unite et code iets Orbodu dion code generation is the final Ae a e adiuity of compiler cally code generation 8 a process of Leads ass vo language [achive language stuperoents pian Ibe operakcons spectfied by tbe souver paograr when ne wun + Properties of objeck code generation 1) corvechness - gt should produce a and do not after the porpose- °F Kource Code WoHigh Quality e Se should produ i 2 ce a high Qual’ object code 4 P . ‘ i t Ci) BL ficient use. Of esources Of We Lovget machine: while | the code Ge necessary | Know the 7 anochine on which & & oT ‘to { enetabedl exe lod utilizalvon of abst Performing tre arithmetic a #% Quick tode . ¥ ge Wnecessory jak the code 4 chould alate the code. quickly of Pp t coszeck coda the veg Memo utilizakion while allocacting thmette logit unb while erations © enero! phasecompiling Me Source progam Object code forms: The object of Ihe con yeni of ore okjeck cade machine tode-This cede nosmalty comes tr_-follow hg forms « L-Absolule code 2. Relocale machine code 3.-Assembley code LAbsolute codes SE & a Machine code that contaths referer to actual addvess with program's address space? She quae code sf we do shuckion geleckon becomes code then be in skrotght _ fosward task. -for examp lee = ya a=utt “the code -for the above staitementr can be aaa as follows Mov fike ADD z, Roi ee ee voy %1Ro . app 1 Ro Mov Rov@ ° Hhe above generated code & a poor code becawr< Mov Roa i® not used and statement Mov ajF is sedundant « tence the efficient code can be Mov yrRo App ZiRo App +) Ro Mo Roe “The quale of enevated code (8 decided by ee speed and size. simply line by tine Banslatior of three address code ‘hlo touget tone leads to coneck code bub tt can enerake unacceptably: non epfiaént tort cede 5) Register allecation:- ister operarde 4 be tnsteuckior contains becomes shoxter and qasten vands in the a | od code. efpicent| then Such 2 Use ban that of using opel stlence toile uitlizakon A factor: —SThere aye lwo lohile sing registers * tinpostant adivities done |@ i a) tey allocation t- Dusting vegister allocakion_5 Sele appyoptiate set of variables that will noside wn crea isbers . Cb Register asstgnmenti- Durih nga a ent pick Up Ibe Specific 7e is ia which- vortable will westde * obtaining the optimal actignment 4 cegtsters to variables %s dif feeult ° machines Yequire veqistey pots SU aor some — LOVE spond n — certain as even odd numbered eer operands and sesults - —>foy examples ah 28M S Acquites aceqictey pats , constdev the ‘three address code - stems integer Multplicatio 44. =atb Ere tee ti tid - he efpicient omachine Mov ako App by Ro mur c, Ro Dw ApReo code sequence will be mov RoytyOchoice of evaluation osdert- tbe evaluation order f an important facts fn generating oun. applacnt target code - —>Some ovders vequite less number, af 7! 7 hold te tatermediate vesulls than the othere > 7 up Ibe best order 1% one of the deffieuleg wh cede evatcon - > Mostly , we can avoid this problem ty opening tthe ordey in which the three addvess code enerated cementite. adil * D Approaches to code ation t- The most finpovtant fader a cede \e that tt should produce the comect cod - of toda. eneratton. vortous cod: we designed: bo nevabort voit this approach. ee jo qed “Ter ulin bape arg wa esr ve that lhe Sp thie woe will assume lke min — machine code i a 7 computers Specifically following asscump made 4p" code al chwe will assume that 1 the tae conn ten. fiven wy legtes and four bytes ado vesses ave ¢ -form a voor « ave; © tid There ate n-geneval puypase. registers Roy Rie Ryy Zii) The two oda ess inseuction bs the foven “Mov — awoves ee source source tb destinabton App - add source to destinakon 0B — Subliact source from destinatfon he source ang destination ave speed by registers and memory inalions - Sthe addsessing modes Ole used arte as follows - Pudvessing Mode | form |Addwess fuel WHEL | oe M | M Oo pei & eR indexed 22) | ¢-4 contents (2) ! indirect” vegidi.