Materials Today: Proceedings 43 (2021) 441–446

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Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

A current state of art applied to injection moulding manufacturing

process – A review
Rehan Farooque a,⇑, Mohammad Asjad a, S.J.A. Rizvi b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India
b
Department of Petroleum Studies, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Injection moulding (IM) appears to be one of the most important techniques for manufacturing plastics
Received 3 October 2020 products worldwide. As IM is a complicated process, so it is technically very difficult to take into account
Received in revised form 8 November 2020 all the changes taking place during the process. To enhance efficiency of the process and to have consis-
Accepted 30 November 2020
tent product quality, proper input parameter’s setting is critically important. The numbers of input pro-
Available online 16 January 2021
cess parameters are: melt temperature, mold temperature, injection pressure, injection speed, injection
time, holding pressure, holding time and cooling time. The responses/output may be mechanical proper-
Keywords:
ties, defects e.g., warpage, shrinkage, sink mark, residual thermal stress etc., and aesthetic requirement
Injection molding
Process parameters
for example surface finish/roughness. Literature review shows that most of the researchers have opti-
Responses mized the process parameters and established a correlation between the parameters and the behavior
Material used of the material under investigation. Others performed optimization research regarding some specific
Modelling techniques areas of IM viz. cooling channel design, location of the gate, runner system design etc. Some of the studies
were focused on monitoring control system to monitor the process during production to ensure quality
and minimize the defects. Researchers have used many different techniques to model and optimize the
IM manufacturing process. These techniques include mathematical modelling, simulation, design of
experiments (DOE) and artificial intelligence (AI). Some of the examples of these techniques are
Taguchi method, evolutionary algorithm (EA), artificial neural networks (ANN), genetic algorithms
(GA), fuzzy logic, response surface methodology (RSM), particle swarm optimization (PSO), analysis of
variance (ANOVA) etc. This paper aims to review and present the various studies concerning the process
parameters and their influence over the quality of product. Throughout this review, the process param-
eters, response, material used and the technique applied to optimization research in the field of IM are
highlighted.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 1st International Con-
ference on Energy, Material Sciences and Mechanical Engineering.

1. Introduction
Thermoplastics injection molding (IM) seems to be the favour-
ite choice in several industry sectors. Hyatt brothers coined the
concept of injection molding to manufacture the billiard balls. IM
is second industrially feasible manufacturing process for plastic
products. Now a days IM is used to manufacture more than one
third of polymeric products world wide [1]. IM is favorite choice
of many industry because of the affordability and lightness of the
plastic molded products especially when the mechanical require-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rehanamu14@gmail.com (R. Farooque).
ment is not too stringent. A wide range of plastic are used in auto-
mobiles. The average plastic penetration in Indian is 60 kg/ vehicle
where as the average global plastic penetration is 120 kg/vehicle.
Importance of plastic injection moulding can be realized from the
fact that about 75% of fuel used is directly related to the vehicle
weight [2]. It has been established that 20% weight reduction
would yield in 12–14% of fuel saving [3]. IM has good presence
in many sector viz. aerospace, precision optics, biomedical and
telecommunications industries because of its advantages like low
cost of production, very good precision, a short cycle time and
the ease of fabricating components with complex contour [4,5].
IM involves melting of the polymer in a plasticization unit fol-
lowed by injecting the melt into mold cavity (Fig. 1). The injected

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.967
2214-7853/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 1st International Conference on Energy, Material Sciences and Mechanical Engineering.
R. Farooque, M. Asjad and S.J.A. Rizvi
Fig. 1. Pictorial depiction of the injection moulding process [6].
material is cooled (to avoid some of the defects) before demolding
the part. The injection moulding techniques includes the four main
stages: plasticization, clamping, moulding-holding and demould-
ing as shown in Fig. 1.
