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Eva Bär,* André Gladiator,*,1 Sonia Bastidas,*,1 Bernd Roschitzki,† Hans Acha-Orbea,‡
Annette Oxenius,* and Salomé LeibundGut-Landmann*
Fungal pathogens are a frequent cause of opportunistic infections. They live as commensals in healthy individuals but can cause
disease when the immune status of the host is altered. T lymphocytes play a critical role in pathogen control. However, specific Ags
determining the activation and function of antifungal T cells remain largely unknown. By using an immunoproteomic approach, we
have identified for the first time, to our knowledge, a natural T cell epitope from Candida albicans. Isolation and sequencing of
MHC class II-bound ligands from infected dendritic cells revealed a peptide that was recognized by a major population of all
O
pportunistic fungi have emerged as increasingly frequent increasingly frequent cause of fungal infections, and because of
causes of infections. Although some fungi live as com- its inherent drug tolerance, it is one of the most dreaded fungal
mensals in healthy individuals, they cause severe disease species, along with C. albicans (3).
when host defenses are breached. Candida ssp. are among the Invasive candidiasis ranks among the four most frequent nos-
clinically most relevant fungal agents and account for a wide ocomial infections and is most often a consequence of general
range of diseases (1). Whereas Candida albicans remains the most immunosuppression, prolonged treatment with antibiotics, or
frequently isolated species, non-albicans species of Candida also breaches in anatomical barriers (e.g., surgery or central venous
act as serious health hazards and are thus gaining increasing at- catheter) (3). It is associated with a mortality of .30% and a high
tention (2). The spectrum of these non-albicans species is large, morbidity in those who survive. Other forms of candidiasis are
and some are only distantly related to C. albicans, such as for less severe, including superficial infections of the skin, the oro-
instance Candida glabrata, which is a closer relative to the apa- pharyngeal mucosa, and the vagina (4–6). These diseases are often
thogenic Saccharomyces cerevisiae in terms of its codon usage associated with defects in cellular immunity but they can also
and its monomorphic lifestyle. Nevertheless, C. glabrata is an occur in individuals that have no obviously weakened immune sys-
tem. Although mucocutaneous Candida infections are not them-
*Institute of Microbiology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich, 8093 Zür-
selves life-threatening, they constrict the patient’s quality of life
ich, Switzerland; †Functional Genomics Center Zürich, University of Zürich/Swiss severely. The increasing incidence of resistance to antifungal drugs
Federal Institute of Technology Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland; and ‡Depart- and an inherent drug tolerance of some fungi cause major obsta-
ment of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, 1066 Epalinges, Switzerland
1
cles to an efficient treatment. This situation evokes an urgent need
A.G. and S.B. contributed equally to this work.
for the development of novel therapeutic approaches against fun-
Received for publication February 17, 2012. Accepted for publication March 19, gal infections and has renewed the interest in the development of
2012.
vaccination strategies against mycoses, including passive vacci-
This work was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (Grant
PP00P3_123342), the Swiss Life Anniversary Foundation, and by Swiss Federal nation with Abs as well as induction of cell-mediated immunity by
Institute of Technology Zürich. active immunization (7, 8). However, a thorough knowledge of the
E.B., A.G., S.B., and S.L.-L. designed the experiments. E.B., A.G., and S.B. per- immune response that clears or controls infecting fungi is essential
formed the experiments. E.B., A.G., B.R., S.B., A.O., and S.L.-L. analyzed the data. for the development of efficacious immunotherapies and protec-
H.A.-O. and B.R. contributed reagents and analysis tools. E.B. and S.L.-L. wrote the
manuscript. tive vaccines.
