Brehm - Targeting - TRAINEE PDF

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es
Justine Brehm Cripps
TARGETING THE SOURCE TEXT:

A Coursebook
in English
for Translator Trainees
E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.es

BIBLIOTECA DE LA UNIVERSITAT JAUME I. Dades catalogràfiques
BREHM, Justine
Targeting the source text : a coursebook in English for translator trainees / Justine Brehm
Cripps. — 2a ed. — Castelló de la Plana : Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I ; Madrid :
Edelsa, D. L. 2007
p. : il. ; cm. — (Universitas. Aprender a traducir ; 1)
Bibliografia.
ISBN 978-84-8021-891-7
978-84-8021-634-0 (UJI). — ISBN 978-84-7711-432-1 (Edelsa)
1. Traducció — Ensenyament. 2. Anglès – Traducció. I. Universitat Jaume I. Publicacions.
II. Sèrie.
82.035:37.02
811.111’25
Cap part d’aquesta publicació, incloent-hi el disseny de la coberta, no pot ser

reproduïda, emmagatzemada, ni transmesa de cap manera, ni per cap mitjà
(elèctric, químic, mecànic, òptic, de gravació o bé de fotocòpia) sense
autorització prèvia de la marca editorial
Primera edició: 2004

Segona edició: 2007
© Del text: Justine Brehm Cripps, 2007
© De la il·lustració de la coberta: Michael Brehm Cripps, 2007
© De la present edició: Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I, 2007
Edita: Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I

Servei de Comunicació i Publicacions
Campus del Riu Sec. Edifici Rectorat i Serveis Centrals
12071 Castelló de la Plana
Fax (34) 964 72 88 32
e-mail: publicaciones@uji.es - www.tienda.uji.es
Edelsa. Grupo Didascalia, S.A.

Plaza Ciudad de Salta, 3 – 28043 Madrid (España)
Tel. (34) 914 165 511 (34) 915 106 710
Fax (34) 914 165 411
e-mail: edelsa@edelsa.es - www.edelsa.es
ISBN 978-84-8021-891-7
978-84-8021-634-0 (UJI)
ISBN 978-84-7711-432-1 (Edelsa)
Dipòsit legal: CS-375-2007

http://dx.doi.org/10.6035/Universitas.AT.Manual.1
Imprimeix: Graphic Group, S.A.

I GETTING STARTED
TASK 1: CORRECTING STYLISTIC ERRORS
Worksheet 1:
Ambiguity, Absurdity
The following sentences and short texts, written by native English speakers, contain
stylistic errors. Locate, explain and correct the error in each case.
1. Flying planes can be dangerous.
2. We saw many bears driving through the forest.
3. (Sign seen on board an airplane): If you are sitting in an exit row and you cannot read
this card, cannot speak English, or cannot see well enough to follow these instructions,
please tell a crew member.
4. Mr. Yoshiko said the donkey owners should clearly state why they want to keep the
animals. “If they cannot give good reasons why they need the donkeys, then they will
be shot.”
5. It is estimated that one out of every one hundred women between the ages of 12 and
25 are anorexic, one out of seven are bulimic, and between five and ten percent are
male.
6. Visiting professors may be tedious.

22 JUSTINE BREHM CRIPPS
7. The chickens were too hot to eat.
8. (In a recipe): Mix gelatin as directed on box. Sit in refrigerator for about half an hour
till it starts to gel.
9. (In a doctor’s report): The patient was somewhat agitated and had to be encouraged to
feed and eat himself.
10. (In a doctor’s report): The patient was found to have twelve children by Dr. Smith.
11. (In a doctor’s report): On the second day the knee was better and on the third day it had
completely disappeared.
12. (Ad in newspaper): Remember: you get what you pay for. And at Hub’s Furniture Store,
you pay less.
13. (Want ad in newspaper): FOR SALE: Braille dictionary. Must see to appreciate! Call Jerry.
14. (Headline in newspaper): Man found beaten, robbed by police.
15. (Church newsletter): The Ladies’ Aid Society of Unitec Church will hold its annual potluck
dinner Saturday in the church hall. Dinner will be gin at 5:30 P.M.

GETTING STARTED 23
TASK 2: DETECTING AND EXPLANING TRANSLATION ERRORS
Worksheet 2:
I beg your pardon?
The following are evidently faulty translations containing mistakes of many different
kinds (e.g. spelling, grammar and nonsense errors) Locate, explain, and correct the errors
in each case.
1. (On the label of a tablecloth): This article has been made in our workshop using a high
quality fabrics stamped by hand. For this reason, it can be posible to found some litle
differences between the same article which it also makes the product more attractive.
2. (On the label of a “Lake City” brand T-shirt): After November ninetyone, LAKE CITY was
born. Tu see life. The new adventurer, stands by his range.
3. (In a multilingual brochure placed on the nightstand of a hotel in Castellón): We

welcome you and are pleased that you have chosen our hotel for your stay in Ibiza.
4. (In a brochure published by the Valencian Tourist Information Bureau): Prehistorical

Museum and of Valencia Culture: It exposes the fund most significatives of the
archeological excavations and contains the cultural evolution of our earth since the
paleontological era to the romans era. Moreover it exhibits abundants collections of
etnographical culture of the Valencian.

Text 1: Read the following text, paying special attention to the passages
highlighted in bold.
LOST IN THE TRANSLATION
According to the signs, foreign translators trying to accommodate their English-
speaking visitors may run into problems.
W
ith Americans making more and more trips speaking customers included “Children
abroad, it is interesting to note that foreign Sandwiches” and “Chopped Milk.”
nations are making greater attempts to 7) He said he could not bring home another offering
accommodate their English-speaking visitors. and declaration to tourists because the sign was
Unfortunately, there is still a significant language gap, nailed to the restaurant wall. It read: “You will be
and translations made into English by restaurants, singing the praises of the food served to you
hotels and stores often fall short of their intended here to your grandchildren even as you lie on
meaning, frequently with disastrous — and your deathbed.”
sometimes riotous — results. 8) A Russian linguist at All-Language Services told us
2) Patricia Besner, president of All-Language he stayed at a Moscow hotel where a notice
Services, a large translation firm based in New York, exclaimed: “If this is your first visit to the USSR,
recently asked several members of her staff to take you are welcome to it.”
note of any incorrect translations they might come 9) And when this Russian linguist was amusing a
across while traveling in their native countries. The Czech friend about the sign, he was given a laugh in
resulting list, she thought, might make future return when the friend reported to him that he had
employees more aware of the many pitfalls that seen a sign in Czechoslovakia that urged visitors:
translators face in their daily work. “Take one of our horse-driven city tours. We
3) Two absurdities came from clothing stores —one guarantee no miscarriages.”
from Italy and one from France. The Italian shop had a 10) A British-born employee of our organization was
sign in its window to catch the eye of the American amazed on his European tour when he passed a café
tourists. It read: “Dresses for street walking.” The in Warsaw that read, “Five o’clock tea served all
one in the Paris window said: “Come inside and hours.”
have a fit.” 11) A Romanian hotel, according to one of our
4) A staid Berlin hotel left a card in its rooms for translators, had its elevator broken. To let him and the
guests that said: “Because of the impropriety of other visitors know of the inconvenience, a sign was
entertaining guests of the opposite sex in the posted on the elevator door reading: “The lift is
bedroom, it is suggested that the lobby be used being fixed. For the next few days we regret that
for this purpose.” It may well have been the busiest you will be unbearable.”The guests probably were,
lobby in all of Germany. depending on what floors their rooms were located.
5) One airline advertised the “rendezvous 12) A Barcelona hospital let it be known to those
lounges” on its flights in Brazil and lost customers as coming to see patients that the rule was inviolate:
a result. The reason for this became clear when “Visitors: Two to a bed and half an hour only.”
someone finally remembered that “rendezvous” in 13) Perhaps the most amusing error was back in
Portuguese is a place to have sex. Paris, where one of our staff members saw a hotel
6) One of our translators who visited his homeland sign that sought to discourage Americans from
of Austria did more than jot down what he read on the wearing slacks in its plush dining room. It read, “A
menu for American tourists. He brought it back with sports jacket may be worn to dinner, but no
him to prove that, in Vienna, the fare for English- trousers.”

GETTING STARTED 25
Worksheet 2:
Translation Bloopers
The translation bloopers listed below have been extracted from Text 1. In the
space provided after each one, 1) give a brief explanation of what makes the error
funny, that is, explain what word or phrase has been used inappropriately, and 2)
suggest an alternative, sensible formulation of what you believe the translator’s
intended meaning was.
1. “Dresses for street walking.”
Why the translation is funny:
Alternative formulation:
2. “Come inside and have a fit.”
3. “Because of the impropriety of entertaining guests of the opposite sex in the

bedroom, it is suggested that the lobby be used for this purpose.”

4. “rendezvous lounges”
5. “Children Sandwiches”
6. “Chopped Milk”
7. “You will be singing the praises of the food served to you here to your
grandchildren even as you lie on your deathbed.”

GETTING STARTED 27
8. “If this is your first visit to the USSR, you are welcome to it.”
9. “Take one of our horse-driven city tours. We guarantee no miscarriages.”
10. “Five o’clock tea served all hours.”
11. “The lift is being fixed. For the next few days we regret that you will be
unbearable.”

12. “Visitors: Two to a bed and half an hour only.”
13. “A sports jacket may be worn to dinner, but no trousers.”

V GRAPPLING WITH GRAMMAR
TASK 1: GRAMMATICAL CALQUES AND ERRORS
Worksheet 1:
Each of the following sentences includes a mistake in grammar. Locate the
mistake in each sentence and correct it. The first one has been done for you as an
example.
1. It’s hard to pick up a newspaper these days without getting depressed, because
the news featured on the front page are generally full of sad stories about
unfortunate events.
MISTAKE: “the news ….are” CORRECTION: “the news…is”
2. Because we had spent too many time chatting and having coffee after lunch, we
were late for the afternoon meeting.
MISTAKE: ________________ CORRECTION: ___________________
3. The clothes at Saks Fifth Avenue are all too expensive for we to buy.
4. After she had bought himself two new lipsticks and some red nail polish, Beverly
decided to have her hair done.

5. The next thing we have to do is make up our minds where are we going for
vacation this summer.
6. Leslie hasn’t finished writing her thesis yet, and Mark hasn’t neither.
7. Gwen decided to sign up in the morning for aerobics classes, but in the afternoon
she changed her mind.
8. According to witnesses, the man seen running away from the scene of the crime
looked very much like Antonio Banderas, which is why the police is questioning
the famous actor at his summer home in Marbella.
9. After Enrique Iglesias finished his concert in Madrid last night, he was drinking
an entire bottle of wine all by himself.
10. Many theories regarding the disappearance of Atlanta has been proposed, but
not one has been as widely accepted as the Kalliste theory.
11. The soup that Karen is making in the kitchen is smelling delicious.
12. After Iglesias drunk the wine, he yawned and went to sleep.
13. The class president has announced last night that the strike would begin today.