The previous researchers have found that cooling takes 50% to
80% of the moulding time amongst the four stages of the IM pro-
cess [7]. Therefore, it is vital to shorten cooling time to reduce
the overall cycle time as the efficiency hence productivity is highly
dependent on it. Several methods were applied to lower the cool-
ing time and increase the productivity hence the profitability. One
approach to lower the moulding time is the use of conformal cool-
ing/heating channels. These channels follow the geometry/shape of
the cavity facilitating the reduction in part’s temperature faster
and more evenly. These channels ensures the coolant access to
all part locations uniformly resulting in efficient and consistent
product quality [8]. Rapid heating and cooling, helps improve pro-
duct quality and reduce moulding time, can be carried out with the
help of artificial intelligence techniques in micro IM process [9] as
well as in conventional injection molding for larger components
e.g., LCD TV frame and interior components of the automotive
[10]. Many different optimization research techniques have been
applied to optimize the process parameters of an IM process and
having products with acceptable quality. But still there is a chal-
lenge before the researchers of the field on their practical imple-
mentation because of a number of source of variation during the
process resulting in defects and consequently leading to the
wastage of the resources. Process monitoring and control, opti-
mization of process parameters, mold design as per the intricate
shape of the product and the cooling channel conferming to the
shape of mold cavity would benefit from implementation of artifi-
cial intelligence approach to work in the most optimal way [11].
The typical performance measures (responses) are: tensile
properties, impact characteristics, compressive properties, optical
characteristic, surface finish, aesthetic requirement etc. The effi-
cacy of the process can be expressed in terms of the absence of
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Materials Today: Proceedings 43 (2021) 441–446
defects: warpage, flashes, sink mark, short shot, splay (silver
streaks), burn marks, voids, bubbles etc. As injection moulding is
a mass production process, therefore care must be taken while
selecting the process parameters for production. The proper setting
of process parameters must be ensured to get the desired mechan-
ical properties and to get rid of various defects in the final product
thereby minimizing the wastage of materials. In an injection
moulding process the common input parameters are: hold-on
pressure, injection pressure, injection time, hold-on time, melt
temperature, injection speed, mold temperature and cooling time.
Shoemaker [12] proposed that molding conditions comprise of
packing pressure (hold-on pressure), mold temperature, packing
time (hold-on time), melt temperature and filling time (injection
time). Karbasi and Reiser [13] considered velocity profile, screw
travel, mold temperature, barrel temperatures, filling pressure,
packing pressure, holding pressure, filling time, packing time and
holding time as main parameters. As far as the prominent process
parameters are concerned, the finding of the researchers are not
consistent. This is due to a lot of variability associated with injec-
tion moulding technique for example, mold size variation, machine
size variation, material variation, product shape variation.
So, an important goal is to control the injection moulding pro-
cess, to achieve this goal the researcher of the field must precisely
design, measure and monitor the process to make important vari-
ables observable and controllable [13]. This will guarantee consis-
tency and repeatability of the process and will result in lowering of
product quality failure. For a mass production process like IM the
consistency in product characteristics is crucial for acceptable pro-
duct quality.
The aim of this research article is to summarize the research
accomplished in the field of injection moulding wherein we have
mentioned the process parameters, material used, performance
parameters (responses) and the tool used for analysis. The paper
includes introduction, literature review, followed by conclusion
and references.
R. Farooque, M. Asjad and S.J.A. Rizvi
2. Literature review
Charest et al. [14] performed on-line process parameter adjust-
ment to integrate machine learning wherein they had conducted
experiments on a 150 tonne fully instrumented injection moulding
machine. They have installed numerous sensor, for improving
quality and data collection, viz. velocity and position sensors, pres-
sure transducers and thermocouples. They have produced tensile
test samples and duct cover samples wherein they have visually
shown the sound samples and the defective one. The defects were
due to air bubbled and the short shot.
Farotti and Natalini [15] conducted experiments to know the
effects of input parameters over mechanical properties of
polypropylene (PP). Molds are designed and realized to produce
different kinds of test samples viz. tensile, charpy etc. Sensors are
mounted next to the mould to have direct information about the
cavity pressure and temperature. Tensile test have been performed
by considering melt temperature, holding pressure, mold temper-
ature and cooling time as the parameter under investigation.