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Salomé LeibundGut-Landmann,
Despite the well-accepted notion that Th cells are a crucial
Institute of Microbiology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich, Wolfgang- element in the development of optimal protective immunity against
Pauli-Strasse 10, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland. E-mail address: leibundgut@micro.biol. fungal diseases (1, 9), important basic principles of T cell acti-
ethz.ch
vation remain unknown. First and foremost, the antigenic deter-
The online version of this article contains supplemental material.
minants recognized by fungus-specific T cells have not yet been
Abbreviations used in this article: IEDB, Immune Epitope Database; MHCII, MHC mapped. The cognate interaction between T cells and APCs is
class II; MP65, mannoprotein 65; MS/MS, tandem mass spectrometry.
a prerequisite for their activation, clonal expansion, and differ-
Copyright Ó 2012 by The American Association of Immunologists, Inc. 0022-1767/12/$16.00 entiation into effector cells. The identification of fungal Ags is
www.jimmunol.org/cgi/doi/10.4049/jimmunol.1200594
The Journal of Immunology 5637
thus key to understanding antifungal T cell immunity. Detailed charged ions were chosen for fragmentation using collision-induced
knowledge on the presented antigenic peptides would greatly fragmentation. Target ions already selected for MS/MS were dynami-
cally excluded for 60 s. After data collection, peak lists were generated
enhance the possibility to detect, enumerate, and characterize using Mascot Distiller software 2.3.2 (Matrix Science).
fungus-specific T cells and would constitute important progress All MS/MS data were analyzed using Mascot 2.3 (Matrix Science). MS
in the design and development of potential antifungal vaccines. spectra were searched against the Swiss-Prot database (release January
We have thus set out to characterize natural T cell epitopes of 2010) that was concatenated with an in-house–built contaminant database
C. albicans. By using an immunoproteomic approach, we have and concatenated with the decoyed Swiss-Prot database. Precursor ion
mass tolerance was set to 7 ppm, and the fragment ion mass tolerance was
identified a naturally processed and MHC class II (MHCII)-bound set to 0.6 Da. Oxidation of methionine was specified as a variable modi-
peptide that is recognized by up to a fourth of all C. albicans- fication.
specific Th cells. This high frequency is remarkable, given the Scaffold (version Scaffold_3_00_08; Proteome Software) was used to
large number of peptides that can possibly be generated from the validate MS/MS-based peptide and protein identifications. Peptide iden-
tifications were accepted if they could be established at .90.0% probability
complex fungal proteome. The novel antigenic peptide is derived as specified by the Peptide Prophet algorithm (13). Protein identifications
from a cell wall-associated adhesin, which critically contributes to were accepted if they could be established at .99.0% probability. Protein
fungal pathogenicity. It is functionally conserved in many non- probabilities were assigned by the Protein Prophet algorithm (14).
albicans Candida species of high clinical importance, including For peptide affinity predictions, the Immune Epitope Database (IEDB)
close relatives of C. albicans such as Candida dubliniensis and Analysis Resource (http://tools.immuneepitope.org) was used. pALS and
pATG peptides were synthesized at EMC Microcollections. The man-
even very distant species of the genus such as C. glabrata. The noprotein 65 (MP65) peptide pool was from JPT Peptide Technologies,
secretion was determined by ELISPOT assay according to the manu- related protein 11, and we thus named it pATG (Fig. 1B). It is only
facturer’s instructions (Mabtech AB). ELISPOT plates (MAIP S45; Mil- 9 aa in length, and its binding affinity to I-Ab was predicted to be
lipore) were analyzed on an AID ELISPOT reader Version 3.4. For
blocking experiments, an MHCII-specific Ab (clone TÜ39) was added
low with IC50 = 2375 nM.
at 2.5 mg/ml. A large fraction of Candida-specific T cells recognizes pALS
HLA typing To validate the identified MHCII ligands as bona fide T cell
epitopes, we used an experimental model of candidiasis. Oro-
HLA typing was done by PCR at the interdisciplinary HLA typing labo-
ratory of the University Hospital of Zürich. pharyngeal infection of mice with C. albicans was found to induce
a robust T cell response. A significant proportion of the endoge-
Statistical analysis nous CD4+ T cells isolated from the cervical lymph nodes of
Statistical significance was determined by a two-tailed unpaired t test infected mice responded to the fungus by producing IL-17A,
using GraphPad Prism (GraphPad Software, La Jolla, CA) with *p , 0.05, whereas cells from uninfected mice did not show any response.