| * ¥e contents (e> o | eontenr(ct ) _indiveck indexed & oe) toot enke 8) | { literal | He fee \ cost of the inshuclfonir the tnskuthdn cose ca be computed Qu one plus cosk asoctaked with the Sowce and destination addvessing modes given by added cost’sthkerpretalion, Lost ok wegister mode hs Ha eee b oe use of amemoxy vasiah (Bbc sek ee HR ESE PEER cmem seas HESSSESRERE stile ttifs a Sub 5k 3 | Use of first constant lo (RD -t use of Second constant +1 =2 €xte Compute the cost of -followtng set of instiucttons Mov aio Mov a) Ro~> ADD b) RO LW en + MOM Roe cont of cost Of instiucliony) “The cast of this sek of l Pee a] Mov ako (HY ee App bRo = 2a (it) Mov Roe —> LID ~fotal cost =O DX Mov #R ,#RoW! Mov # Rar ¥ RoW) Q > Mev Ba >> Cirtty) mov aA —? 3 Cite Total cost = C6) SSP eee san= C) ar igi allocakon and Assignment t- —>Vartous stvabe gies used “4 registers allo and asstgnament ove \e Global req tster allcation ae US count a Register assignment for outer loop q. Gyrcph. a for arogistes, assignment Global register -Allocalzons — While enerating the cede the seqistors ae. used to hold the values $°% the duration of Sq block: L SAIL the (fe vartables ave ctoved at lhe end of- oth block.-for the varibles that ee consistently we can allocate specpe set 4 mecyisters ‘ Hence allocation oF vootbles +e speapte +thak @ consistenk across Ie block boundarat B éalled globe! — allocakon . following we the shrakegiss adoptmed whit deity tRe globo! megistey allocation the global segister allocak’on has a stvateqy ctoving the most frequently used varvablesur fired req iaters Throughout the loop -lus count he usuage counk the count for the Whe Of some voyCoble ‘x in some ba nae used wa baste block- fves the tdea hew the Usuage court gelecting a. Specific untls of cost Cane be saved yastable jor qiebal regis allocaltzon - > the approxtmake -fesrnulo -for uswage coun! fox the loop ‘U' th come bast block 6! can bee quer as Ss (uses (x8) 42% Leve (x 8) block Bunt where use (x16) fk number of ones tet used a block ts) potor to any deginitéon of & and Live CriByet & UC & lve on exist 470M Bs othe wise live (XY) =O - eur constder a block Bi, Bo Bx By an usuiage count for block ‘al in follows Loop dg count Wey ALToO The usage county for Dhan. es uct TAbtie tat use (018i) =0 esa fs defined A B before! alive (a) bi) =2 use + a & lve on exter fe tence leve (a, bD=/ Luse-(a)B) ta ¥ lve (a,Bi)) =2 “She usuage count {ov block Bg and Bs po% yartable ‘a! use (a1Ba) = Use (ab) = 2ak used wr By and 6 beore definiro° &# live (a) B2) =O 4a. te Not 'Le OM extst of 2)Registe allocation fo ouker Loop consider that there are two Loops L,@ oukee Sal is came ep and allocation & Lal & te be done te Sone ceases The. approxemate ccenarto & 8 :- bela « Loo} Ly at a Pr loo} VastableIlow é t ee critter , Should be adepted from the * vegister aastpranient: -fos outer Loop - : hy 44 (a! allocated in loop la then et should hob be Allocated th Ly Lit) Sp ale allocated tn 4 an th ta then Stove ‘A’ On & entiane la! while leaning lg - in 94, 'o B allocated th lo and not load sa’ on enhance a and stor tal on exitty d th & not allocate to ig and th 2, her fron lau Stmple code ‘alton -Algorvttbm * sda this we will deeuss the emethod of- ; eee | target code from three addve ss shat ement > this method comp uted os jos thle sn yesults car be kept in registers 04 long . yr ath 3 Exe She cowses ponding App bey Hera a hotds value 4 ‘4’ angel code is Here cose = Mov bik) ere Ry holds vale § \O! ADD ee there cost =2-—y The code qa algostlhm uses descyiplows Diecces to keep track of vere contents and ad for names - Keep tack of- b She Esq tel deseviplor 6 used te what & zumently mn cach register. the register descriptor show that tnitially all the reper ave empty ° As the code ree fo Ihe block progresses lL fold the values Of computations lhe registers ae using veqistors deseviptors we can Keep