ANOVA has established that mold temperature and holding pres-
sure have influence over the mechanical strength.
Jiang et al. [16] conducted experiments to know the effect of
injection velocity on mechanical properties and morphology of
the microparts made up of polycarbonate/poly(ethylene tereph-
thalate) (PC/PET) blends. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
was used to study the morphology after breaking the samples in
liquid nitrogen. PC/PET part shows skin core morphology and with
the increase of injection velocity the thickness of the core layer
increases. The degree of orientation for main chain and pendant
group first increase with the increase of injection velocity and then
decrease. It was evident from the result of nanoindentation testing
that the modulus first goes down with increase in the injection
velocity and then goes up with the increase of injection velocity.
Kitayama et al. [17] performed numerical and experiment based
study to optimize the input parameters, reduce the weldline defect
and minimize the clamping force. They tried to maximize the min-
imum weld line temperature to reduce the length of the weld line
because low weld line temperature results in longer weld line.
They carried out optimization of input parameters to identify the
pareto-frontier. They also established that 3D cooling channel is
more effective than straight type cooling channel for weld line
reduction and clamping force minimization.
Kitayama et al. [18] carried out multi-objective optimization of
input process variables to minimize three objectives simultane-
ously viz. warpage, cycle time and clamping force to improve qual-
ity and productivity. The radar chart is applied for trade-off
analysis among three objectives. It has been established that all
objective functions are well improved with conformal cooling
channel as compared to conventional cooling channel. It has been
found that warpage is reduced by 43%, clamping force reduced by
17% and cycle time reduction was 47%.
Ali et al. [19] applied Taguchi method (L9, orthogonal array) and
gray rational analysis to optimize the input process variables and
investigate mechanical characteristic of plastic parts. Four input
process variables are considered viz. mold temperature, melt tem-
perature, injection time and cooling time. From ANOVA, it has been
established that the cooling time was the most influential process
variable affecting mechanical properties then comes the mold tem-
perature and melt temperature.
Osarenmwinda and Olodu [20] performed experiments to opti-
mize IM process that results in minimum shrinkage for high den-
sity polyethylene (HDPE) using Taghuchi (L9, orthogonal array)
approach. The optimized process parameters value for their exper-
imental set was melt temperature 190OC, injec. pressure 55 MPa,
refilling pressure 85 MPa and cooling time 11 s that result in min-
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Materials Today: Proceedings 43 (2021) 441–446
imum shrinkage. They found that the cooling time was most influ-
ential input process variable then comes the refilling pressure
whereas the injection pressure was least significant parameter
affecting shrinkage.
Singh et al. [21] performed multiobjective optimization to
reduce warpage and cycle time. They have used Taguchi and desir-
ability hybridization function approach. A DOE plan (L27, orthogo-
nal array) has been setup to fix the tests to be performed. They
have considered four input process variable viz. injection pressure,
melt temperature, packing time and holding pressure. They estab-
lished optimized parameter setting with the help of desirability
hybridization function on the basis of L27 orthogonal array.
Park et al. [22] applied artificial intelligence to control the input
process variable of an IM process. They investigated correlation
between process parameters and quality characteristics to develop
an algorithm to compensate for any deviation in process
parameters.
Khamis et al. [23] proposed multiresponses optimisation of pro-
cess parameters for samples consisting of blend of polypropylene-
nanoclay with different weight percentage 0 wt%, 3 wt% and 6 wt
%. via Taguchi approach. The four input process variables were cho-
sen viz. packing pressure, melt temperature, screw speed and fill-
ing time whereas the responses to be optimized were flexural
strength, warpage and shrinkage. They have proven that the pres-
ence of fibre does effect the most influential process parameter for
each response as well as the quality of the injection moulded
component.
Fernandes et al. [24] did his research to establish the position
and layout of cooling channel in an IM process using genetic algo-
rithm and computer added engineering because cooling channel
has great effect over productivity and quality in an IM process.
While optimizing the position and layout of cooling channel they
had considered L- shape moulding to minimize the component
warpage.