**p , 0.01, and ***p , 0.001. This was apparent by intracellular cytokine staining (Fig. 2A, 2B)
For morbidity experiments, statistical significance was determined by
a log rank test using GraphPad Prism with *p , 0.05. and by measuring secreted IL-17A in the supernatant after re-
stimulation with heat-killed organisms (Fig. 2C). The population
of Candida-specific Th17 cells was expanded 10-fold and pro-
Results duced increased levels of IL-17A after reinfection with the fungus
Identification of I-Ab–bound peptide epitopes from C. albicans
FIGURE 1. Identification of I-Ab–bound peptide epitopes from C. albicans. (A) Representative MS/MS spectrum for one of the identified peptides. (B)
Sequence, source protein, amino acid positions, and predicted binding affinity (according to the SMM align method of the IEDB prediction tool) for the four
identified MHCII ligands. Boldface letters indicate the core sequence of each peptide predicted to bind the MHCII binding groove.
The Journal of Immunology 5639
To test whether our second candidate of isolated peptides also infection, but the response was much lower than the one induced
functioned as a T cell epitope, we restimulated cervical lymph node by pALS (Fig. 3), and it was below the detection limit in T cells
cells from infected mice with pATG. Only a very small fraction of from mice that were infected only once (Fig. 3B). We could not
C. albicans-specific CD4+ T cells recognized this peptide, and detect any cytokine production from C. albicans-specific T cells
cytokine production in response to pATG was detectable only in restimulated with the p41 peptide (Fig. 3). In summary, pALS-
T cells isolated from mice that had undergone two rounds of in- specific T cells primed in response to C. albicans outnumbered by
fection (Fig. 3). In the same experiments, we also included a far any other previously proposed T cell Ag specificities.
peptide pool of MP65, which was previously reported to act as
a fungus-derived Ag (18, 19), and an Aspergillus fumigatus-de- pALS is conserved in different Candida ssp.
rived peptide (p41) that has been proposed to cross-stimulate To investigate whether the pALS epitope is conserved in different
Candida-specific T cells (15). Similar to pATG, MP65 induced non-albicans species of Candida, we immunized mice with pALS
IL-17A production from Candida-specific T cells after secondary mixed with curdlan, a fungal b-glucan that acts as a very potent
adjuvant for priming Th17-biased CD4+ T cell responses (20, 21), stimulated PBMCs isolated from healthy volunteers with the
and probed the reactivity of the induced T cells with different pALS peptide. To increase the sensitivity of the assay, we poly-
Candida species. Surprisingly, pALS-specific T cells responded to clonally expanded C. albicans-specific PBMCs before exposing
all tested Candida by secreting IL-17A, whereas no response was them to the peptide and quantifying IL-2– and IL-17A–secreting
detected in T cells isolated from unimmunized control mice (Fig. cells as readout for their ability to recognize the epitope. To our
4A). The strength of the response correlated with the degree of surprise, we found that all tested donors that reacted to C. albicans
conservation of the peptide sequence in the Als orthologs (Sup- did also respond to pALS (Fig. 5A). As expected, the number of
plemental Table I) and in turn with the phylogenetic relationship detected spot-forming cells varied between donors. An anti-HLA
between the species. Whereas the response of pALS-specific class II Ab that was added to the cultures inhibited the response
T cells to C. dubliniensis and C. tropicalis, two close relatives completely in all donors (Fig. 5B). Despite the limited number
of C. albicans, was only slightly reduced compared with the of individuals tested, it seemed that certain HLA alleles were
maximal response triggered by the peptide itself, C. krusei and C. associated with increased peptide responsiveness. All individuals
glabrata stimulated pALS-specific T cells less effectively. Nev- displaying a strong response to pALS carried a DRB3* and/or
ertheless, the epitope was sufficiently well conserved throughout DQB1*03 allele (data not shown). In support of our experimen-
all tested species to elicit IL-17A from pALS-specific T cells. The tal data, the predicted affinity of both alleles for binding to pALS
fact that the pALS epitope was conserved in even distantly related was intermediate compared with that of other HLA alleles, which
species of Candida became also obvious when we immunized showed lower affinities. This initial observation will be corrobo-
curdlan alone or together with an unrelated lymphocytic chorio- recently in understanding the immune mechanisms mediating
meningitis virus-derived Th cell epitope was not sufficient for fungal control, the Ag specificities of antifungal T cells have
protection (Fig. 6A and data not shown) despite the fact that remained elusive. We have been able for the first time, to our
curdlan can induce anti–b-glucan Abs (21). Moreover, the anti- knowledge, to isolate a naturally processed peptide epitope from
fungal effects of the pALS vaccine did not require B cells, because C. albicans, which is immunologically highly relevant. This newly
vaccination of B cell-deficient mice led to similarly prolonged identified peptide is recognized by almost every fourth Candida-
survival (Fig. 6B), although with slightly altered kinetics, and specific Th cell isolated from infected mice. We were surprised to
a minor contribution of B cells can thus not be excluded. The find such a high abundance of a single Ag specificity among the
enhanced survival of pALS plus curdlan immunized mice corre- entire population of Candida-responsive CD4+ T cells, given the
lated with the presence of pALS-specific IL-17A–producing CD4+ high complexity of the Candida proteome and hence the expected
T cells, which additionally recognized C. albicans as demon- large number of potential MHCII-binding ligands. Consistent with
strated by their ability to respond to restimulation with the heat- the selective induction of Th17 immunity during oropharyngeal
killed organism (Fig. 6C). The choice of adjuvant for vaccination candidiasis, pALS-specific T cells isolated from the cervical
appeared to be critical because mice that were immunized with lymph nodes of orally infected mice secreted IL-17A, but no IFN-g
pALS and the TLR9 agonist CpG were not protected from can- or IL-4. This is in contrast to the situation in mice infected with C.