track oh the ae which ave euaeenel occupied. - Boolean TWpe which & used qd with the status field F to check whether Ihe register @ occupies come dala ©d not- 5 lelhen the status field holds the value ‘tsue? zontains the then operand descriptors field the operand descriptor who & hawiha pointer to the latest value ta the register: & The Addvess decertptor ° stoves the location whee the cusvent value of the name can be jound at wun time- about locabions can be stoved| —> The th-fomation used te access the an. the symbol table and e fs variables—Sthe modes of opevand addvessibitity are as ae belovo S 1% used to indicate value C opaand wu Stovage £ & used bo indecate valle Ff operand re Register 4s indicates that lhe addvess operand @ Stored in stoxage ie, thdévect accessing - qr tndécates that the addyess of operand a Stored th vegfsta Ce 5 indised” accessin —> She ANddvess desereptor has ees a storage locablonfe gies : na ea 5 the attribubes mean type of the operands The enerally refers fo Me fname oF temporar Variables -fellourng fteid « Ls the addvesst mode indicates Woheher the addresses Ale Of type tg, Ros", “pele: geld which tnde- I> She third 4ield & location i nm storage zates whether the address locakdn of in register +Algostthin -fow code genevalfon usifty geTREG- head the exprestén ir the -foxm % operator operand) and operand @ and gona code. using follounng algortitary- Gen- code (operator , operand | operand ® { tf Coperand 1. addvess mode = 'R') if Coperand ='+') Generabe (ADD opuard a)Ro )5 else & (operator = wey Generate (‘sue operand a, Ro)5 alse ut (operator ~ ‘#) Generate (‘Mur operand 21 Rolls alse uf (operates = Y") Genevabe (‘piv operand @.Rg)5 pase oth £ else ar (operand a. addvessmode ='R') iy (opevakow = ta!) Generate (‘ADD operand 1,00) 5 else vy (cpevator oe) Generate (S08 qqerand L, R8)5 else a (operator =!)Generate (MUL operand 1, Rd)5 else. af (operator = ve Genevate (DIV opevand |, Rol) 5 else Generate (‘Mov operand a, Rod5 ef Copevator - 49) Genevale CADD opevand Rod else a Coperator ek Generake (Sus operand a Ro!D5 alse wf (operator ote!) Generate OMoe operand &, Rod else i Coperatox sth) Generake (‘DW operatora Rds ,; Ext we will generare ‘the cede 407 folowing expression rere (atby lend) + (C%p)* (o-+b)) [The covrespond ing athree address cede can be give. i ty catbh tg ed tg = Sk ty —tieta ty =i * 4 4, = ty +t5Usthg the simple code eration. olgetitiyo the Sequence tagged tode ~ be qe as age FJorget code) Register “operand yess . Sequence. ptos d toy code Sequence deserter fy tyeatb } MaKe) Re empty ADD b1RO Ry contains + LELLE tg- ed = Mov Ri Ry contains © GuB dik Ry contam be kant [ter erfs. | Ra contote TT Ta} Div Fis Ry contains 8, | | ae y= tit fe) Moe Roi Re Fo contales "4 (ea, z &| | Ry contars 43 ta |R] fh = | tyatrt Mot Rat Ro Ra contain ba Ry contains tl R, contains ts ts| R| Ro | | | i te=tytts ADD Riko. Ry contains ty 4 | | Ro conta» be [ «| al & | Ro contains te code expression ELB* Geneate the code sequence ust? ae eration eon 4or Ihe sellewng w= (a-B4(a-9 t(A-9 : | Lcode haa OF Rh ki < op ae regi 9) : Example t consider the expression afiJz=b* — The machine code & Mov #Ha\Ro ADD SP; Ro App 1sp) Ro Mov by & Mut ¢a iki Mov Ri) ¥Ro Buffer matched templets - Mov +thaiko me \ peg const a AbD SP: Ro oes /\ contke Reqsp ADD (Sp) 1Ro J‘ tod ”\ const F “4p ‘“Mov b, Ry I Veq. 4, memb - MOL Bc,Ry : ;< * 3 i ki Mov by, % Ry 2 OLN ind Ri be code genevakion for DAGY Generating code for dag & auch sinpler_ than the \hear Sequence o% three address code - using DAg we can rearrange some gequente Of cade tnstuetions and qrciale an efficient code ie ml from DAG - Labellery Rearrangit Heuxtlte vad ordering ear ostthm - | Reaw song i ade “the onde of three address code afpect | the cost of the object code being eneral-ed >in Ine Cense by changihg the Osder th whch Computations ave done »we ¢an obtaih the objet code with minimum cost . 