GRAPPLING WITH GRAMMAR 63
14. Because Agnes and Ethel had always done all the housework theirselves, they
were unable to understand why Janet wanted to hire a maid.
15. Having worked very hard that day in class, the students crossed their fingers
and hoped the teacher would not give them another homework for the
weekend.
16. After to drink the wine, Iglesias became sleepy and lethargic.
17. I insist on you making that phone call yourself; don’t make your poor old
secretary do it!
18. My mother dislikes my staying out all night without phoning, and my father
does so.
19. It has rained more than usual this week, isn’t it?
20. I enjoyed to have the opportunity to spend some time with my niece during the
holidays.
21. Having discovered there were no available seats left on the train, Ethel decided
rent a car for the trip.

22. Enrique Iglesias’s manager persuaded him give a concert in Castellón between
his engagements in Barcelona and Valencia.
23. The only students who were required to repeat the exercise were Candace, Jeff,
Willy, and me.
24. The work the new cleaning ladies in the administration building do are not up to
standard.
25. Enrique Iglesias plans to spend a weekend in Majorca after he had finished his
concert tour of the Valencian Community.
26. Jeff and Martina plays chess at the café on the corner every Sunday morning.
27. There were a time when I could eat two cheeseburgers, an order of french fries
and a strawberry milkshake for lunch and still feel hungry afterwards, but now,
at my age, my stomach won’t take the abuse anymore.
28. I was take bath when you called.
29. I called yesterday my old friend Lucio in Tarragona to find out about his plans
for the upcoming holiday.

30. We were lying last Sunday afternoon on the beach when it began to rain very
hard.
31. Until you finish your homeworks, there will be no supper for you, young man!
32. Could I please have a few ketchup with my french fries if it’s no trouble?
33. Karen must be some kind of fertility goddess; it’s just not normal to have seven
childs at the age of thirty.
34. The used car salesman on television always describes himself as a honest man,
but I have my doubts.
35. Michael and I will not be spending the night in Barcelona for the conference,
and neither Susan will.
36. Stephen prefers soul to rock music, and so is John.
37. Ever since I moved to Madrid I can’t hardly afford to pay my rent anymore.
38. My niece has decided to attend an university in Barcelona where she can study
Chinese/Catalan translation.

39. The students were interested in take a trip to Seville for Easter, but they couldn’t
raise the money.
40. Because Julia’s job is so time-consuming, she hardly never comes to visit
anymore.
41. Us students would rather not have class until 9:00 P.M., but we generally have
no choice.
42. The teacher warned the students to don’t cheat on the exam.
43. You should ask your mother how long does it take to make a paella.
44. It was her who did away with all our illusions.
45. Lucy and Mark went to the theater last night, and so does Candace.
46. Daisy had already took the pill when she realized it contained penicillin.
47. There’s a party at Wally’s house tonight, isn’t it?

48. Our friends have decided selling the house now instead of waiting for market
conditions to improve.
49. The local government is thinking to build a new cultural center for immigrants
downtown.
50. My mother does not approve of me to go out on weekdays.
Worksheet 2:
Same as for Worksheet 1, above.
1. Following the poker game, the floor of the bar was covered with empty
cigarettes packages.
2. At the rate they were being sold, the man at the window figured it will be only
a matter of hours before all the tickets for the Ricky Martin concert were sold.
3. No one would have come to the party if you told them Lucas was going to be there.
4. We had better to hurry if we want to get our hands on some Ricky Martin tickets
before it’s too late.
5. My parents live in a five bedrooms house.

6. Even though it’s only October, it is enough cold to have to wear a sweater and
jacket.
7. The televisions repairman said he wouldn’t be able to come until next week.
8. We had such enjoyable time at the last Ricky Martin concert that we certainly
don’t want to miss this one.
9. Thank goodness there were french fries enough to satisfy the appetites of the
vegetarians at the barbecue picnic.
10. Ricky Martin sings so original and inspiring songs that no one can resist his
charisma.
11. I have to thinking about what is best for my future, to study translation or to
study medicine.
12. The actor’s performance was so professional that it was obvious that he should
have spent months preparing the show.
13. As a diabetic, Betty is used to give herself insulin injections.
14. My father would like me changing my mind about studying translation.

15. Toni used to preferring German to French, but ever since they hired that new
blonde teacher from Paris, he appears to like French better.
16. The bigger the dog, harder it is to keep it in an apartment.
17. Ricky Martin’s voice is more melodious than his competitor Enrique Iglesias.
18. I’d rather to spend the Christmas holiday here at home than with my parents.
19. Danny must have taken the exam in June, but he had a car accident and was in
the hospital for three months.
20. If the Ricky Martin concert would be canceled, the organizers would lose a
fortune.
21. Abandoned and hungry, the little dog began to whine incessant.
22. If you are planning to come to the concert with me, you ought reserve a ticket
right away.
23. Mathilde had planned to breastfeed her baby, but then she found it to be such
painful experience that she decided to change to the bottle method.

24. Dorothy generally skips lunch, but because her pregnancy she is now taking care
to eat three times a day.
25. Computers usually come with a three-years guarantee.
26. It’s hard to get used to have to take the bus to work when you’ve always lived
close enough to walk.
27. Last night Larry was acting as if he has drunk too much.
28. The coffee tasted so well that I couldn’t resist ordering another cup.
29. Even though the rent is cheaper, my new apartment is twice bigger than my old
one.
30. I don’t go out much anymore because of I have too much work to do.
31. The more suitable of the three candidates for the job is Mr. Addison.
32. We would rather that our neighbor does not play the saxophone after 11 P.M.

33. Despite a thoroughly search, the police found no firearms in the suspect’s
apartment.
34. Never have I seen as many beautiful women than I did at the Miss Universe
contest.
35. If I hadn’t missed my train that fateful day in June last year, I would never meet
my current husband.
36. Despite his recent success in the business world, everyone knows that David
was more happier when he worked as a teacher.
37. Among the teachers in the department there are several foreigners who offer
foreign languages classes.
38. Janet prepared such succulent meal for dinner last night that her husband was
swelling with pride.
39. To become an interpreter you need both a good command of a foreign language
as well as a pleasant speaking voice.
40. Becoming a professional musician requires that one practices a great deal every
day.

41. In your third year of studies, it is recommended that you should spend a semester
abroad in order to practice your second foreign language.
42. Even though Carla has been attending driving classes for three months, she still
doesn’t know to park a car in a tight space.
43. Despite her condition as a foreigner, Natasha was allowed attend classes at the
university.
44. Ricky Martin, which is the world’s greatest singer, has always been my personal
hero.
45. Several teachers in the department will be attend the conference in Saragossa in
May.
46. The proposal has rejected following a two-hour debate in which members of
both parties took part.
47. The teacher had us to rewrite our essays three times before accepting them.
48. University administrators are encouraging students eat lunch earlier than usual
to avoid congestion in the cafeteria.

49. Did you know how Ricky Martin has been accused of practicing Satanic rituals
in his summer home in Tijuana?
50. Although its economically impoverished status, Chad is one of the most
culturally enriched nations in the world.
TASK 2: USE OF “ONE”
Worksheet 3:
Fill in the gaps with the words ‘one’ or ‘ones’, placing parentheses around them
if the word is optional. If nothing goes in the gap, write in the symbol ‘Ø’.
All of us prefer hot showers, although it’s nice to have an icy ________ during the hot
summer months. I readily confess that steaming hot water is my favorite, but I don’t mind
cold ________ when the weather is right for it. In fact, I think our love of water in all its
forms is understandable ________. We need it to live, and indeed of all our nutritional
necessities, it is perhaps the most imperious __________.
All active sports are of course healthful, but swimming is undoubtedly the best
________. Given a straight choice between two sports I won’t deny that I generally opt
for the easier _________, but I’ll take the wonders of natation any day before I go
jogging. Our local swimming pool is a very large _________, held by some to be the
biggest _________ in the Midwest. The truth is that I find it somewhat impersonal, and
long for a time when smaller _________ will be built. Despite its size, however, I must say
that its showers are the finest __________ I have ever seen.

TASK 4: ARTICLES
Worksheet 5:
Rewrite this passage, correcting the use of the definite and indefinite articles
(a/an/the). Use the symbol ‘Ø’ where you suppress an article from the original.
L❤ve
The love is a most intangible thing. To understand the emotion, it is question of
looking at the life from many perspectives at the same time. For the poet, the love is
either a torment from the hell or taste of the heaven, according to his disposition, while
for the scientist, it is a chemical beast, designed to further pair-bonding and to better
the chances of the human survival.
I once had a friend who was psychiatrist, but who fancied himself as something of a
poet too. He had owned a house with garden nearby, but had later moved, and I had to
locate him through his work address. He had secretary, so I asked for appointment. On
seeing him, we spoke about the religion for a while, and then I put it to him: Is the love
I feel for my partner only result of hormonal imbalance? He told me that that was lie,
explaining that although the objective science could only talk about the love in those
terms, all emotion was by definition subjective. The love of a people for their leader, or
of a parent for their child is not thing of the science. The life, he said, was for living.
Intrigued, I asked him whether he had girlfriend, to which he replied that he did not,
but that he had dog, and was very attached to it. He went on to clarify that he was victim
of the circumstances.

TASK 5: COUNTABLE AND NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS
Worksheet 6: E AND NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS

Correct the following text, paying special attention to the use of plural nouns:
-Mbanga-
1) Mbanga carried three breads under her arm as she made her way back to the village.
2) The midday Chad sun was burning her face and arms, but her knowledges of weather
patterns at this time of year told her that the rains were not far off. 3) Almost in response
to this thought the low heaving sound of distant thunders came unbeckoned to her ears.
She stopped. 4) No, it wasn’t a storm. 5) It was the sound of gunfire from the border. 6)
Ammunitions were low, and people were becoming desperate. Mbanga looked back at the
rubbles of what had once been an outlying house of her village, remembering the applauses
of the guerrillas as they tore it down, smashing all the furnitures within, and stealing all the
pots and cutleries.
7) Evidences of the outrage were everywhere, but the advices from the village elders were
to stay calm and not to retaliate. 8) The fighting had broken out when several of the most
important local traffickers had been jailed. 9) When businesses were bad, there was
always trouble, but never like this. 10) The clan leaders were trying to negotiate a truce,
but the progresses to date were very little.
11) Mbanga sighed, wondering what sort of a world her two young sons would grow up in,
but despite her sadnesses, she wiped the sweat from her brow and the tears from her
eyes, and set off once more down the scorching dirt road.

TASK 6: EXTRAPOSITION
Worksheet 7: E AND
Rewrite the following sentences where possible, beginning with the word ‘It’.
1) To criticise is easy.
2) That he was lying never occurred to me.
3) To give up now seems a pity.
4) His resignation is improbable.
5) That he hasn’t phoned is odd.
6) To be early is better.
7) That prices will go up is certain.
8) What you say does not matter.
9) The amount does not matter.
10) How it can rain so much is extraordinary.

TASK 7: SUBJECT-FINITE VERB INVERSION
Worksheet 8:
Rewrite the following sentences beginning with the underlined words. In some
cases you may have to change the underlined words slightly so that they make sense
in their new position.
Example:
People should not travel to the Congo alone under any circumstances ➠
Under no circumstances should people travel to the Congo alone
1) There has rarely been such a need for new blood.
2) I have never heard of such a thing.
3) I seldom travel that far south.
4) I sometimes thought I could hear voices in the night.
5) I have not only met Camilo, but I have had dinner with him.
6) The red button must not be pressed on any account.
7) Weight can be lost only by dieting and exercise.
8) I did not realise the implications of it all until I got home.
9) You should in no circumstances eat the eggs raw.
10) I frequently leave things too late.
11) She had not once been told to do it by hand.

