❖ Power Diodes

Definition: A power diode or high-power diode is one of the power

semiconductor devices that have two terminals (cathode and anode) similar to the
normal PN junction diode but exhibit higher power handling capability.
Symbolically a power diode is represented as:

Structure Of Power diode

Power diode having three layers like the P+ layer, n– layer and n+ layer. The
upper layer is the P+ layer, it is heavily doped and the lower layer is n+ layer, and
it is also heavily doped and the middle layer is n– layer, it is lightly doped. The
heavily doped upper and lower (P+ layer and n+ layer) is called terminal layers
and terminal layers is always heavily doped to increase the conductivity of the
device.

Structure of power diode

Here the upper layer p+ layer acts as an anode, the thickness of this layer is 10
μm & the doping level is 1019 cm-3. The lower layer n+ layer acts as a cathode,
the thickness of this layer is 250-300 μm & the doping level is 1019 cm-3. The
middle layer n- layer acts as a drift layer, the doping level is 10 14 cm-3 and the
thickness of this layer mainly depends up on the breakdown voltage.
Once drift layer width increases then breakdown voltage will be increased. Due
to its light doping concentration of drift layer, as we know that the thickness of
the depletion region increases with a decrease in doping concentration. This
increased thickness of the depletion region helps the diode to block larger reverse-
biased voltage and hence have a greater breakdown voltage.

V-I Characteristics of Power Diodes

The figure below shows the V-I characteristics of a power diode which is
almost similar to that of a signal diode.

In forward biased condition when anode is positive w.r.t. cathode the forward
current increase linearly with an increase in forward voltage.

In reverse biased condition when cathode is positive w.r.t. anode, diode does not
conduct and the diode then experiences a small current flowing in the reverse
direction called the reverse leakage current or reverse saturation current. This
reverse saturation current flow due to the moment of minority carrier. This
reverse saturation current is independent of applied reverse biased voltage.

If this reverse applied voltage continuously increases after a certain reverse

applied voltage a large reverse current flow through the device & the depletion
layer will be destroyed. That reverse voltage is called reverse breakdown voltage
(VBR). Result large reverse current flow through the diode. This large revers
current will destroy the diode, So the diode is designed to dissipate such a high
amount of heat.

Applications

• Freewheeling diodes
• Rectification,
• Battery charging
• Electroplating
• UPS,
• Choppers
• SMPS

❖ Gunn Diode
A Gunn Diode is considered as a type of diode even though it does not contain
any typical PN diode junction like the other diodes, but it consists of two
electrodes. This diode is also called as a Transferred Electronic Device. This
diode is a negative differential resistance device, which is frequently used as a
low-power oscillator to generate microwaves. It consists of only N-type
semiconductor in which electrons are the majority charge carriers. To generate
short radio waves such as microwaves, it utilizes the Gunn Effect.

Structure of gunn diode

Despite the fact that the Gunn diode is called a “diode”, it doesn’t have a p-n
junction in its structure of gunn diode, so it is different than in
normal semiconductor diode. Gunn Diode structure consists of three areas:
two highly n-doped areas and a thin area between them with low concentration
of dopants.

Gunn Diode’s Characteristics

On applying a DC voltage across the terminals of the Gunn diode, an electric field
is developed across its layers, most of which appears across the central active
region. At initial stages, the conduction increases due to the movement of
electrons from the valence band into the lower valley of the conduction band.
The associated V-I plot is shown by the curve in the Region 1 (colored in pink)
of Figure 2. However, after reaching a certain threshold value (V th), the
conduction current through the Gunn diode decreases as shown by the curve in
the Region 2 (colored in blue) of the figure.
This is because, at higher voltages the electrons in the lower valley of the
conduction band move into its higher valley where their mobility decreases due
to an increase in their effective mass. The reduction in mobility decreases the
conductivity which leads to a decrease in the current flowing through the diode.

As a result, the diode is said to exhibit negative resistance region (region spanning
from Peak point to Valley Point) in the V-I characteristic curve. This effect is
called transferred electron effect and thus the Gunn diodes are also called
Transferred Electron Devices. Further it is to be noted that the transferred
electron effect is also called Gunn effect and is named after John Battiscombe
Gunn (J. B. Gunn) after his discovery in 1963 which showed that one could
generate microwaves by applying a steady voltage across a chip of n-type GaAs
semiconductor.

