF Ex 2146 : Obtain CNF of qv (pa G1 somn: Given: gvipn-qve-pa-a = lavpaav-Qivi-pa~q Disubutive aw vover a => @vp)aM)v(-pa~q) => (qvp)v(-pa-q => @vpy~p)aqvpv-q = @vMaMvp) => Mam => T=(@v~p) & Single disjunct. => CNF legation law pv—q=T “r Mdentity law pT =p Ex. 2.14.7 : Obtain the CNF of (pagar) v (Pag) Soln. Given: tpaganveend = [pyvpaaanlalay(-praan) -! distributive law v over 4 = [v= p) Alera) a rl] ALY-P)A (Qv™ A(qv en) * distributive law v over a > [Maevaa@valalav-Pa@aqvn) L > @v@acvnay~pai@ “S Absorption law p 4 (p vq) =p = OF iple DNF of (~ pq) > (= pany -pv—g)>(-pan pv-Q)v (pan) @AMvepan = Spa=-pvq = DNF Further, (pag (Pan) @aqatey~mv(-paraq@v-9) (@AGANY(PAQV~DV(~parag) vepara—q) Principle DNF Ex.2.14.9: Find te disjunctive normal form @ @>9ACPAD & som.: Crvaacrag > CPA~PAMvgn~pag uv = CPpagva@a-p) SP AP=P => DNF Ex. 2. + Find the principle CNF of (p a q) v (- pan). © sotn. : Given: @rgvepan = [PAQY~plalea@vel “- distributive law v over a = [©Y-P)A@Y-PIAlEvN AVN) > IMaq@v~plalevanavey > @v-Pa@vanavn TTech-Neo Publications Where Authors inspire innoration A SACHIN SHAD Veotare247 Logle and Proots (In Sem) al Discrote Mathematics (SPPU-IT-SEM 3) 2B QV-PV(EA~M) AYE (Aq) A@vEV(pA~p)) => I@v-PYNA@y~py-Nalipvrvg) a(pyrv~Q)alavryp)aqvrv~p)] istributive law = PvavdAcPYaviacpvay=r) a@v-av => Principle CNF » 2.15 METHODS OF PROOF In mathematics, definition of any concept need not to be proved. But theorems or arguments need to be proved for their validity. ‘There is requirement of drawing a conclusion from given premises or axioms for proving a theorem. = We take certain statements, which are true and then derive other statements whose truth value is going to be established. = The process of deriving a conclusion from a set of premises and fact or axioms by using the standard rules of inference, is called a formal proof or deduction. If premises (Initial collection of statements) are true, then the conclusion of the theorem is aiso true. ~ Lets see the formal definition of valid argument. % 2.15.1 Val ~ Valid argument is a finite sequence of statements Sy, Argument Sp Sy we Sy called as premises together with a statement C, called a conclusion such that S$, AS; AS; A... AS, —> Cis a tautology. €8. (Sj Sp Sy, S,) are premises. ~ _ Ifpremises are true then conclusion also be true. ~ Thatis, & & 8, > Setof statements Se ‘C — Conclusion ‘Tech-Neo Publications Where Authors inspire innovation Unit % 2.15.2 Examples Based on Methods of Proof Ex 2.15.1 : Determine the validity ofthe argument S, All my friends are musicians. . S, :John is my friend, S,:None of my neighbours are musicians. S$ : John is not my neighbours. © sotn. : Convert above given statements or arguments into propositions. Lets, _p: Ally fiends are musicians. 44: John is my friend, 1: My neighbors are musicians. john is my neighbour. + SD Sig Syne ‘The above mentioned arguments can be represented in ‘symbolic form. So, Pp 4 -s As all my friends are musicians and John is my friend ‘which implies that Jobn is musician. pAq—> John is musician. pAqa~r-> John is musician and my neighbours are ‘not musicians. PAQA~r—>John is not my neighbour. PAqa-1->~Sis true, So the given argument is valid. Determine whether the following is a valid Ex. 2.184 argument : If Shilpa goes to class, she is on time. But Shilpa is late. She will therefore miss class. © som. ‘The given arguments will be written as: : Shilpa goes to class. 4: Shilpa is on time. ‘The above statements can be written in symbolic way. pra =4 -P ‘According to modus Tollens or law of contrapositive IF (p>) 4-4 > ~pisa tautology. Hence, the given argument is valid. A SACHIN SHAT Veatare[eloiscrote Mathematics (SPPU-T-SEM 9) brilliant” where Atul is a member of the universe of discourse of all students. — Theabove example, represented in symbolic form as Wx Ply Pa) = Here, (a) is some element of the universe. © (2) Rule 2: Existential Instantlation = This rule of inference, conclude that there exists an clement (a) in the universe for which P (a) is tre, if the premise 3 x P (x) is tue. = Symbolically. itis represented as 3xP(x) Poa) Where, (a) is some element for which P (a) is truc. = (3) Rule 3 : Universal Generalization = This rule of inference is used to prove that Wx p (x) is ‘rue when P (a) is true for all the elements (a) belongs to universe. ~The selected element (a) must be an arbitrary element, not a specific element of the universe. = Itis represented as, PCa) Zvxp@ t= (4) Rule 4 : Existential Generalization = This rule is used to conclude that, if one element (a) in the universe for which P (a) is true, then 5x P (x) is trve. ~ Symbolically, itis represented as, Poa) 3x PG & Summary (i) Vx P(x) P(@) (Universal Lnstantiation) Gi) KPO) >P@ For some element (a) (Existential Instantiation) Gi) P(@) > VxP@) For an arbitrary (a) (Universal generalization) Gv) P (a) 9 x P(x) For some element (a) (Existential generalization) 2:22 Logic and Proofs (In Sern) Ya 2.19.1 Examples Basedon _ Predicates and Quantifiers wer the universe of book defined propositions, Ex.2.184 B(x): x has blue cover M(x): x is maths book (x): x published in India Translate the following VR (M() Ax) > BO) Gi) There are maths books published outside India. © soin. : Let, B(x): xhas blue cover M(x) : xis maths book I(x): xis published in India () Vs ( M(x) A108) > BO) ) “The maths book published in india have a blue colour. Gi) There are maths books published outside India. Gx) MO) A ~1C) Ex2te2: Let Pw Q(x) :x is a prime number. R(x y) x+y iseven, (a) Using the information given above write the following sentences in symbolic form. (i) Every integer is an odd integer. (Gi) Every integer is even or prime, ii) The sum of any two integers is an odd integers. @ sotn.: (For every element (say x) can be represented by Vx and for odd integer, negation of P(s). So, every integer is an odd integer can be represented as, even. Wx [~P(x)] il) For, every integer = Wx Foreven => P(x) For odd = Q(x), So, Wx [ P(x) v Q(x) ] Gif) The sum of any two integers is an odd integers. Vx Wy L-R& y)] Vx, kl=x. Gi) If there is a riot, then someone is killed. (ii) Its day light and all the people are arisen. Tech-Neo Pablications____ Where Authors inpire innovation —A SACHIN SHAH Ventreiseroto Mathematica (SPU: son ae @ Yalxi=x 2G) (1x14 x) @ ee vK(x #x) Guy if bere is dot. then ala alive, day ight and some on snot arisen, SEM3) % biod ; Write the following statements in symbolic fore, using quantifiers. (AU students ave taken communication skills. a course in (i) Tere is girl student in the class who is also 8 spoms person. (i Some students are intelligent but not hardworking soin.: Le (P(x) : Student x bas taken a course in communication skills. ‘The statement can be represented as, vs PG) (i) Le, P(x) :xisa student, Q(x) :xisa girl. R(x) :xisa sports person. x will be student, x will be gitl and x will be sports person. Hence, the given statement can be represented as, r @) A OG) ARG Gi) Let, p(x): xis intelligent. Q(x) : xis hardworking. ‘We know that, some x can be represented as 3x So, he given statement represented as Peo ee eee ee Ex 2195 : Represent the arguments using quantifiers and find it's correctness, All the students in this class understand logic. Ganesh is a student in this class. Therefore Ganesh ‘understands logic. Soln. : Let, P(x): xis a student in this class. Q(x) : x understands logic. 3 Prools (In Som) {In symbolic form, Wx (P(x) > QU) Pea) cay Here, “a” holds Ganesh. ‘The above inference, is Modus Ponen. ‘That's why, this argument is valid. el Ex. 2.19.6: Let, P(x): xiseven. Q(x) : xis a prime number. ROY): x+y iseven. Write an English sentence for each of the symbolic statement given below : @ ¥x-Q00] i) ~ [3x (PCa) 6 QGD)] © soin.: (All integers are not prime number. i) At least one integer is not even. ii) Ttis not the case that there exists. Gi) 3y- PO uae variables and pedentesyabol All birds can fly. Notall bits ean fy. Some men ae genes Some number ar not atonal ‘There isa sudeat who Ukes mathematics but not geography. (vi) Each integer is either even or odd. soins @ Le B(x) : xis aid. FQ) :xean fly. So, the given statement can be writen as : Wx (BQ) F@)) Gi) ~[¥x(BQ) > FOX) ] oF 3x [ BO) 0 FOR) (i) Let, M(x): xisamen. G(x) :xisa genius. ‘The given statement interpreted a5 = Bx (M(x) AGG) N(x): xis a number. R(x) : xis rational. > ~LVK (NG) > RO) Lor 3x [N@) A-ROD] (W) Let, S(x) xis a student, (M(x): x likes mathematics. (iv) Let, Tec-Nea Publications Where Authors inspire innovation G(x) : x likes geography. A SACHIN SHAH Veatare‘Then, 3x [ S(x) A M(x) A ~ G(x) | (vi) Let, I(x): x isan integer, E(x): xis even. O(x) : xis odd. Symbolic form x (1x) + E(x) v O(x)} Ex. 2.19.8 : For the universe of all integers, let P(x), Q(x), R(x), S(x) and T(x) be the following statements : Poy:x>0 Q(x) : xis even. R(x) : x is a perfect square. (x) : Kis divisible by 4, T(x) : xis divisible by 5. ‘Write the following statements in symbolic form : (i) Atleast one integer is even. There exists a positive integer that is even. If-xis even, then x is not divisible by 5. No even integer is divisible by 5. There exists an even integer divisible by 5. If x is even and x is a perfect square, then x is divisible by 4. ii) ww) w (wip 4 Logic and Proots (In Sa) & somn.: () QR) (iy) 9x [OK) > = THX) ] (y) Ix QCH) 4 TR) (ii) IL PX) AQ) | iv) %x [Q(x) > = Thx) | (vi) ¥x [QU # REX) ~» Stay Ex. 2.19.9 : Transcribe the following into logical notation Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers. (i) For any value of x, xis non-negative. (ii) For every value of x, there is some value of y such that nye (iii) There are positive values of x and y such that x y 29 (iv) There is value of x such that if y is positive, then x « y is negative. (v) For every value of x, there is some value of y such that x-y=l. © sotn, @ vx{220] Gi) Yx3y[x-y=1] Gil) 3 3y (>) A (y>0) Ay >0)] Gv) Ie ¥y[y>0) > + y <0] () Wee By[x-ye 1] Chapter Ends goo