X GENRES
TASK 1: RECIPES
Texts 1 through 6 are recipes you will need to consult to complete Worksheets 1-
5, below.
Text 1:
STIR-FRIED PINEAPPLE CHICKEN
1/2 lb. boned chicken sesame oil (optional)

1 lb. can pineapple tidbits (drained) 1 tsp. brandy
peanut oil 1 tsp. soy sauce
chicken broth or stock 1 tsp. sugar
cornstarch salt
Cut chicken into thin slices. Heat several tablespoons of oil in bottom of wok. Add
pineapple, several dashes of salt and enough broth to cover. Cook for 1 minute. Add chicken
and cornstarch, diluted in water, sesame oil, brandy, soy sauce and sugar to make a thick
paste. Cook for 2 to 3 minutes, stirring constantly. Serve. Makes 4 generous servings.

Text 2:
Meat Loaf
Preheat oven to 350º. Mix with a fork. Mold into a loaf. Roll it in:
Place in bowl:
1 lb. ground round steak 1/4 cup cracker crumbs
1 to 2 tablespoons horseradish
2 tablespoons catsup Place the loaf in a shallow baking pan.
1 teaspoon salt Pour into the pan:
1/4 teaspoon pepper
1/2 teaspoon cream 1/2 cup stock
Grind in a food chopper then add:
6 slices bacon Bake the loaf for about 11/2 hours. Baste
2 medium-sized onions occasionally, adding more liquid,
1 cup broken-up crackers if necessary.

GENRES 161
Text 3:
B eef
________________________
Stroganoff
Imperiale
________________________
SERVES 4 TO 6
Like coq au vin and boeuf bourguignonne, adornments that are generally thought to
beef stroganoff was the gourmet’s separate Epicurean from plebeian food.
antidote to the stark dryness of many Of all the sloppy dishes favored by
traditional American specialties (fried connoisseurs of continental cuisine, beef
chicken, grilled steak, baked ham). stroganoff was one of the most elegant,
Epicures, so this logic goes, want their for the simple reason that sour cream
food to be juicy and luscious, the meat makes everything seem deluxe. Another
cosseted in a rich gravy and accompanied reason for beef stroganoff’s popularity —
by bouquets of vegetables and at home as well as in continental
fulminations of spice. How much more restaurants — is that it is so easy to
sensuous it was to slurp a high-spirited make. The easiest recipes simply sauté
stew than to saw at a sauceless, and slices of filet mignon, then mix sour cream
hence puritanical, piece of meat! Nearly with pan juices; this version, adapted from
every significant “continental” dish The Playboy Gourmet, creates a genial
provides the eater with plenty of gravy, stew that is somewhat less elegant, but all
melted cheese, and other moist the more cozy for a winter’s eve.
1/4 cup vegetable oil
2 pounds lean top sirloin, cut into 1-inch squares, _ inch thick
1/2 pound fresh mushrooms, washed and sliced
1/4 cup minced onion
1 garlic clove, minced
1/2 teaspoon dried chervil
3 tablespoons flour
2 cups beef broth
2 tablespoons minced parsley
2 tablespoons tomato paste
11/2 cups sour cream
Salt and pepper
Heat the oil in a stew pot and add the beef. Sauté over medium heat until browned. Add
mushrooms, onion, garlic, and chervil and sauté until onion is limp. Sprinkle flour onto
the beef, stirring well as you sprinkle it on. Stir in beef broth. Add parsley. Partially cover
and simmer 2 hours, stirring occasionally. Stir in tomato paste. Remove from heat and
add sour cream. Season to taste. Stroganoff may be chilled and reheated, but do not boil
after adding sour cream. Serve over buttered noodles
Text 4:
Breakfast Salad
I am a chewer rather than a drinker so
I have never been content with drinking 1/2 avocado, peeled
fruit juice, drinking milk, etc. for a meal. I 1/2 apricot, fresh or canned
like to sit and move my jaws. It’s relaxing. 1/4 cup alfalfa sprouts
There is plenty of protein in this 1/4 cup cooked garbanzo beans
breakfast salad. If you are on a non-salt or 2 tablespoons yogurt
low-salt diet you can omit the cottage 1 tablespoon cashew nut pieces
cheese, which is really very salty (I’d like to
see cottage cheese made with less salt) Mound cottage cheese on avocado half.
and use a low-salt cheese or tofu. Place sprouts and garbanzos around center
The avocado and the alfalfa sprouts are mound. Add the yogurt and cashew nut
the raw ingredients. I like to eat something pieces last. Serves one.
raw with each meal.
Text 5:
POACHED EGGS WITH HASH BROWNS
Serves 4 1. Bring a pan of salted water to the
Preparation: 20 min boil and cook potatoes for 15 min or until
Cooking: 25 min just tender. Drain and coarsely mash. Pan
_________________________________ fry onions in 1 tsp of oil until softened. Stir
675 g (1 and _ lbs.) potatoes, peeled into potato with 2 egg yolks and season
_________________________________ well. Divide mixture into 8 and shape into
1 spring onion, finely chopped patties. Put on a baking sheet and freeze
_________________________________ for 15 min.
1 small onion, finely chopped 2. Heat half the remaining oil in a non-
_________________________________ stick frying pan and fry 4 of the hash
4 tbsp sunflower oil browns over high heat for 3-5 min on each
_________________________________ side or until deep golden. keep warm while
6 medium eggs cooking remaining hash browns in rest of
_________________________________ oil. Bring a large pan of water to the boil;
Salt and freshly ground black pepper stir in vinegar. Crack remaining 4 eggs into
_________________________________ water, cover and simmer for 2-3 min.
1/2 tsp. vinegar 3. Lift eggs out with a slotted spoon.
_________________________________ Serve with hash browns and crispy bacon
on hot plates.

GENRES 163
Text 6:
_____________________________________
Manhattan Clam Chowder
_____________________________________
This classic is ideal for a low cholesterol meal or soup course. A spicier version can be
made by adding a few drops of Tabasco® sauce.
1 onion, chopped fine

2 cups diced white potatoes
1/2 cup water
1 quart clams, finely chopped, with their liquid
3 cups diced tomatoes
1/2 cup finely chopped green pepper with seeds
2 cups defatted fish stock or water
1/2 cup white wine
For Garnish:
Chopped scallions
Freshly chopped parsley
Serve each portion in a shallow dish with one whole steamed clam or steamed large
mussel in shell in center of soup.
Simmer onions and potatoes covered in small amount of water for 10 minutes. (Add
more water if necessary.) Add clams and clam liquid and simmer for 5 to 8 minutes. Add
everything else and simmer for 10 minutes more.
Clam chowder is one of the few dishes that is better refrigerated overnight, then
reheated and eaten the next day. Reheat it, garnish with scallions, parsley, or a hot whole
clam or mussel in the shell.
Per Serving: 50 mg. cholesterol; less than 1 gm. saturated fat.

164
Worksheet 1:
As examples of a highly conventionalized genre, the recipes you have been given to analyze share a series of common
features. Nevertheless, some differences may also be observed in these recipes. In the boxes provided in the chart below,
write “YES” or “NO” to indicate whether or not the features outlined are included in each recipe. In case of a “YES”
answer, roughly indicate the part or parts of the recipe in which the feature is included (beginning, end or body of the
recipe). An example has been given to get you started.
Title? List of Instructions for Preparation or Number of Commentary? Nutritional

ingredients? preparation? cooking time? servings? information?
Recipe 1
Recipe 2

JUSTINE BREHM CRIPPS
Recipe 3 Yes, middle
Recipe 4
Recipe 5
Recipe 6
Worksheet 2:
Titles. The titles of the six recipes are listed in the chart below. Write ‘YES’ or ‘NO’ in the boxes provided to indicate
whether or not each of the titles displays the features mentioned. In case of a ‘YES’ answer, indicate the part of the title
which reflects the corresponding feature. An example has been provided in the first box to get you started.
Indications Indications Indications Indications Foreign words?

regarding regarding mode regarding regarding origin
ingredients? of preparation? appropriate time of recipe?
for consumption?
Stir-fried YES
Pineaple pineapple,
Chicken chicken
Meat Loaf
GENRES

Beef Stroganoff
Imperiale
Breakfast
Salad
Poached Eggs
with Hash
Browns
Manhattan
Clam
Chowder
165
Worksheet 3:
1. Commentaries: Now, compare the commentaries included in those recipes
which do feature commentary. Are the commentaries all of the same kind? What
type of information does each commentary provide?
2. Ingredients: Review the list of ingredients featured in each recipe. List any
measurements and abbreviations you find. Where abbreviations are given, use the
information provided in other recipes to find their full-form equivalents. Finally,
state what you believe is unusual about the measurements provided in Recipe 5.
Worksheet 4:
GRAMMAR: Refer to the instructions for preparation provided in Recipe 3 to
answer the questions below.
1. With what part of speech do most of the sentences begin? Are the sentences
simple or complex? (Do they contain a variety of conjunctions?)
2. List all the verbs you find in the instructions provide in the recipe and identify
the grammatical form of each one. What is the verb form most commonly used?
3. Underline all the articles (definite or indefinite) you can find in the instructions.
What is unusual about the use of articles in the recipe?
4. Underline all the pronouns you can find in the article.
5. Examine the sentences below. Refer to the original recipe to answer the questions
in parentheses next to each sentence.
a) Sauté over medium heat until browned. (Sauté what?)

b) Add mushrooms, onion, garlic and chervil and sauté until onion is limp. (Add
to what? Sauté what?)
c) Stir in beef broth. (Stir into what?)
d) Partially cover and simmer 2 hours, stirring occasionally. (Cover, simmer and
stir what?)
e) Serve over buttered noodles. (Serve what?)