4—for example +t, =atb dg = e-d tb, = eq ta > ty > tits -fow Ihe expression (a+b) + (et Ce-d) Dag -for above Sequence * oo ® B 7 e- /\ The code can be generated b translating. he three addvess code line by ine Mov ajRo Add by Ro Mov <, Ry Sop dR Mov Rot (4:=0:+b) Mov ki Ro ADD Ry iki Mov 41Ro Ad) Ris Ro Mov ky Ey Rzetle-d)Now tf Wwe ch. lhe cai cequence. of Be above three addsess code - ta=c-d : aes cinta tre irmproved code as tis ath ae ty = titt pode Mov 2 Ry ADD Roi ky Mov ajRo ADD biRo Abd RiiRo Mov Roity . Q.tteusidde ordering + Algorithm a ls obtain all the tnten’or nodes. Consider these tntertos nodes as unlieted thterfos nodes Q. while. Cunl&ted taterfor nodes remain) { ge Pick up an unksted node 1 whose parenle have been lated 4, WE ar 5. IAlbele (tbe lept most child ‘mm! of \° no unttted parent AND i nok leat) | oe | has& Lat =ms Ae nem5 \ 5 constdey DAG as fie “the seat is i numbered fiom top te bottom and from left te vighe « ren consider the the unlisted intertor nodes 1a3a4 Sf ial the only nede with a pourent is W moving sole ave Misted nodes a Yass 6 Now we will find the left mest node of ‘I’ ist! and pavent of \s' \ which. fs liked » Henee— Vist 2LMlence the vesulung IE & 1 2 3 4 nen the oxdey of computations & deetded by reversing thes list- Now we will pad left mast node of 2 fs le! and paren of 6 are a and 5. Buk 6 has unlisted Povent ‘5's tence we can nok Selek c - We therefore can swilh to 3 LS 4 Parent of 4 fs 1 whtch & ee ea S| “Lise =3 The lest of 2 fe y.the pavent op 4 @ tg! when listed Hence att =u ye yh © © Left of 4 is 's? which has Itsted paren Cie 2) elise +5 [ytpas & <] lek of 5 1 \6' which has a and 5 bolb an (sted Liat =6 [vv yu ft vel -As now only g is vernaining from tbe dnbiehed intery nodes we will list. te [ey pyvse 5 6 & we get tre ovder of evaluation os Cob ee he shat also Means that we hove le per gos. the Computations at these modes in the givennumber t= dle +, 2a-b ts S46re ty = bs ete ty c ty-& ty = tetty t ata*t3 She ques the optewiized cede jor PAG: S- Labelin Algosithm The Labeling a ni perates the ophimal code 4p" Gets expression fn. whitch. minimum yegtsters ove sequired = aa cel | algonthor the labelling ca” be done to te hee at visiting nades tr "bottom - up order py he all he child nodes will he labelled before its parint nodes: fo computing Label at ‘n'uxth tbe label ly to lept child and label fe fo le aight child label (n= JMax (Ls 1 La) pu gee nal if Ui<=la -Lowe stat ih bottom ~ Up -fashton and left left lept as lL and tne leat ag Oo - sdf Leads of the children of a node 'n! ave ugae wegeclivelyy then - label (n) = max (tril2) ho ufo label (n) = Let Al gedihimi case 13 Yn & 0 lea node and tt 8 a leas node 4 Laila. — lead- name tnlo vegistey cose ay 4 node's atgnt child & a iD ng then nt | (non) Here ny iS -fivst evaluated in register on he Top of the stack and the operation oh idenBipie (nam! & perfowmed wilh the Same ar a vohich & on top 4 the Stack ° gose2 Sf Lept child of © fe My Aequetes less No Of vanishes than Ng then we Swap toptuo Registers on Stack: ny no |_J Hee Ng ts fist evaluated and move to aegis Then n, if evaluated and move te registers [nally these two vegisters ave evaluated wilk the operand - case yt th the left child My te-quites more no- On registers than the iy aaa child Ne - The cae kk o posite to case 3 evaluated fist and then ng- nally evaluated these tun using the opevatow on the lop of We - tere n, & Stack ‘ cose, 5 Both Ike childyen require equal @) wane eet %f wegtsteys than available no- of veqisters then Tae subker 18 evaluated fast -we and doved ih a aoe mae Then the evaluatton| Of left subkee i donee And frally drook & evaluated CR “Fy [|r constr the labelled bee 407 astoronet 0 my 7 Sup RiiTo you bo! ap? 7 DADD Roi Ry Pe Xe S| wor oh ‘iol ey Mov cio Mov x Q — Mov bio ad MUL cho Mov aiki ADD 8, Ro Mov o,to Mov d,k MeML ek) Mov Cc) Ro ADD Ry iy SoB R,,be-