Applications

• In electronic oscillators to generate microwave frequencies.

• In parametric amplifiers as pump sources.
• As sensors in door opening systems, trespass detecting systems, pedestrian
safety systems, etc.
• In microwave receiver circuits.
• In radio communications.
• In military systems.
• As microwave relay data link transmitters.
• In Continuous Wave Doppler Radars.

❖ Schottky Diode
The Schottky diode is popularly known as hot-carrier diode, low-voltage diode,
or Schottky barrier diode. It is a type of diode formed by the junction of a
semiconductor with a metal. We know that in a PN junction diode, p-type and
n-type semiconductors are joined collectively to form a PN junction. To the
contrary, a Schottky diode replaces the p-type semiconductor with metals like
aluminium.

Schottky diode has multiple characteristics which makes it a better choice over
other diodes in electronic industry. It displays characteristics like fast switching
action and a low forward voltage drop.

Symbol of Schottky diode

Construction
The feature of Schottky diode is the metal-to-semiconductor junction. A metal
contact (made of metals like Pt, W, Al) is directly connected to the
semiconductor material (usually n-type silicon). The region beneath the metal
contact is n-type semiconductor. It has a higher concentration of electrons.
Schottky diodes have a depletion region near the junction. Since we do not have
a p-type region, this depletion region is much thinner than a normal diode. The
interaction of electrons from the n-type semiconductor with metal atoms is the
major driving factor for formation of this region.
Working of Schottky Diode

A Schottky diode is formed by joining a metal (commonly aluminum or

platinum) with a semiconductor material (usually silicon or gallium arsenide) to
create a metal-semiconductor junction.

• When the metal comes in contact with the semiconductor, a potential

barrier, known as the Schottky barrier, is created at the junction due to the
difference in work functions between the metal and semiconductor. This
barrier prevents the flow of electrons from the metal into the semiconductor.
• When a forward bias voltage is applied across the Schottky diode (anode
connected to the metal side, cathode connected to the semiconductor side),
the applied voltage reduces the height of the Schottky barrier.

• The lowered barrier allows electrons to easily flow from the metal into the
semiconductor, resulting in a low forward voltage drop (typically 0.2 to 0.4
volts for silicon Schottky diodes). This characteristic minimizes power
dissipation and makes the diode suitable for low-voltage applications.

• Schottky diodes exhibit very fast switching action due to the absence of a
depletion region. This makes them ideal for high-frequency applications
where rapid switching is required.

• In the reverse bias condition (positive voltage on the semiconductor side,

negative voltage on the metal side), the Schottky diode exhibits a small
reverse leakage current due to thermionic emission of electrons over the
lowered Schottky barrier.
V-I Characteristic of Schottky Diode

V-I characteristics of Schottky diode

The V-I characteristics of Schottky diodes are very much similar to the PN
junction diode. Current is the dependent variable while voltage is the
independent variable in the Schottky diode.

Forward Bias (F): When a forward bias voltage is applied across a Schottky
diode, the V-I characteristics show that it conducts current very quickly with a
relatively low forward voltage drop. This rapid conduction is due to the low
Schottky barrier at the metal-semiconductor junction. The forward current
increases exponentially with voltage, similar to a standard diode.

Reverse Bias (R): In the reverse bias condition, the V-I characteristics of a
Schottky diode display a small reverse current, often referred to as the leakage
current. This reverse current is typically larger than that of a silicon PN junction
diode because of the absence of the depletion region found in PN
junctions. However, it is still relatively low compared to other diode types.

Breakdown Voltage: Schottky diodes do not exhibit a well-defined breakdown

voltage like some other diode types. Instead, they have a reverse breakdown
mechanism known as “avalanche breakdown.” When the reverse voltage
exceeds a certain level, the diode can experience avalanche breakdown, leading
to a sudden increase in reverse current.