GENRES 167
Worksheet 5:
Vocabulary. Find definitions for the words listed below in:
1) a general bilingual English/Spanish dictionary

2) a general monolingual English dictionary
Refer to the recipes indicated to confirm that the definitions you have found make
sense in context.
Recipe 1: boned, tidbit, broth, stock, cornstarch, wok, paste
Recipe 2: round steak, horseradish, crackers, loaf , baste
Recipe 3: sirloin, chervil, sauté, limp, sprinkle, simmer, season, chill, sour cream
Recipe 4: tofu, cottage cheese, alfalfa, cashew, mound
Recipe 5: poach, chop, mash, has browns
Recipe 6: chowder, tabasco, dice, scallion, garnish
TASK 2: HEADLINES
Please read the information in the box below.
THE VOCABULARY OF HEADLINES

As a device intended both to save space and make an impact on the potential reader,
newspaper headlines often use short, dramatic or colloquial-sounding words to replace the
lengthier, more formal-sounding or simply more common ones which would be used in
other types of writing. Here are some sample headlines containing a few of these typical
“headline words”:
• PRESIDENT AXES AID TO FLOOD VICTIMS (axe = to stop, do away with, put an end to )
• GREENS BACK TAX CUTS FOR UNWED MOTHERS (back = to support)
• JUDGE BARS MEDIA AT MURDER TRIAL (bar = to prohibit)

• REALITY SHOWS SEE RISE IN BIDS TO PARTICIPATE (bid = attempt)

• BLAST KILLS FOUR (blast = explosion)
• BLAZE DESTROYS STUDENT RESIDENCE (blaze = fire)
• SCHOOLS BOOST PHYSICAL FITNESS (boost = encourage, promote)
• LEADERS CLASH ON OIL TANKER DISASTER (clash = disagree)
• NEW LAWS TO CURB PROSTITUTION (curb = limit)
• RUSSIAN GEMS ON EXHIBIT (gems = jewels)
• SHARON STONE TO HEAD ANTI-WAR PROTEST (head = preside over, lead)
• BANK HEIST CLAIMS TWO VICTIMS (heist = robbery)
• TORNADO HITS MIDLANDS (hit = strike, affect adversely)
• GOVERNMENT MOVES TO CUT VIOLENCE (move = step /to step towards a desired end)
• HOSTAGE ORDEAL ENDS IN TRAGEDY (ordeal = painful experience, complicated situation)
• OPPOSITION MOVES TO OUST PRESIDENT (oust = push out, remove)
• PLEA FOR PEACE MOBILIZES MILLIONS (plea = request)
• UNIONS PLEDGE TO STRIKE IN MAY (pledge = promise/to promise)
• OPPOSITION SEES TAX CUT AS RE-ELECTION PLOY (ploy = clever step towards a desired end)
• TORY LEADER UNDER PRESSURE, QUITS (quit = to leave, to resign)
• PEACE TALKS TO BEGIN ON MONDAY (talks = discussions, generally political)
• TERRORIST THREAT DELAYS THREE FLIGHTS (threat = danger)
• MAYOR VOWS TO REDUCE LOCAL PROSTITUTION (vow = promise / to promise)
• PRINCE TO WED JOURNALIST (wed = to marry)
Please read the information in the box below.
THE GRAMMAR OF HEADLINES

Like the English used for instructions in recipes, the language of English headlines is
typically described as “telegraphic”. Again, this type of telegraphic language is used for
the purpose of saving space, but also with a view to making headlines easier to read at a
glance. The telegraphic effect is achieved by making alterations in everyday English
grammar as shown below.
1. Verbal expressions are simplified in the following manner:

a) The verb “to be” is generally omitted.
b) Future tenses are replaced by the infinitive.
c) Past tenses are replaced by the simple present.
d) Auxiliaries in compound tenses (perfects and progressives)are omitted.
2. Articles (both definite and indefinite) are eliminated wherever unnecessary to

comprehension.

GENRES 169
Worksheet 6:
HEADLINES TO NON-HEADLINES
Change the following headlines into “normal” language (full sentences). Use the
information on grammar in headlines you have received to help you.
1. Opposition claims government responsible for crisis.

2. Man on moon!
3. War declared!
4. Mad cow disease probe imminent
5. Immigrants attacked by angry mob
6. Enrique Iglesias to sing in Lima
7. Stars protest war
Worksheet 7:
HEADLINE PLAY
Yet another typical feature of English headlines is the frequent use of wordplay (puns) and
intertextual references. (This of course is another attention-getting device.) Here are some
examples of puns in actual newspaper headlines. Try to identify and explain them. Use your
dictionary to help you find double meanings.
1. ON-JOB FITNESS CENTERS CAN WORK OUT TO BE SMART BUSINESS

2. PRESIDENT AIMS TO SNUFF OUT TEEN TOBACCO USE
3. GORILLA PEN APES JUNGLE’S CHALLENGE
4. ABSENCES PUT BRAKES ON RAILWAY
5. FBI HOPES FILM FOOTAGE WILL REEL IN BANK BANDIT
6. ENGLISH: A MILLION-SCHOLAR INDUSTRY

Worksheet 8:
Now, create your own headlines with the information below.
STORIES TO HEADLINES
1. A security guard saw a group of aliens with their spaceship land on the UCLA
campus last night.
2. Due to their dissatisfaction regarding working conditions, American railway

workers are planning a strike for the upcoming month of May.
3. Vienna. An undetonated bomb was found in the produce section of a local

supermarket this morning following an anonymous call to police, who were
unable to prevent the spread of panic among shoppers before proceeding to
disarm the device.
4. Administrators at Lepe University have found an unusual solution to the

problem of students whose names are spelled with the Spanish letter ‘Ñ’.
Because this letter cannot be reproduced by their computer printers,
administrators have decided to refuse to allow students with the problem letter
in their names to register at the university.

GENRES 171
TASK 3: NEWS STORIES
Text 7:
Read the following text and then go on to Worksheet 9, below.
Okapi – victim of the opera

by Cath Mersh in became nervous and nervous animal, and others
COPENHAGEN and started to pace around. in the pen did not react to
Michael Bond Then she collapsed. We the music. If loud music
____________________ think the high notes were hadn’t killed it then it could
causing her stress. It was have died from another
AN OPEN-AIR concert of the first time this has noise, like thunder.”
Wagner’s Tannhäuser, happened during all the Katanda’s mate and her
performed by the Royal years the national seven-month-old calf
Danish Orchestra in orchestra has been staging survived the ordeal.
Copenhagen, was dubbed concerts in the park.” The okapi is related to the
the highlight of the The incident took place as giraffe but looks more like
summer by Denmark’s the musicians were trying a zebra. It is found only in
opera enthusiasts. their top notes in sound the equatorial rainforests
But for Katanda, an okapi tests before their annual of Zaire. It lives off leaves,
in nearby Copenhagen Zoo, concert of opera music in roots and seeds, stripping
it all proved too much. In a Sondermarken Park on 6 them from the bushes with
warm-up session, with the August. its 35 cm. tongue, with
loudspeakers at full Most members of the which it can lick its
volume, the okapi threw a orchestra were unaware of eyelids. In the wild the
fit, collapsed on the floor what had happened until animal is very wary and is
and died. later. “I don’t think many of known for its remarkable
The zoo is claiming that the them know about it even hearing.
seven-year-old okapi, now,” said spokesman A spokeswoman for the
whose natural habitat is Peter Andersen. “It is not Eurogroup for Animal
the forests of central something that we are Welfare in Brussels said:
Africa, died of stress worrying about. It was an “It is possible for a lot of
triggered by the sound of exceptional event.” noise, whether it is opera
the opera music. But then, Holst is not blaming the or an aircraft, to cause
Katanda was a very musicians for the death. severe stress in animals.”
nervous okapi. He said: “The concert But the experts say there
Bengt Holst, curator of organisers were as sad as is no risk to your pets from
Copenhagen Zoo, said: we were at what playing loud music at
“During the rehearsal she happened. This okapi was a home.
Worksheet 9:
Refer to Text 7 to answer the following questions about the general
characteristics of news stories.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWS STORIES

1. What is it about the graphic distribution of a newspaper story that is obviously different
from the ordinary graphic distribution of, for example, a chapter in an academic book,
or an essay you might write for class?
2. Most, though not all newspaper stories include what is called a “by-line”, which gives
information regarding the name of the journalist(s) responsible for writing the story.
Locate the by-line in Text 7 and reproduce it exactly. Is it at the beginning or end of the
text?
3. In comparison with the sentences of other genres (again, think of academic books and
essays you might write for class), do you think the sentences of this news story are, on
average, short or long? What about the paragraphs?
4. This news story has a total of eleven paragraphs. In which paragraphs is the most
important information (that is, the information most directly related to the headline)
located?
5. Which paragraphs do you believe could have been eliminated completely from the story
without compromising its value as a news item? (That is, which paragraphs here might
be considered “extra stuffing”?)
6. What device is used repeatedly in the story to make the information seem more direct
and authoritative?

GENRES 173
Worksheet 10:
Now, use the newspaper story featured below (Text 8) as a model to write a crime
report of your own of about 150 words.. Remember to include the typical features
of news stories, answering all the canonical journalistic questions (who, what,
where, when, why and how).
(Note: Some words and phrases in Text 8 which are typical of crime reports have
been highlighted in bold type to help you.)
Text 8:
Teen slain while on errand run with mom
By Dan Ferris
TRIBUNE STAFF WRITER
Police on Saturday were investigating Mary, was charged with murder, said Grand
whether a South Side high school student Central Area Sgt. Francis Lee.
killed while running errands with his The two, of 4330 W. Potomac Ave.,
mother was a target or a random victim of returned from a party about 23:30 a.m.
gunfire. Mary Scott, 55, reportedly slammed the
The Friday night death of Leo High car door, angering her husband, who then
School student Terrance Cameron, 17, was slapped her, Lee said.
one of at least five fatal shootings in 24 She allegedly entered the house, got a
hours, resulting in two murder arrests and gun and shot Will Scott in the stomach
ongoing investigations by Chicago police. when he walked in, Lee said. Will Scott died
Cameron and his mother were sitting in about three hours later a Illinois Masonic
a van on 42nd Street at State Street at Medical Center, a spokesman said.
about 10 p.m. when a shot was fired, A second domestic dispute also
striking him in the head, said Wentworth resulted in an arrest after a 33-year-old
Area Detective John Janda. Cameron, of the woman allegedly shot by her live-in
7900 block of South Woodlawn Avenue, was boyfriend died early Saturday, said Sgt.
pronounced dead at Cook County Hospital Henry Crump of the Pullman Area.
less than an hour later. Police were still Edward Green, 34, of 8626 S. Loomis St.
looking for suspects, Janda said. was charged with murder. Police said he
Meanwhile, a domestic dispute ended pulled a 9 mm semiautomatic handgun
in death early Saturday for Will Scott, 51, of on Donna Gray during an argument Friday,
the West Side. Several hours later, his wife, shooting her in the abdomen. Gray died

at Christ Hospital and Medical Center in “They claim they didn’t see him when he
Oak Lawn. got shot,” Crump said.
Graffiti led to another deadly South Side Belmont Area police were similarly
quarrel that occurred just before midnight stumped by a case involving a 26-year-old
Friday, Crump said. man whose body was found in a North Side
Thaddeus Branch, 27, of the 8000 block gangway early Saturday after neighbors
of South Coles Avenue was arguing with reported hearing gunshots.
several men over insults they allegedly Frank Jackson, 26, of the 200 block of
spray-painted in public about his brother. North Laramie Avenue died of gunshot
During the fight, one man took out a gun wounds to the head, said a spokesman in
and shot Branch in the side.. The shooting the medical examiner’s office. His body was
took place two blocks from his home. found in the 4800 block of North Paulina
Although friends drove Branch to Trinity Street.
Hospital, investigators were still seeking Police were still investigating, said
witnesses Saturday afternoon. Sgt. Richard Guerrero.