Mukras et al. [25] performed optimization of input parameters
of an IM process wherein their objective was to minimize defects
viz. warpage and volumetric shrinkage. The input process variables
of their study were: mold temperature, melt temperature, holding
pressure, holding time, cooling time, injection speed and injection
pressure. The result shows that the warpage and volumetric
shrinkage are opposed to each other i.e., improvement in one is
at the cost of other.
Shayful et al. [26] proposed optimization of length of weld line
formation using Taguchi and ANOVA. The material and process
parameters under consideration were amorphous thermoplastic
PC/ABS blend and cavity temperature, core temperature, melt tem-
perature, filling time, packing pressure, packing time respectively.
They found that the melt temperature is the most notable factor
among various process parameters whereas core temperature
and filling time is insignificant. Moreover, instead of melt temper-
ature, the temperature difference on mold (between mold and
melt) has predominant effect over the formation of weld line, i.e.,
lower the temperature difference shorter will be the formation of
weld line.
Kitayama et al. [27] optimized the mould temperature profile
and input variable to reduce the formation of weld line and lower-
ing of cycle time in rapid heat cycle molding (RHCM) with confor-
mal cooling channel. Numerical simulation is performed and based
on these findings, the samples were prepared on a IM machine
(GL100, Sodick). Sequential approximate optimization (SAO) with
redial basic function (RBF) is applied to point out the Pareto fron-
tier. It has been established that weld line reduction and lowering
of cycle time were conflicting each other, which had been estab-
lished by the numerical findings.
Jan et al. [28] carried out multi response optimization process
parameters to minimize surface roughness and shrinkage’s
R. Farooque, M. Asjad and S.J.A. Rizvi
through Taguchi method (orthogonal array, L9) and composite
desirability function for polystyrene and polypropylene thermo-
plastic. The input parameters are injection temperature, injection
pressure, injection speed and mould temperature. Whereas surface
roughness, shrinkage inflow and cross-flow direction are used as
the response variables.
Jou [29] investigated on after-molding and thermal shrinkage of
PP samples to know the effects of process parameters at different
annealing temperatures for certain time by applying the 23 facto-
rial design and an ANOVA. Out of the chosen factors namely cool-
ing time, melt and mould temperature, the author concluded that
the mould temperature was the most noteworthy factor.
Jansen et al. [30] studied the influence of processing condition
on shrinkage of polymeric components. They systematically varied
mold temperature, melt temperature, packing pressure and injec-
tion velocity for seven commonly used plastics viz. polystyrene
(PS), acrylbutiene styrene (ABS), high impact polystyrene (HIPS),
polycarbonate (PC), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), 30% glass
fibre reinforced PBT (PBT-GF30) and high density polyethylene
(HDPE). They found that the packing pressure was most important
input variable for all plastic materials under consideration. Then
comes the melt temperature whereas no general trend was
observed for the injection velocity and mold temperature.
Wu and Huang [31] performed the experimental studies to find
out the effect of cavity deformation over shrinkage and warpage. A
program was prepared to guess the deformation of cavity which
was very close to the practical measurements. This study has prac-
tical significance because usually the simulation software does not
taken into account the deformation of cavity while performing
shrinkage and warpage investigation.
Liao et al. [32] proposed optimal process parameter of thin-wall
parts by taking into account the interaction effects between
parameters for an injection moulding process. They developed
the DOE using Taguchi approach for experimentation wherein
ANOVA is used to determine the most crucial parameter. The
results show that the holding pressure was the predominant input
process variable influencing shrinkage and warpage.
Kusic and Hancic [33] studied the effect of process parameter
over shrinkage and warpage of a standardized test specimen (PP
filled with calcium carbonate). They considered six moulding
parameters such as melt temperature, packing time, cooling time,
injection speed, holding pressure and injection pressure maintain-
ing the mold temperature at 30 °C. Taguchi approach was used to
optimize input process variables and using ANOVA it had be estab-
lished that the holding pressure has the highest effect on shrinkage
and warpage.