didiasis despite the fact that Candida-specific CD4+ T cells were albicans via the i.v. or cutaneous route where both Candida-spe-
primed to a similar extent in this setting (Fig. 6D, 6E). However, cific Th1 and Th17 cells are coexistent [(21, 23, 24) and data not
T cells primed in presence of CpG differentiated into IFN-g–se- shown]. Moreover, pALS-specific T cells formed a population of
creting Th1 cells, which lacked the ability to produce IL-17, memory cells that responded more rapidly and expanded to high
whereas curdlan favored a Th17 response (Fig. 6C, 6E; Supple- numbers upon re-encounter of the fungus. Strikingly, the novel
mental Fig. 1; and data not shown). In conclusion, these data show peptide that was identified on the basis of its capacity to bind to
that pALS-specific Th17 cells can protect mice from candidiasis. I-Ab in mice did also serve as an epitope for human Th cells. Al-
though the extent of the reaction varied between different HLA
Discussion haplotypes, cells from all individuals tested were able to mount
T cell-mediated immunity plays a crucial role in host protection a pALS-specific response. Only a few nonviral pathogen-derived
from fungal infections. Whereas major progress has been made Th cell epitopes have to date been identified experimentally (25,
5642 PROTECTIVE C. ALBICANS-DERIVED T CELL EPITOPE
26). Our data show that the unbiased approach of purifying and is interesting to note that the 432-aa N-terminal part of Als3 (Als3p-
sequencing MHCII-bound peptides from infected Ag-specific cells N) is currently used as a vaccine candidate in preclinical and
is an efficient and direct method to isolate highly relevant clinical studies (33). The protective effects of this vaccine were
pathogen-derived epitopes. In contrast to peptide binding algo- suggested to depend on Th1 and Th17 cells (34), but the Ag
rithms, which still display a high failure rate because of the specificity of these T cells remained unclear. Our data may now
scantly confined motifs for MHCII binding, this method directly provide the missing link. The effect of the Als3p-N vaccine is
analyzes candidate T cell epitopes that are processed and pre- likely to rely on the fact that this protein fragment comprises the
sented by infected Ag-specific cells. amino acid stretch that defines the pALS epitope.
The peptide that we isolated is derived from a conserved region of Our data on the identification of a naturally processed and
two closely related members of the agglutinin-like sequence (ALS) presented fungal T cell epitope in mouse and human is thus not
gene family (27), which mediate adherence to and invasion of host only a major advancement in understanding basic mechanisms of
cells (27, 28). The capacity to invade host tissues is an important antifungal immunology. Its high degree of conservation in mul-
virulence determinant of C. albicans. Mutant strains lacking Als1 tiple clinically highly relevant Candida species and its capacity to
or Als3 display reduced although not completely abolished path- induce protection from disease make it a promising candidate for
ogenicity (27, 28). Functional redundancy of different Als proteins specific therapeutic applications.
seems to apply not only to their function as adhesins/invasins but
also to their role as Ag source. pALS-specific T cells responded
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