Language Information Guide
LANGUAGE INFORMATION GUIDE
Index to Guide:
1) Normal Word Order in English Sentences

1. Grammar
2) Use of Articles
3) Use of “One”
4) Adjective Order
5) Countable and Non-countable Nouns
6) Use of Verb Tenses
7) Subject-Verb Agreement
8) Verbs as Complements
9) Extraposition
10) Subject-Finite Verb Inversion
11) Embedded Questions
12) Used to, Be Used to, Get Used to
13) Illogical Comparisons
14) Nouns Used as Adjectives
15) Subjunctive
16) Indirect Commands
1) The Period
2. Punctuation, Capitalization and Word Division
2) The Comma
3) The Semi-Colon
4) The Colon
5) The Question Mark

6) The Exclamation Point

7) The Apostrophe
8) Quotation Marks
9) Ellipsis Dots and Suspension Points
10) Punctuation with Numbers
11) Capitalization
12) Division of Words
1) Cohesive Relationships
3. Cohesion and Coherence
2) Rhetorical Patterns
3) The English Paragraph
1) Differences in Grammar
4. British and American English: Some Basic Differences
2) Differences in Spelling
3) Differences in Vocabulary
1. GRAMMAR
The following is not meant to be a complete, comprehensive review of English

grammar, but rather a brief overview of some of the fine points practiced in Unit 5,
which are frequently at the root of foreign learners’ errors in English. For points
not covered here, you will of course need to consult a grammar manual. Available
on the market today is a wealth of user-friendly grammar manuals with the accent
on practical, descriptive usage rather than on theoretical prescription. Two of this
author’s favorites are the following:
SWAN, M. (1980): Practical English Usage. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

THOMSON, A.J. and A.V. MARTINET (1986): A Practical English Grammar. Oxford,
Oxford University Press.
1. Normal Word Order in English Sentences
The basic, normal order of elements within English declarative sentences in the
active voice is as follows:
SUBJECT – VERB – COMPLEMENT(S) – MODIFIER(S)

LANGUAGE INFORMATION GUIDE 253
All sentences must contain at least a subject and a finite verb form. Not all
sentences require a complement (direct or indirect object) or a modifier
(prepositional phrase or adverbial). Where there is more than one modifier, the
order generally accepted is that of 1)manner, 2) place and 3) time.
Modifiers may sometimes be placed between the subject and verb (e.g.
Alice quickly read the letter. ) but never when the modifier is a prepositional phrase
(e.g. *Alice in the garden read the letter.) Modifiers may also be placed in sentence-
initial position (e.g. In the garden, Alice read the letter.)
2. Use of Articles
While the use of the indefinite article (a/an) is generally not too problematic for
foreign learners of English, there are two cases in which students frequently make
mistakes, often due to interference from their native tongues.
• with generic predicates in the singular (e.g. job or personality descriptions):
He is a doctor. / She is an existentialist. NOT: He is doctor.*/ She is

existentialist.*
• with “other” (i.e., an + other fused together to form “another”) used with
singular nouns:
I’d like another drink, please. NOT: I’d like other drink, please.*
The use of the definite article (the), however, may prove more difficult to master
for the foreign learner. Many languages use the definite article more frequently than
English does, a fact which gives rise to inappropriate calques of the following type:
The love is a wonderful thing.* I like the milk in my coffee.*
The exact rules pertaining to the use of the definite article in English are long and
complicated to remember. However, the following short and simple rules generally
serve to prevent most errors:
• English omits the definite article with general references to uncountable

nouns :

Love is a wonderful thing. I like milk in my coffee.
• English omits the definite article when referring to countable nouns in the
plural in undetermined quantities:
Birds make nests. Dolphins are intelligent mammals.
3. Use of “One”
The correct use of the word “one” may generally be described in terms of two
simple rules.
• The noun replaced by “one” must be countable.

• “One” is optional with superlative adjectives (and also with comparatives in
British English) when the noun being replaced is singular.
Despite the clarity of these rules, foreign students of English often find it difficult
to use “one” correctly, generally due to interference from the mother tongue. Many
languages use a simple combination of an article and an adjective to form a noun
phrase (e.g. Spanish “dame la roja” or German “gib mir die Rote”) where English
requires the addition of “one” (“give me the red one”).
4. Adjective Order
The task featured in unit 5 on adjective order includes only combinations of two
adjectives. While the same rules followed here apply to longer sequences of
adjectives, the latter are somewhat uncommon in English, and are generally
restricted to texts characterized by a marked style. Furthermore, precisely due to
their marked style, texts featuring longer sequences of adjectives often do not adhere
strictly to the rules.
There is no universal agreement among authors of English grammar and style

manuals with regard to the exact number of semantic categories of adjectives to be
recognized in the language. By the same token, there is no single, universally
accepted rule as to the order in which adjectives belonging to such categories should
be placed before a noun. In this book we have adopted the following categories in
the following order:

1) determiners 2) numbers 3) qualifiers 4) size 5) shape 6) age 7) color

8) nationality or origin 9) material 10) use or purpose
5. Countable and Non-countable Nouns
Despite the fact that there is a great deal of overlap between English and many
other languages with regard to this particular subject, students should be aware that
a countable noun in their native language may be uncountable in English, or vice-
versa. The tasks included in unit 5 focus on some of the more problematic
uncountable English nouns for advanced students. Obviously, non-countable nouns
may not be pluralized and may not be used in conjunction with the indefinite articles
“a” and “an”, nor with cardinal numbers, “few” or “many”.
6. Use of Verb Tenses
• simple present: generally used to indicate regular or habitual action (e.g. I

always have eggs for breakfast.) NOT actions occurring at the present
moment (e.g. I have cereal for breakfast today.*).
EXCEPTION: Present time is usually indicated with the simple present tense
with stative verbs, the most common of which are listed here:
a) dislike, hate, like, love, prefer, want wish
b) astonish, impress, please, satisfy, shock, surprise
c) believe, doubt, feel (in the sense of “believe”), guess, imagine, know, mean,
realize, recognize, remember, suppose, think (in the sense of “believe”),
understand
d) feel, (as in “This cloth feels rough.” or “His hands feel cold.”) hear, see,
smell (in the non-transitive sense of giving off an odor), sound, taste (in
the sense of having a flavor), measure and weigh (the latter two in the
sense of having a measurement of or having a weight of).
e) belong to, concern, consist of, contain, depend on, deserve, fit, include,
involve, lack, matter, need, owe, own, possess
f) appear, resemble, seem

NOTE: These verbs may only very exceptionally be used in any of the
progressive tenses.
• present progressive: used to indicate present time (except with stative verbs)
and foreseeable future (e.g. He is taking a nap now. / We’re going to Paris
in July.)
• simple past: used to indicate a completed action which occurred at a specific

time in the past. (e.g. Lucy and Ed met at a conference in Vienna last year.)
• past progressive: generally used to refer to actions in the past already

occurring at a particular moment mentioned. (e.g. When I woke up this
morning, the telephone was ringing. )
• present perfect: used to indicate a) action occurring at an indefinite time in

the past (e.g. Michael has read all of Shakespeare’s plays.); b) action
occurring more than once in the past (e.g. I have seen that film six times.); c)
action that began in the past, but within a time-frame considered to overlap
with the present. (e.g. Mark has kept a diary for over 20 years. / Both Lucy
and Ed have worked at the university since 1982.)
• present perfect progressive: may be used to indicate action that began in the
past which is still occurring in the present (see the present perfect, type c,
above). (e.g. Mark has been keeping a diary for over 20 years./Both Lucy
and Ed have been working at the university since 1982.)
NOTE: Though the present perfect and present perfect progressive tenses are
generally interchangeable with non-stative verbs in the expression of actions
beginning in the past and still occurring in the present, it should be noted that in such
cases the choice of verb tense lies with the speaker’s subjective view of the period
of time in question as relatively long or relatively short. Thus, the present perfect
tense is generally used to stress the length of time:
David has lived in New York all his life. / The Johnsons have lived in this
neighborhood for 30 years.
The present perfect progressive, in contrast, is used when the speaker wishes to
place the focus on the fact that the action is still going on in the present, and is the
most frequent choice with more recent events.

David has been attending Spanish classes for two weeks now.
The Johnsons have been boasting about their new swimming pool ever
since they had it installed last month.
7. Subject-Verb Agreement
The following cases are typically a source of doubt for some students.
• when the subject is a plural noun which has no singular form (e.g. people,
police, cattle, youth). In these cases, the verb must of course be plural, even
if the corresponding nouns in the student’s native language take singular verb
forms (e.g. People are strange. vs. Spanish “La gente es extraña”)
• when the subject is singular and has no plural form, but ends in “s” (e.g.
news, checkers, mathematics, measles). In such cases, the verb must be
singular, and once again this may conflict with standard usage in the student’s
native language (e.g. The news was surprising. vs. Spanish “la noticia fue
sorprendente” or “las noticias fueron sorprendentes.”)
• when the subject is a noun whose form is invariable in singular and

plural (e.g. species, means, sheep, crossroads). The verb will be singular or
plural, according to the intended meaning. (e.g. There are thousands of
different species of spiders in North America. / The deadliest species is
the black widow spider.)
• when the subject is a loan word which is non-countable in English, and

countable in the source language (e.g. spaghetti is vs. “Gli spaghetti sono”
in Italian)
• when a singular subject is joined to other nouns by the expressions

together with, along with, accompanied by or as well as. In such cases the
verb remains singular:
Diane, accompanied by her husband and son, is planning to spend a week

on the beach in August.
Lucy, together with three other teachers, is attending a conference in Paris
next week.
Note that using the conjunction “and” in place of any of these expressions
necessitates the use of a plural verb form.

Lucy and three other teachers are attending a conference in Paris next
week.
• with none and no, both of which may be used with singular or plural verb
forms, depending on the noun following them:
o None of the guests are vegetarians. (plural countable noun, plural verb)
o None of the money was recovered from the robbery. (non-countable
noun, singular verb)
o Likewise: No women are allowed at that club. / No time was wasted on
the case.
• with compound subjects with either/or, neither/nor. In these cases, the verb
form is determined by the singularity or plurality of the subject closest to the
verb:
o Neither my brother nor my father wants to see that movie.

o Neither my brother nor my parents want to eat at that restaurant.
• with a number of /the number of. “A number of” always requires a plural
verb, whereas “the number of” goes with a singular verb:
o A number of students have complained about the exam.

o The number of questions on the exam was too large.
• with the simple present tense in the third person singular. (Students often
forget to add the final ‘s’ which distinguishes this form from all the others in
this tense.)
8. Verbs as complements
Verbs used as complements in English sentences take either the infinitive (e.g. to
drink) or gerund (e.g. drinking) form, depending on the preceding element.
• Common verbs always followed by the infinitive:
agree attempt claim decide demand desire fail forget hesitate hope
intend learn need offer plan prepare pretend refuse seem strive
swear tend try want wish

• Common verbs always followed by the gerund:
admit appreciate avoid can’t help consider delay deny enjoy finish mind
miss postpone practice quit recall regret report resent resist resume
risk suggest
• Common verbs which may be followed by either the infinitive or the

gerund with no significant meaning change:
begin can’t stand continue dread hate like love prefer start
• Common verbs which may be followed by either the infinitive or the

gerund WITH meaning change:
stop remember forget go on regret
Meaning changes as follows:
STOP:
He stopped to eat after 3 hours. (He interrupted what he was doing in order
to eat.)
He stopped eating after 3 hours. (He had been eating for 3 hours and finally
ate no more.)
REMEMBER:
I try to remember to lock the door whenever I go out. (I try to remind myself
to lock the door.)
I remember locking the door last night. (I recall locking the door last night.)
FORGET:
I forgot to pay the phone bill last month. (I didn’t remember that I had to pay
the bill.)
I’ll never forget going to that Rolling Stones concert with you. (I will never
lose the
memory.)
GO ON:
After finishing high school, David went on to study engineering in college.
(He moved on to something new.)