Khan et al. [34] investigated different kinds of cooling channel
design with focus on cooling analysis to minimize cycle time
because cooling contribute maximum to the cycle. The most effec-
tive cooling channel layout is chosen based on least cooling time
required for the part to be ejected as well as the minimum war-
page. They evaluated the freezing time, shrinkage, and tempera-
ture variance by considering four different cooling channels
design. They established that the cooling time goes down in the
range from 15% [35] to 50% [36] by application of conformal cool-
ing/heating channel.
Kitayama et al. [37] studied cooling efficacy of conformal cool-
ing channel for injection moulding process. The reduction in war-
page and cycle time is considered as the criteria to examine the
performance. Melt temperature, injection time, holding pressure,
holding time, cooling time and cooling temperature are considered
as the input process parameters. For numerical examination pur-
pose, multi optimization is performed to obtain optimal set of
input process variables for cooling channel and a model was devel-
oped using radial basic function network to identify the pareto
frontier. Experimentation is done to authenticate the efficacy of
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Materials Today: Proceedings 43 (2021) 441–446
the channel. Through numerical and experimental examination,
it is authenticated that the conformal cooling channel is worth-
while in lowering the cycle time & reducing the warpage.
Rahim et al. [38] proposed a new design of conformal cooling
channels with focus on productivity and quality improvement.
They warpage which is a common quality issue and cooling time
which contribute maximum to the cycle time affecting the produc-
tivity. They found that the milled grooved square shape cooling
channels minimize the defect namely warpage and ameliorated
the cooling time by 65% in contrast to straight-drilled cooling
channels.
Chen et al. [39] propound a concept that integrates electromag-
netic induction heating with coolant cooling in an IM process
which results in dynamic control of mold surface temperature.
Their finding shows that the mold temperature could be risen from
1100C to 2000C in 4 s and can be taken back to 1100C in 21 s.
Altan [40] established that artificial neural network is a sturdy
model to anticipate the interrelation between input variables and
characteristics of moulded components. It has capability to foresee
the moulded part characteristics with high accuracy. This novel
way is working and an effective approach for quality criteria fore-
cast e.g., shrinkage, weight, tensile strength.
Shen et al. [41] investigated IM process wherein they optimized
the input parameters using artificial neural network in combina-
tion with GA method. The combination of ANN/GA approach is
used for optimization of process for industrial products to improve
quality.
Ozcelik and Erzurumlu [42] have applied a computer added
engineering software named MoldFlow Plastic Insight to optimize
the gate location, flow and filling, so as to minimize warpage of
moulded part. Input process variables such as holding pressure,
holding time, mold temperature, runner type, melt temperature,
cooling time, and gate location are considered as input parameters.
DOE and Taguchi method is applied to know the effects of input
process variable for thin shell moulding.
Additional literature survey pertaining to the research done in
the field of injection moulding is presented in tabular form
(Table 1) to improve the readability of this review paper. The table
includes research on IM with different process parameters, mate-
rial, responses and approach/tool used by the researcher.
3. Conclusion
The above investigation shows that the input process variables
considered by researchers of the IM field are: mould temperature
(or moulding temperature), melt temperature, injection velocity,
injection pressure, injection time, holding pressure, holding time,
cooling time, mould closing speed, back pressure, runner type, gate
location, screw speed, curing time, cavity pressure, fill time, cycle
time, gate dimension etc. Although, the finding of researchers in
regard to most prominent parameters are not consistent because
of the sophistication and variably associated with injection mould-
ing process. But from the result of the majority of research work,
the key finding in relation to the process parameter is that the
prominent process parameters associated with IM manufacturing
process are: melt temperature, mould temperature, holding pres-
sure, injection pressure, injection time and cooling time.
There is a lot of scope of application of mathematical modelling
and optimization in an injection moulding process. There are many
different techniques/tools that can be explored and applied to
analyse the IM process, also, the comparison between the results/
findings of two techniques/tools will help in deciding better tech-
nique/tool applicable to the process. Optimization research had
also been performed in IM process regarding some of the specific
features associated with the process such as cooling channel
R. Farooque, M. Asjad and S.J.A. Rizvi Materials Today: Proceedings 43 (2021) 441–446

Table 1
Result table with parameters and responses.