Cut-in Voltage: The cut-in voltage for a Schottky diode is typically very close
to zero volts, which means it starts conducting at very low forward bias voltages.
❖ IMPATT Diode
IMPATT is an abbreviation used for Impact ionization Avalanche Transit-Time.
IMPATT diode is a very high-power semiconductor device that is utilized for
microwave applications.
It is basically used as oscillator and amplifier at microwave frequencies. The
operating range of the IMPATT diode lies in the range of 3 to 100 GHz.
Construction
The figure here represents the structure of the IMPATT diode:

As we can see that it consists of 4 regions namely P+-N-I-N+. The structure of the
IMPATT diode is somewhat similar to the PIN diode. However, it operates on a
very high voltage gradient of around 400KV/cm, so as to produce avalanche
current.
Generally, materials like GaAs, Si, Ge or InP are used for its construction.
However, GaAs is preferred because of its low noise behaviour. Basically, it uses
a slightly different structure from a normal diode. Because we know that a normal
PN junction diode breaks down under avalanche condition. As the generation of
a large amount of current causes the generation of heat inside it. So, variation in
construction is adopted to produce RF signals at microwave frequencies.

Working of IMPATT Diode

These diodes operate on the principle of avalanche breakdown and transit time
delay.

An action that causes an abrupt increase in the junction current in reverse biased
condition of PN junction diode is known as avalanche breakdown.

In reverse biased condition, the width of the depletion region becomes extremely
thick. Due to which only minority carriers drift across the junction. In the
presence of a high electric field, the mobile charge carriers move with greater
velocity.

During their movement, the high-velocity carriers collide with other atoms in the
crystal and generates electron-hole pairs. This causes multiplication of charge
carriers inside the crystal structure.

Thus, the moving charges generate high current inside the device. This is known
as avalanche condition or impact ionization and is utilized in IMPATT diodes.

❖ Introduction to Thyristor
A thyristor is a four-layer semiconductor device, consisting of alternating P-type
and N-type materials (PNPN). A thyristor usually has three electrodes: an anode,
a cathode and a gate, also known as a control electrode. The most common type
of thyristor is the silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR).

Thyristor Applications
Despite being physically small devices, thyristors can control high voltages and
levels of current and so are used in high voltage, direct current power transmission
lines.
Other uses include:
• Power switches in factories and similar industrial settings
• Vehicle ignition switches
• Controlling the speed of electric motors
• Liquid level regulators
• Pressure control systems
• Surge protectors

❖ PNPN Diode
PNPN Diode or Shockley Diode is not widely available commercially. Still, it
forms the backbone of devices like Diac, Triac, SCR. It operates in two states
either ON or OFF. Thus, it is used as switching device. It is called PNPN
diode because of its construction architecture. It is a two terminal device that’s
why it is categorised as diodes.

Introduction to Shockley Diode

The PNPN diode is a four-layer (P-N-P-N), two terminals (namely anode and
cathode) semiconductor switching device. It is also called as four-layer diode. It
functions like a normal diode without any trigger inputs, in reverse biased
condition, no current flows through it and in forward biased condition current
flows through it when the voltage across it is more than the break over voltage of
it.

These diodes have only two states, either ON or OFF that’s why these are
classified as a thyristor. The basic construction, two transistor analogy and
symbol of the Shockley diode are shown in below figure.

The construction of this diode is simple: it is constructed by joining the four layers
to form PNPN junction. The equivalent circuit of this diode using two transistors
is shown in above figure where in the collector of a transistor T1 is connected to
the base of T2.

The junction J1 is formed at the emitter base junction of T1, J2 is at common

connected base collector junction between T1 and T2, and the J3 is at base emitter
junction of T2. Therefore, as the base emitter junctions, J1 and J3 must be forward
biased and as a collector base junction, J2 must be reverse biased for linear
operation.

Working
When the voltage is applied to this diode in such a way that anode is made positive
with respect to cathode, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and J2 is reverse
biased.
Until the voltage across the diode is less than the break over voltage, as an open
switch this diode exhibits a very high resistance and allows no current to flow
through it. Once the break over voltage is reached (as the forward voltage is
increased), it exhibits a very low resistance due to the breakdown of junction J2.

Therefore, it acts like a short circuit and allows the current to flow until the current
reaches to the holding current level of the diode. This forward current flow
through the diode is depends on the voltage applied and the external load
resistance. The below figure shows the VI characteristics of Shockley diode.

When the anode is made negative with respect to the cathode, junctions J1 and J3
are reverse biased and junction J2 is forward biased. If the reverse bias voltage is
increased (beyond the breakdown voltage of the Shockley diode), J1 and J3 are
reverse biased, then the reverse current will flow through the diode as shown in
above figure.

This reverse current produces the heat, further this could ruin the entire diode.
Therefore, Shockley diode should never be operated in reverse biased condition
with a voltage equal to the reverse breakdown voltage.