Some teachers can go on talking for hours about things which are of little
interest to students. (continue talking)
REGRET:
I regret to inform you that your husband has died. (I ‘m sorry about what I
have to say.)
I regret lending my car to my next-door neighbor. (I’m sorry about what I
did.)
• Adjectives always followed by the infinitive:
anxious boring dangerous hard eager

easy good strange pleased prepared
ready able usual common difficult
• Combinations of verbs + prepositions, adjectives + prepositions and

nouns + prepositions are followed by the gerund.
o verb/preposition combinations: approve of, insist on, think about, put

off, rely on, give up, look forward to, etc.
Why do you insist on justifying your opinion? I don’t approve of

gambling.
o adjective/preposition combinations: afraid of, capable of, fond of,

interested in, tired of, etc.
Greg is fond of drinking. He is capable of drinking six pints of ale in

e hour.
o noun/preposition combinations: choice between, reason for, intention of,

possibility of, etc.
The possibility of winning the lottery is remote.

I have no intention of listening to another word he says.

9. Extraposition
When it comes to word order, as mentioned above, English is a very precise

language. You must learn to respect the strictness of English in this regard, whether
or not this characteristic is shared by your native tongue. Nevertheless, English does
indeed allow for some flexibility in the order of elements within a sentence. One
accepted way to alternate theme and rheme elements in English sentences is the
practice of extraposition, which entails a change in subject /verb order. If the subject
of a sentence is a clause (i.e., it contains a verb form), it may be moved, by
extraposition, to the end of the sentence, and the initial subject position of the
sentence will then be occupied by the word “it”.
What you say does not matter. It does not matter what you say.
NOTE: Extraposition is only possible when the subject of a sentence is a clause.

If the subject is not a clause, the result of attempting to apply extraposition is
grammatically unacceptable:
Your point of view does not matter. It does not matter your point of view.*
10. Subject/Finite Verb Inversion
Normal sentence structure in English requires that the subject be placed before
the finite verb form to which it corresponds. Nevertheless, when placed in sentence-
initial position, certain elements provoke an inversion in the order of these elements,
as follows:
• Expressions of direction
The children ran across the street. Across the street ran the children.
The chauffeur drove home. Home drove the chauffeur.
Jack and Jill went up the hill. Up the hill went Jack and Jill.
NOTE: If the subject is a pronoun, inversion is avoided:
They ran across the street. Across the street they ran.
He drove home. Home he drove.
They went up the hill. Up the hill they went.

• Expressions with negative or restrictive meaning (never, nowhere, on no

account, under no circumstances, not only, not a soul, not a thing, hardly,
scarcely, seldom, rarely, etc.)
I can never think of what to say to him. Never can I think of what to say
to him.
I watch the news on television very rarely. Very rarely do I watch the news
on television.
He had scarcely begun to work when his computer crashed. Scarcely had
he begun to work…
• So, neither, nor, such
Rhode Island is in New England, and so is Maine.

Jerry’s mother doesn’t work, and neither does his father.
A whale cannot survive without surfacing occasionally, nor can a dolphin.
So great was Lucy’s fear of the teacher that she didn’t dare speak to him.
Such fun did the children have on the roller coaster that they decided to ride
it a second time.
• Subordinate clauses of condition
Should you decide to stay here this summer, I’ll give you a call.
Had I known back then what I know now, I would have acted differently.
Were he alive today, Newton would be most impressed by recent advances in
physics.
Note that the rules for formulating inverted subject/verb combinations in

declarative sentences of this kind are the same as those used to formulate questions,
i.e. simple inversion with the verb “to be” and modal verbs, use of the auxiliary “do”
with all other verbs. (Exception: in British English, the verb “to have” as a full verb
indicating possession may be inverted without the use of the auxiliary “do”.)
11. Embedded Questions
An embedded question is one which does not stand alone, but rather is contained
within another question or within a declarative sentence. The word order of an
embedded question does not coincide with that of a free-standing one. In an
embedded question, the subject/verb inversion typical of a free-standing question

reverts to the order typical of a declarative sentence, and yes/no questions must
include a conditional particle such as “if” or “whether”:
Where are my glasses? Do you know where my glasses are?

What does Ernest do for a living? I have no idea what Ernest does for a
living.
Is Marion coming to the party? Nobody is sure if Marion is coming to the
party.
Does Max have a degree in physics? There is some doubt as to whether
Max has a degree in physics.
12. Used to, Be Used to, Get Used to
These expressions generally prove to be among the most confusing for foreign
students of English to internalize and use correctly. It is therefore a good idea, even
for fairly advanced students, to review the rules for the use of these constructions in
an effort to prevent mistakes from cropping up.
• To be used to and to get used to can be used within any time frame (past,
present, future) and have the same meaning as “to be accustomed to” and “to
become accustomed to”, respectively. Both must be followed by a direct
object. When the direct object is verbal in nature, it takes the form of the
gerund:
When Lucy first came to Spain, she wasn’t used to the strong coffee typical of
this country. However, it only took her a few weeks to get used to drinking it.
• Used to + infinitive is used to refer to habits or situations in the past which

no longer exist at present.
There used to be a lovely old Victorian house on this corner, but now there’s
a parking lot.
When I was a child I used to love playing with blocks.
I’m surprised to see you eating a hamburger. Didn’t you use to be a
vegetarian?
NOTE: The “used to + infinitive” construction may not be applied to present

habitual actions or situations. In such cases, adverbs such as “generally” or
“usually” may be used, though they are not always necessary.

Because I have a full-time job and have no time to cook, I used to eat at
restaurants often.*
Because I have a full-time job and have no time to cook, I eat at restaurants
often.
Because I have a full time job and have to time to cook, I usually eat at
restaurants.
13. Illogical comparisons
A common mistake made by foreign students of English is to improperly use

grammar in such a way that one compares two unlike entities, thus producing an
illogical comparison. This generally occurs when the first of the two terms of
comparison involves a possessive expression:
*Daniel’s German is as flawless as a native. (INCORRECT)
To express the intended meaning correctly, a possessive expression must also be

used with the second term of comparison (Saxon genitive or “that of”):
Daniel’s German is as flawless as that of a native. / Daniel’s German is as

flawless as a native’s.
14. Nouns used as Adjectives
It is common in English to combine two nouns such that the first modifies the
second, in much the same way that an adjective would (e.g. geometry professor,
gold ring, coffee cup). In such combinations the first noun is generally in the
singular, and if a number is included in the combination, it is common practice to
use a hyphen:
a journey that takes two hours = a two-hour journey

an encyclopedia made up of twenty eight volumes = a twenty-eight-volume
encylopedia
a little girl who is four years old = a four-year-old little girl

15. Subjunctive
In English the subjunctive is often used to express the idea that a subject wishes
another subject to do something. The subjunctive form of a verb is the same as the
infinitive form, but without the particle “to”. It is the same, invariable form for all
persons and all tenses. Sentences containing the subjunctive generally contain the
word “that”.
The doctor has insisted that my husband quit smoking.

The committee has proposed that all employees be given an immediate raise.
Examples of verbs commonly used in subjunctive sentences:
advise ask command decree

demand insist move order
prefer propose recommend request
require stipulate suggest urge
The subjunctive is also used in sentences beginning with impersonal expressions

whose meaning is parallel to that of the verbs listed above (e.g. it is advisable that,
is is recommended that, it is urgent that, etc.).
It is urgent that you call your wife at once.

It was vital that he not forget his keys.
16. Indirect Commands
In addition to the subjunctive, an indirect command construction may be used to

express the wish of a subject to have another subject do something. This
construction involves the use of the infinitive (in any time frame and with any
person), as shown here:
The doctor has ordered my husband to quit smoking.

The committee wishes all employees to be given an immediate raise.
I need you to call your wife at once.
We warned him not to forget his keys.

2. PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION
The following is based on the rules for punctuation in English as set out by The
Chicago Manual of Style. It is intended as a very general overview of English
punctuation, and does not include all the rules to be found in the aforementioned
manual, but rather the very basics and those rules which the author has judged most
useful in answering questions frequently asked by students.
1. The Period (a.k.a. “stop” or “full stop” in British English)
• If a sentence ends in an abbreviation, one period is sufficient:

The train arrives at 10:00 A.M.
• If a sentence ends in parentheses, the period should be placed outside the

parentheses:
Everyone dislikes that teacher (and with good reason).
• However, if an entire independent sentence is enclosed in parentheses, the

period should be placed inside the parentheses as well:
Yes, Alice does have a degree in business administration. (I’ll never
understand how she managed to pass her exams, though.)
• If a sentence ends in quotation marks, place the period inside the quotation
marks:
The sign on the wall clearly says “No Smoking Allowed.”
• With the abbreviations of the titles “Mr.” and “Mrs.”, Americans use a period,
while the British do not.
Am: Mr./Mrs. Brit: Mr/Mrs
2. The Comma
“The comma, perhaps the most versatile of the punctuation marks, indicates the
smallest interruption in continuity of thought or sentence structure. There are few
rules governing its use that have become almost obligatory. Aside from these, the
use of the comma is mainly a matter of good judgment, with ease of reading the end
in view.”

The Chicago Manual of Style, 14th ed. (1993)

Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 165.
• Use a comma to separate words and phrases in a series:

You have a choice of soup, salad, or French fries.
• Use a comma to separate pairs of words in series:

Big and small, tall and short, young and old, everyone screams when they
ride the “Dragon Khan” roller coaster.
• Use a comma to set off words in apposition:

Donald Sharecrop, Channel Eight’s correspondent in Paris, will report to
you now.
• Use a comma to set off a contrasted word, phrase, or clause:

Walk, don’t run. You should do as I say, not as a I do.
• Use a comma to indicate the elision of a repeated verb:

Maisy ordered vanilla ice cream; Cyril, chocolate; and Charlie, strawberry.
• Yes, no, why, well, and discourse linkers such as nevertheless, moreover, of
course, on the other hand, etc., in sentence-initial position should be followed
by commas.
Well, here’s what I think. No, I don’t agree. Moreover, I believe you
haven’t thought it through.
• Use a comma to separate the name or title of a person directly addressed from
the rest of the sentence.
Please have a seat, Mr. Swanson.
• Use commas to set off direct quotations.

“Follow me,” said the Lord, “and I will give you eternal life.”
The lady behind the counter glared at me and barked, “Well, don’t take all
day!”
• In compound sentences joined by conjunctions, use a comma before the

conjunction unless the clauses are short and closely related.
I’m going out this evening with a man I met on the train to work yesterday,
and I don’t want to hear any flippant remarks from any of you on the subject!
BUT: Lucy drove home and Eugene took the train.

• Commas should not be used in lengthy compound predicates, when two or

more verbs have the same subject and the subject is not repeated:
Lucy ran to the store as fast as she possibly could but was not able to reach
it before closing time.
However, if the parts of the compound predicate are short, they should be
separated by commas:
She stopped, stared, and shook her head in disbelief.
• When a compound sentence begins with a dependent clause, a comma

should be used to separate it from the rest of the sentence:
If you accept that job offer, you’re going to have to move to Barcelona.
• Use a comma after introductory participial phrases:

Generally speaking, we do not advocate the use of dictionaries during
examinations.
Thoroughly exhausted from an aerobics workout, Louise stumbled into the
locker room.
• Use commas to set off adverbial phrases located between the subject and the
verb of a sentence:
The Prime Minister, in keeping with his current economic policy,
announced that interest rates would once again be frozen for the duration
of the coming fiscal year.
• A series of two or more adjectives before a noun should be separated by

commas:
You have always been a faithful, sincere, and supportive friend.
However, if the first adjective modifies the idea expressed by the combination
of the second adjective and the noun, no comma should be used:
I have no interest in supporting any of the traditional political parties of this
country.
• Use a comma to separate similar or identical words:

Whatever will be, will be.
Please walk in, in single file.
• Similarly, use a comma to separate unrelated numbers:

In 1994, 432 strikes took place throughout the country.