S. Reference Technique/Tool Used Process Parameters Responses Materials

No.
1. Chen et al. [43] Taguchi Method (Orthogonal Injection pressure, Holding pressure, Injection time, Holding Shrinkage and Polyamide
array L27), ANOVA, Solidworks, time, Coolant temperature, Cooling time, Melt temperature, warpage PAT
Moldflow Plastic Insight Mold open time, Mold surface temperature
2. Mehat et al. [44] Taguchi Method (Orthogonal mold temperature, melt temperature, injection time, holding Flexural recycled PP
array (OA) L18), Moldflow pressure, holding time and cooling time. modulus, Stress
Plastic Insight (MPI), ANOVA at yield
3. Yin et al. [45] Back propagation (BP) neural Mold temperature, melt temperature, holding pressure, Warpage and –
network, GA, Moldflow Plastic cooling time, holding time clamp force
Insight analysis
4. Pareek and Bhamniya Taguchi Method (OA L16), Injection pressure, Melt temperature, Cooling time Tensile Strength –
[46] ANOVA
5. Mehat et al. [47] Grey rational analysis, Taguchi Melt temperature, Holding pressure, Holding time, Cooling Shrinkage Poly
Method (OA L9) time propylene
(PP)
6. Yin et al. [48] Moldflow software, Back Mold temperature, Melt temperature, holding pressure, Warpage PP
propagation neural network, holding time, Cooling time
Finite element (FE) simulation
7. Akbarzadeh and Regression method, ANOVA, Melt temperature, Injection Pressure, Holding Pressure, Shrinkage and Polystyrene
Sadeghi [49] Invasive WEED Optimization Holding time Warpage (PS), PP
(IWO) algorithm
8. Dang [50] CAD, Moldflow software, RSM, Melt temperature, Mold temperature, Injection pressure, Warpage, PP
RBF Injection time, holding pressure, holding time Clamping force,
Tensile strength,
9. Tasi et al. [51] Taguchi Method (OA L18), melt temperature, screw speed, injection speed, injection Surface waviness, Polymethyl
Regression analysis pressure, holding pressure, holding time, mold temperature, roughness, light methacrylate
cooling rate transmission (PMMA)
10. Wang et al. [52] Taguchi Method (OA L18), CAE, No of gates, Gate size, Molding temperature, Resin Resin viscosity, Polybutylene
ANOVA temperature, Switch over by volume filled, Switch over curing terephthalate
injection pressure, Curing time percentage (PBT)
11. Kamaruddin et al. [53] Taguchi method (OA L18), Injection speed, Melt temperature, Injection pressure, packing Shrinkage Low density
ANOVA pressure, packing time, cooling time polyethylene
(LDPE), PP

design, runner system, gate location, size of the gate etc. Moreover,
still there is a lot of scope of application of optimization research in
these specific areas of IM. A thoughtful research in field of IM pro-
cess will result in meeting the two contradictory objective i.e., the
productivity and the quality. Moreover, process monitoring and
control of IM process are of high importance which will effect
the economy of the process as well as the quality of a final product.
Process monitoring and control can be conducted through applica-
tion of AI methods e.g., artificial neural networks, adaptive neural-
based inference system, genetic algorithm, evolutionary algorithm
etc.
There are a number of defects in an IM process but the promi-
nent defects are warpage, shrinkage and weld line formation as
most of the studies encountered in literature survey are focused
on minimizing these defects. Also, there are a number of existing
thermoplastic materials as well as the increasing number of newly
invented mouldable materials with varying characteristics and
mechanical properties which can be explored to fulfil the growing
demand of products and services. These materials as a single entity
and sometime their blend as per our requirement may be an inter-
esting area to the researchers of the field of IM manufacturing pro-
cess to come up with a material having wonderful properties.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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