Shockley Diode Applications

Shockley diodes are used mainly for switching applications. The two main
important applications of Shockley diode as,

• Relaxation oscillator and

• Trigger switch
❖ Silicon Control Rectifier (SCR)
A silicon controlled rectifier or semiconductor-controlled rectifier is a four-layer
solid-state current-controlling device. SCRs are mainly used in electronic devices
that require control of high voltage and power. This makes them applicable in
medium and high AC power operations such as motor control function.

Construction
An SCR conducts when a gate pulse is applied to it, just like a diode. It has four
layers of semiconductors that form two structures namely; NPNP or PNPN. In
addition, it has three junctions labelled as J1, J2 and J3 and three terminals anode,
cathode and a gate. An SCR is represented as shown below.

The anode connects to the P-type, cathode to the N-type and the gate to the P-
type as shown below.

Modes of Operation in SCR

There are three modes of operation for a Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR),
depending upon the biasing given to it.

1) Forward Blocking Mode (Off State)

2) Forward Conducting Mode (On State)

3) Reverse Blocking Mode (Off State)

1) Forward Blocking Mode (Off State)

In this mode of operation, the positive voltage (+) is given to anode A (+),
negative voltage (-) is given to cathode K (-), and gate G is open circuited as
shown in the below figure. In this case, the junction J1 and junction J3 are forward
biased whereas the junction J2 becomes reverse biased. Due to the reverse bias
voltage, the width of depletion region increases at junction J 2. This depletion
region at junction J2 acts as a wall or obstacle between the junction J1 and junction
J3. It blocks the current flowing between junction J1 and junction J3. Therefore,
the majority of the current does not flow between junction J1 and junction J3.
However, a small amount of leakage current flows between junction J1 and
junction J3.

When the voltage applied to the SCR reaches a breakdown value, the high energy
minority carriers cause avalanche breakdown. At this breakdown voltage, current
starts flowing through the SCR. But below this breakdown voltage, the SCR
offers very high resistance to the current and so it will be in off state.

In this mode of operation, SCR is forward biased but still current does flows
through it. Hence, it is named as Forward Blocking Mode.

2) Forward Conducting Mode (On State)

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier can be made to conduct in two ways:

i. By increasing the forward bias voltage applied between anode and cathode
beyond the breakdown voltage
ii. By applying positive voltage at gate terminal.

In the first case, the forward bias voltage applied between anode and cathode is
increased beyond the breakdown voltage, the minority carriers (free electrons in
anode and holes in cathode) gain large amount of energy and accelerated to
greater velocities. This high-speed minority carriers collides with other atoms and
generates more charge carriers. Likewise, many collisions happen with other
atoms. Due to this, millions of charge carriers are generated. As a result, depletion
region breakdown occurs at junction J2 and current starts flowing through the
SCR. So the SCR will be in On state. The current flow in the SCR increases
rapidly after junction breakdown occurs.

In the second case, a small positive voltage VG is applied to the gate terminal. As
we know that, in forward blocking mode, current does not flow through the circuit
because of the wide depletion region present at the junction J 2. This depletion
region was formed because of the reverse biased gate terminal. So, this problem
can be easily solved by applying a small positive voltage at the Gate terminal.
When a small positive voltage is applied to the gate terminal, it will become
forward biased. So, the depletion region width at junction J2 becomes very
narrow. Under this condition, applying a small forward bias voltage between
anode and cathode is enough for electric current to penetrate through this narrow
depletion region. Therefore, electric current starts flowing through the SCR
circuit.

In second case, we no need to apply large voltage between anode and cathode. A
small voltage between anode and cathode, and positive voltage to gate terminal
is enough to brought SCR from blocking mode to conducting mode.

In this mode of operation, SCR is forward biased and current flows through it.
Hence, it is named as Forward Conducting Mode.

3) Reverse Blocking Mode (On State)

In this mode of operation, the negative voltage (-) is given to anode (+), positive
voltage (+) is given to cathode (-), and gate is open circuited as shown in the
below figure. In this case, the junction J1 and junction J3 are reverse biased
whereas the junction J2 becomes forward biased.
As the junctions J1 and junction J3 are reverse biased, no current flows through
the SCR circuit. But a small leakage current flow due to drift of charge carriers
in the forward biased junction J2. This small leakage current is not enough to turn
on the SCR. So, the SCR will be in Off state.