3. The Semicolon
The semicolon is used to mark a more important break in sentence flow than that
marked by a comma.
• The semicolon may be used instead of a period to separate two closely-related

independent clauses not connected by a conjunction:
Our new apartment is much nicer than our old one; it is roomy and graced
with a good deal of natural light.
• When items in a series are long and complex or involve internal punctuation, they
should be separated by semicolons instead of commas for the sake of clarity:
The scores obtained by the finalists in the beauty contest were as follows:
Miss Alabama, 22; Miss Washington, 21; Miss New Mexico, 19; Miss
Maryland, 18; and Miss Nebraska, 14.
4. The Colon
• The colon is most often used to introduce a list or a series.

Three senators voted against the proposal: Senator Johnson of Alabama,
Senator Green of Arkansas and Senator Wilson of Louisiana.
• Do NOT use a colon if the list included in a sentence is an object or

complement of an element in the introductory statement.
Children have a right to food, shelter, parental love and education.
• The terms “as follows” and “the following” are generally followed by a
colon.
The following are some useful tips to keep in mind when traveling alone:
a) Never leave your baggage unattended.
b) Always keep your emergency contact information on your person.
c) Carry a cell phone with a fully-charged battery with you at all times.
• Use a colon to introduce a formal statement, an extract or speech in dialogue.

We shall now quote from the Prime Minister’s address: “In the past two
weeks, this country has seen an increase…”
LIZZIE: What was that?

JOHN: What was what?
LIZZIE: That noise. Didn’t you hear it?

• Use a colon after the salutation in a formal letter or formal address:

Dear Sirs: Dear Dr. Pinker: Ladies and Gentleman of the Board:
5. The Question Mark
• Use a question mark at the end of a direct question.

What do you think you’re doing? Is this the first time you’ve been
in Spain?
• Use a question mark after a direct interrogative element within a declarative

sentence.
How does she manage to look so great so early in the morning? was the
question going through all our minds.
Before deciding, ask yourself, is this really what I want?
• If an interrogative element within a declarative sentence consists of a single

word (e.g. who, what, when, where, how, why) a question mark is generally
not used. According to personal preference, the interrogative elements may be
italicised or not.
The question is not how, but why.
• A question mark should be placed inside quotation marks or parentheses

when it is part of the quoted or parenthetical matter.
The customs officer asked, “Do you have anything to declare?”
The Latin teacher (can you believe this?) has asked us to translate 15 pages
of Virgil for Monday.
Otherwise, the question mark should be placed outside the quotation marks or
parentheses.
Did they ask you to provide a complete medical history (childhood illnesses,
accidents, surgery)?
• A question mark may be used in parentheses to express doubt or irony.

The most exciting (?) thing that ever happens in this town is the annual
karaoke contest.

6. The Exclamation Point
• An exclamation point is generally used to mark an outcry or an emphatic or

ironic comment.
Watch out! You’ve certainly put your foot in it this time!
However, exclamation points should be used sparingly to avoid detracting

from their effectiveness.
• With quotation marks or parentheses, the exclamation point is used in exactly

the same way as a question mark.
7. The Apostrophe
• Add an apostrophe and s to form the possessive of singular nouns.

the woman’s daughter the policeman’s report the government’s policy
In the case of compound nouns, add an apostrophe and s at the end of the
word.
my sister-in-law’s car the bride-to-be’s engagement ring
In the case of compound proper names, add the apostrophe and the s to the
end of the last word.
The King of Spain’s concern the Bank of England’s official position
• To form the possessive of plural nouns, add an apostrophe if the plural is

regular (ending in s).
students’ rights workers’ demands ladies’ fashion
To form the possessive of plural nouns not ending in s, add an apostrophe and s.
women’s rights children’s antics the men’s club
• When two or more words in a series are connected by conjunctions, joint

possession is indicated with an apostrophe and s after the last noun only.
Marks and Spencer’s Lord and Taylor’s Sears and Roebuck’s
• To form the possessive of proper nouns ending in s, you may use either an
apostrophe alone or apostrophe + s.
Burgess’s book/Burgess’ book Lewis’s market/Lewis’ market

• Add an apostrophe + s to numbers, signs, symbols and letters to indicate the

plural.
Your a’s are hard to distinguish from your o’s.
Please use a’s to mark your answers.
Nevertheless, there is an increasing tendency today to omit the apostrophe in

such cases where there is no possibility of mistaking the meaning.
ABC’s or ABCs 1960’s or 1960s
• The apostrophe is also used to indicate the elision of the first two digits of a
year.
the Class of ’94 the Spirit of ’76 late in ‘82
8. Quotation Marks (a.k.a. “inverted commas” in British English)
• Use double quotation marks to signal a direct quotation.

“Mind your heads,” said the tour guide.
• To enclose one quotation within another, use single quotation marks. Should
you need to use quotation marks again within these, use double marks.
The sign in the bar read: “Final orders must be placed within five minutes
after the bartender gives the ‘last call’ signal.”
The professor remarked, “As Greaves writes, ‘the term “mainstream” in its
use as an adjective is a recent creation’ and we need look no further than
the pages of our daily newspaper to find a wealth of other similar linguistic
innovations.”
• Quotation marks (or italics) should be used to enclose text elements following
items such as entitled to, the word, marked, designated, referred to as, etc.
The word “philosophy” comes from Greek and means “love of knowledge”.
Containers marked “toxic waste” should be removed from the premises
immediately.
However, quotation marks should not be used after so-called, known as, or
called.
His so-called masterpiece is nothing but a piece of rusty scrap metal with a
flashing light on top.
• Quotation marks may be used to indicate the ironical use of words.

Of course you can “borrow” a cigarette.
• The titles of articles, poems, stories, songs and speeches should be enclosed
in quotation marks.
“Goldilocks and the Three Bears” “Imagine” “I Have a Dream”
However, the titles of periodicals, books, plays, operas, films and radio or
television series should be italicized (or underlined when writing by hand).
The New York Times Cats War and Peace
The Barber of Seville Madame Butterfly Romeo and Juliet
The X Files Emergency Cosmopolitan
• Quotation marks are sometimes used to indicate that a word or term is being
used in an unusual sense.
A student, as a “consumer,” is entitled to a series of fundamental rights.
9. Ellipsis Dots And Suspension Points
• Ellipsis dots are used to indicate omissions within direct quotations.
Legal monogamy historically has been an agreement between more and less
powerful men…Early Christianity appealed to poor men partly because the
promise of monogamy kept them in the marriage game…
STEVEN PINKER, How the Mind Works
• Suspension points may be used to signal interruptions or breaks in thought.
Raymond stared at the return address on the envelope and thought, “No…it
can’t be…my God! Could this mean…I’ve got the job?”
However, when you wish to indicate that a list or series is incomplete, it is

preferable to use expressions such as “etc.” or “and so forth” rather than
suspension points.
10. Punctuation With Numbers
The norms for use of punctuation with numbers may be quite different from
those of some students’ native languages. Here are the basic rules for English:

• Use a period (called a decimal point in this context) to separate whole

numbers from fractions. (1.5 = one and a half; 0.25 = one quarter)
• Use a comma to separate thousands from hundreds. (20,952 = twenty

thousand nine hundred and fifty two) Note that the comma is optional in
numbers up to 9999. (2,346 or 2346) When referring to years, however, never
use a comma. (My mother was born in 1919. NOT 1,919)
• When writing dates, use a period with abbreviations of months and a comma
after the number indicating a specific day. (Nov. 11, 1919) Note that when
writing dates in shorthand form (numbers only), Americans, unlike
Europeans, place the month before the day. (June 19, 1969 = 6.19.69)
11. Capitalization
There are, of course, many rules regarding the finer points of capitalization in
English. The following, however, are the very basic ones that foreign students of the
language should keep in mind at all times.
• The first word of a sentence is always capitalized.
• Proper nouns (names of people, places and organizations) are capitalized.
• The names of the months (January, February, etc.) and the names of the days
of the week (Monday, Tuesday, etc.) are always capitalized.
• The names of countries, cities, regions, etc. are always capitalized, AS ARE
the terms which describe people from these places, and the languages spoken
there.
Many people in Spain speak more than one language. In addition to
Spanish, many Spaniards speak regional languages such as Catalan,
Basque or Galician.
• In titles and subtitles (of books, plays, poems, songs, speeches, periodicals,
etc.) the first and last words should be capitalized, as well as all other words
EXCEPT coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, etc.), articles (both definite
and indefinite) and prepositions.
The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language
The Adventures of Winnie the Pooh

12. Division Of Words
As a general rule of thumb, avoid dividing words at the end of a line in

handwriting. In typewritten text, it should be remembered that the part of the word
left at the end of the line should suggest the part to follow at the beginning of the
next line. Beyond these general principles, the rules regarding word division in
English are complex, and when in doubt, it is best to consult the dictionary. As a
general aid, however, a few do’s and don’ts of English word division are provided
below.
DON’T:
• divide monosyllables.
• divide words of only four letters (and avoid dividing those with five or six
wherever possible).
• leave only one or two letters of the word divided at the end of a line.
• allow two or more consecutive lines to end with a hyphen.
• divide names of persons or other proper nouns if you can possibly avoid doing
so.
• separate the letters of an abbreviation or acronym.
• divide a word at the end of a page or paragraph.
• separate titles such as Mr., Mrs., Dr. from the names to which they belong.
• add another hyphen to words which already contain a hyphen.
DO:
• divide words with a prefix directly after the prefix (mis-lead, re-view)
• separate suffixes from the stem of a word (laugh-able, confer-ence, account-
ant)
• separate double consonants (win-ning, flat-ten) unless the stem itself ends in
a double consonant (pass-able, full-est)
• divide the word after a single middle consonant if the preceding vowel is short
(pun-ish)
• divide the word immediately before the middle consonant if the vowel
preceding it is long (ta-ken)

3. COHESION & COHERENCE
1. Cohesive Relationships
The first four sets of tasks included in Unit 9 of this manual are focused on
cohesive relationships. As described by Halliday and Hasan in Cohesion in English
(1976), these relationships may be grouped into five basic categories: 1) reference,
2) substitution, 3) ellipsis, 4) conjunction and 5) lexical cohesion. Below is a brief
description of the five types, together with illustrative examples of each.
TYPES OF COHESIVE RELATIONSHIPS EXAMPLES

1. REFERENCE may be understood as the With pronouns:
cohesive relationship to be observed when • Nancy sighed loudly. She was exhausted.
the interpretation of one lexical item • Nancy sighed loudly. This annoyed Bill.
(generally a personal, possessive or
demonstrative pronoun) is dependent on With definite articles or adverbs:
the reference it makes to another word or • Nancy looked up from her desk at
concept explicitly present in a preceding or precisely 2:00 A.M. It was then that she
following passage. When the defining happened to glance at the window.
referent precedes the pronoun, the • Suddenly, a face appeared. The face was
reference established is anaphoric; when dark and sinister-looking.
the pronoun precedes the referent, we
speak of cataphoric reference. Both
anaphoric and cataphoric reference
cohesion may also be achieved through the
use of definite articles or adverbs.
2. SUBSTITUTION occurs in English when a • Nancy eats meat only occasionally. Bill,
noun, verb or clause within the text is however, does it all the time.
replaced by a “dummy” word. The text • Nancy ordered a dry martini with two
recipient may understand what element is olives. Bill ordered the same.
being replaced by referring to a preceding • My poor old car is falling apart. I need a
passage in the text. new one.
3. ELLIPSIS is closely related to substitution • Have you finished your homework? – Yes,
and may be defined in terms of omission, or I have […] .
the substitution of one textual element by • Nancy bought a bottle of mineral water,
nothing at all. and Bill […] a case of beer.
• Who was that at the door? […] The
plumber?

4. CONJUNCTION involves the use of formal Additive linkers:

linking words and expressions to join and, or, furthermore, likewise, for example,
together sentences, clauses and moreover, what’s more, …
paragraphs. Adversative linkers:
but, yet, nevertheless, however, on the
other hand, on the contrary, still…
Causal linkers:
because, for this reason, therefore, in
consequence, so, thus, accordingly, as a
result…
Temporal linkers:
then, afterwards, occasionally, later, at last,
at first, next, in the end, eventually…
Discourse continuing linkers:
in the first (second, third, etc.) place; firstly,
secondly, thirdly, etc; in sum, in conclusion,
finally…
Attitudinal linkers:
admittedly, predictably, wouldn’t you know,
undoubtedly, of course, oddly enough…
5. LEXICAL COHESION is based on the Repetition:
connection established between selected The manager is not happy with your
items of vocabulary within a text. There are performance. As a matter of fact, the
two subtypes of lexical cohesion: manager has decided that your services will
reiteration and collocation. Reiteration may no longer be needed.
be achieved by the strict repetition of Synonymy:
lexical items, or by establishing Mrs. Harold Jones won the first prize in the
relationships of synonymy, hyponymy, pie competition. This is the third
antonymy and metonymy between lexical consecutive win for the 42-year-old mother
items in the text. Collocation refers to the of four from Jaspers County.
co-occurrence within the text of items Hyponymy:
typically associated with one another. (e.g. I think it would be nice to get your mother
unrequited+love; unbridled+passion; some flowers for her birthday. I know she
toxic+waste, etc.) likes roses.
Antonymy:
Big cars are totally impractical in the city. You
wold be wise to buy a small car next time.
Metonymy:
In general we loved the film. The dialogue
was especially impressive.

2. Rhetorical Patterns
The conceptually coherent outlay of many of the texts we encounter in everyday

life may be seen to conform to a limited number of more or less fixed organizational
structures or rhetorical patterns. The importance of awareness of these patterns has
been stressed by many scholars in the field of reading research. Pearson and
Camperell (1981:45) note that students’ familiarity with the way texts are typically
organized serves as an aid to comprehension, as it enables them to make predictions
regarding the content of texts organized in particular ways, and Horowitz (1985:90)
compares skilled readers to expert cab drivers (who must be familiar with all the
details involved in their job, including the overall lay-out of the city and the specific
location of addresses) and students aware of text structure to expert chess players:
“Much like expert chess players, students aware of structure do not memorize the
board, but they learn the key configurations used by players.”
While researchers have proposed a number of different taxonomies of rhetorical

patterns and on occasion employed different terms to describe them, most recognize
some form of the following four patterns: 1) comparison/contrast; 2) cause/effect; 3)
problem/solution; and 4)definition/classification. The names of these patterns are
themselves indicative of the type of conceptual content to which they generally
correspond. Related tasks in this unit are designed to allow students to learn about
rhetorical patterns by induction.
3. The English Paragraph
Well-formed English paragraphs are often characterized by a conventional,

internal arrangement of ideas; and awareness of this arrangement may greatly
facilitate a student’s ability to focus on those parts of the information contained in a
text which are used by the writer to carry forward his/her general train of thought.
This ability in turn enables students to form an idea of the gist of a text before
proceeding to read through it carefully.
In English, it is generally the first or second sentence which presents the central
idea or topic of a paragraph. Where the second sentence is the topic sentence, the
first sentence is ordinarily used to introduce or prepare the way for the statement of
the topic. Subsequent sentences within the paragraph have the function of
developing the idea outlined in the topic sentence, and the final sentence may act as
a kind of paragraph summary, as a way of alerting the reader to the topic to be
addressed in the following paragraph, or both.

While paragraphs in English do not always conform precisely to such a strict

design, the general “rules” regarding their typical structure are applied frequently
enough to warrant students’ attention. Furthermore, learning to look at paragraphs in
English texts as connected “containers” from which conceptually separable but
related ideas flow into one another contributes to a deeper understanding of the
articulation of cohesion and coherence within texts.
4. STANDARD BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH: SOME BASIC DIFFERENCES
Phonetic differences are of course the most obvious ones to be found between
British English and American English, as differences in pronunciation vary greatly
between different non-standard dialects of English, both between different English-
speaking countries and within a given country. Beyond phonetic differences,
however, and strictly with regard to the two standard dialects of the U.S. and the
U.K., a number of common differences in grammar, spelling and vocabulary may
be observed.
1. Differences In Grammar
The most common grammatical discrepancies between British and American

English may be summed up as follows:
• Use of the auxiliary form “shall”: This form is encountered only rarely in
American English, in which the simple future tense is usually formed with
“will” with all the pronouns. In British English, however, some speakers
(generally belonging to the higher social classes) still preserve the rule that
“shall” is to be used with the first persons singular and plural (i.e. I and we) in
the simple future tense. (The same distinctions hold true for the conditional
tense with should as opposed to would.)
• Negative and interrogative forms of the verb “to have”: In American

English, the negative and interrogative forms of the verb “to have” are
constructed with the auxiliary verb “to do”, following the same rules of most
common verbs. (Thus, an American says, “I don’t have much time.” and “Do
you have change for a dollar?”) Speakers of standard British English, on the
other hand, sometimes treat the verb “to have” grammatically as if it were a
modal verb, using the simple addition of the particle “not” and inversion to
construct the negative and interrogative forms of the verb. (Thus, British

speakers may say, “I haven’t much time.” and “Have you change for a
pound?”) Both American and British speakers use the compound form “have
got” as a synonym for “to have” with more or less equal frequency. (Example:
“I’ve got a great idea!”) Note that this compound constructs its negative and
interrogative forms as modal verbs do. (Example: “Have you got time for a
cup of coffee?” or “I haven’t got the faintest idea.”)
• Past participle of the verb “to get”: In the U.K., the past participle “got” is
more common, as in “He said he had got his hat at the shop on the corner.” In
the U.S., the more common form is “gotten” as in “I wish I had gotten those
shoes I saw in the window yesterday.”
• Simple past vs. past perfect: In some cases Americans use the simple past
tense to refer to events from the immediate past which still have a bearing on
the present (e.g. “Did you eat yet?”) where the British would as a rule use the
present perfect tense (e.g. “Have you eaten yet?”).
• Use of prepositions: Some common prepositional expressions vary from one

country to the other, notably in Abbey Road (British) as opposed on Fifth
Avenue (American) and at the weekend (British) as opposed to on the
weekend (American). British speakers also sometimes use the shortened form
“round” where Americans would say “around”. Finally, the British generally
say “in hospital” (with no article) to refer to patients at such an institution, and
“in the hospital” (with the definite article) to refer to visitors and employees
when they are located in this place, while Americans consistently say “in the
hospital” (with the article) no matter what the circumstances.
2. Differences In Spelling
American spelling is generally simpler than its British counterpart.
• Words ending in –our or –re in British English are spelled with –or and –er
in the U.S.
British: colour, favour, centre, theatre
American: color, favor, center, theater
• Derivatives from Greek containing the vowel combinations oe or ae in British

English generally lose the initial ‘o’ or ‘a’ in American English.
British: gynaecologist, oecumenical
American: gynecologist, ecumenical

• Most (but not all) verbs ending in –ise in British English are spelled with –ize
in American English. Common exception are verbs ending in –vise (e.g.
televise, devise, revise) which are spelled with an ‘s’ in both dialects.
British: analyse, synthesise
American: analyze, synthesize
• Two-syllable verbs ending in ‘l’ and which are pronounced with the accent on
the first syllable double the final ‘l’ when joined to suffixes such as “-ing”, “-
ed” or “-er” in British English, but not in American English.
British: traveller, revelled
American: traveler, reveled
• Beyond the rules outlined above, British and American English also exhibit
differences in the spelling of a number of other words which may not be
easily categorized. Here are a few examples:
British: cheque, draught, programme, tyre
American: check, draft, program, tire
3. Differences In Vocabulary
Quite a few discrepancies regarding common, everyday words and expressions

may be found in British and American English. In many cases, the British and
American words are mutually understandable. In others, Brits tend to have an easier
time understanding Americans than vice-versa, due to the widespread influence of
American films and television programs. (Nevertheless, context usually resolves
most difficulties.) There are, however, some awkward cases in which the differences
an be confusing to members of both nations. Sometimes the British and the
Americans use different words to express the same concepts, and sometimes they
use the same words to express different concepts. It is a good idea for you, as
translators, to be aware of the commonly occurring differences.


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E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.

TARGETING THE SOURCE TEXT:

E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.es

Cap part d’aquesta publicació, incloent-hi el disseny de la coberta, no pot ser

Primera edició: 2004

© Del text: Justine Brehm Cripps, 2007

© De la il·lustració de la coberta: Michael Brehm Cripps, 2007

© De la present edició: Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I, 2007

Edita: Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I

Edelsa. Grupo Didascalia, S.A.

Dipòsit legal: CS-375-2007

Imprimeix: Graphic Group, S.A.

E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.es

TASK 1: CORRECTING STYLISTIC ERRORS

1. Flying planes can be dangerous.

2. We saw many bears driving through the forest.

6. Visiting professors may be tedious.

E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.es

7. The chickens were too hot to eat.

14. (Headline in newspaper): Man found beaten, robbed by police.

E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.es

TASK 2: DETECTING AND EXPLANING TRANSLATION ERRORS

3. (In a multilingual brochure placed on the nightstand of a hotel in Castellón): We

4. (In a brochure published by the Valencian Tourist Information Bureau): Prehistorical

E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.es

E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.es

1. “Dresses for street walking.”

Why the translation is funny:

2. “Come inside and have a fit.”

Why the translation is funny:

3. “Because of the impropriety of entertaining guests of the opposite sex in the

Why the translation is funny:

E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.es

Why the translation is funny:

Why the translation is funny:

Why the translation is funny:

Why the translation is funny:

E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.es

Why the translation is funny:

9. “Take one of our horse-driven city tours. We guarantee no miscarriages.”

Why the translation is funny:

10. “Five o’clock tea served all hours.”

Why the translation is funny:

Why the translation is funny:

E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.es

12. “Visitors: Two to a bed and half an hour only.”

Why the translation is funny:

13. “A sports jacket may be worn to dinner, but no trousers.”

Why the translation is funny:

E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.es

TASK 1: GRAMMATICAL CALQUES AND ERRORS

MISTAKE: “the news ….are” CORRECTION: “the news…is”

MISTAKE: ________________ CORRECTION: ___________________

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E-book adquirit per al294934 el 04-03-2014 en www.tenda.uji.es

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