How Watching Subtitled YouTube Videos Can Affect EFL

Listening and Reading Abilities

Sachiko NAKAMURA (Chuo Gakuin University)

Ryan SPRING (Tohoku University)

Abstract This paper presents the results of a study that examined whether or
not (1) watching English subtitled YouTube videos could help L1 Japanese EFL
learners to improve on measures of listening comprehension, reading
comprehension or reading speed, and (2) enjoyment, amount of time spent
watching or tendency to re-watch videos affected improvement in any of these
areas. The results suggest that (1) some gains were made in reading
comprehension and speed, but not listening comprehension, although it is not
clear how much of this is due to the class and how much is due solely to
watching YouTube videos, and that (2) if students tended to watch more videos
or exhibit a tendency to re-watch videos and also enjoyed them for linguistic
reasons (rather than preference or content-based reasons), they tended to show
more improvement in reading comprehension. Though it is unclear how
successfully improvement in listening comprehension was able to be measured
in this study, the results suggest that watching subtitled videos can be helpful
to EFL learners’ general language improvement, such as reading ability, not
only listening ability, as previously thought. Furthermore, th ey suggest that
students can enhance the benefits of watching subtitled videos by re -watching
them and focusing on the language being used in them.
Keywords: subtitles, listening/reading abilities, reading speed, YouTube,
multimedia, EFL,

1. Introduction
Recently, teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) through movies and other
visual media has been gaining increasing attention, as it can help motivate students and
provide them with valuable authentic listening practice. However, it is still unclear what
the best use of subtitles is when implementing EFL teaching with visual media. While
some researchers suggest that using subtitles in either language can help raise students ’
language awareness (e.g. Ryu, 2011), using English subtitles can also provid e learners
with reading practice. Subtitles appear together with the words that are being spoken,

3
and thus according to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2009),
receiving input simultaneously in both written and oral form may increase the likelihood
that learners retain what they are studying. Furthermore, since subtitles appear for only
a short period of time, they could potentially be used to help increase reading speed (e.g.
Frank, 1994). However, it is not clear how effective watching videos with corresponding
subtitles will be for EFL learners. This study aims to shed light on the potential uses of
English subtitles while watching YouTube videos by checking the improvement of L1
Japanese EFL learners who watch YouTube videos with subtitles and looking for factors
associated with improvement in listening comprehension, reading comprehension and
reading speed.

2. Previous Studies
Several studies have been conducted on the use of movies as EFL teaching tools
(e.g. Fujita, 2017; Seo, 2014; Hirano, 2012). Amongst these there are a number of
studies that explore how subtitles affect student learning. According to Ryu (2011),
subtitles are effective for students’ language awareness, which is an important element
for students to learn expressions from movies. Woodall (2010) suggests that reading and
listening to the same text simultaneously is significantly beneficial on comprehension
for basic-level L2 learners of English. However, though movies can be positively
introduced into EFL teaching, the role of subtitles is not completely clear. Furthermore,
most of these aforementioned studies have focused only on movie subtitles. As
technology improves, it has become increasingly easy for students to have access to a
number of different video media outlets through use of the Internet. For example,
YouTube provides a plethora of videos in multiple languages, often with automatically
generated or user-created subtitles, that can be watched by students virtually anywhere,
for extensive EFL practice outside of class. However, it is not yet known how well
watching YouTube videos with subtitles can aid learners, as they are generally not
professionally created and can thus be flawed, having errors in content, language or
subtitling. Furthermore, it is not clear what sorts of videos will help students the most,
and what the most important factors in choosing online videos for optimal improvement
are. This study focused on YouTube in particular because of its increasing popularity,
the fact that students can watch it for free, and its aforementioned somewhat flawed
nature, which requires specific research.
One way that subtitles have been argued to help EFL learning is by helping to
improve students’ listening abilities. There are several studies that indicate watching

4
movies with subtitles or captions positively affect students’ listening abilities. Studies
such as Markham (1989), Garza (1991), and Hayati and Mohmedi (2011) have suggested
that viewing videos with subtitles or captions in the target language is substantially
beneficial to foreign language learners’ listening comprehension. Though fewer studies
have shown how this boost in comprehension affects improvements in learning, studies
such as Markham (1999) have suggested that watching videos with captions results in
more gains in learners’ listening word recognition than without.
Another way that subtitles may help EFL students is by improving their reading
comprehension. While there are few studies that focus specifically on whether reading
subtitles will help with reading comprehension, studies such as Woodall (2010) have
shown that when EFL learners read and listen to the same text simultaneously, it resulted
in more improvement in reading comprehension than EFL learners in a control group
who only read the same text (but did not listen to it). While no specific studies have
been conducted to discover if movie or video subtitles will have the same effect, studies
such as Ryu (2011) have suggested that it will at the least help to improve language
awareness and attention. Thus, it is possible that reading subtitles, which are spoken at
the same time as a learner would read them, could potentially aid in listening
comprehension as well.
Finally, reading subtitles may help EFL students to improve their read ing speed. It
has been suggested by researchers such as Dingler, Shirazi, Kunze and Schmidt (2015)
and de Bruijn and Spence (2000) that placing constraints on the amount of time that
learners are allowed to see the reading material, through methods such as rapid serial
visual presentation, can help them to increase their reading speeds by up to 150%.
Although Woodall (2010) did not report that students who listened and read a text
improved their reading speeds more than students who silently read, his experiment was
conducted with an audio recording of a book, and thus there were no time constraints
on processing speed. Subtitles are naturally only shown for a limited time, and thus
could potentially help EFL learners to improve their reading speeds as well.
A number of factors have been noted to be associated with greater improvement in
EFL and foreign language learning, but three that might influence the effectiveness of
watching videos with English subtitles include enjoyment, repeat watching and the
amount of time spent watching. There are some conflicting results with regards to how
much enjoyment affects foreign language learning. For example, Dewaele and Alfawzan
(2018) report that enjoyment was directly related to better reading comprehension, but
works such as Schultz (2012) have not found such a direct effect. Spring, Kato and Mori

5
(2019) also did not find a clear correlation and suggested that the reason for enjoying
the learning activity is more indicative of enhanced improvement rather than simple
measures of having enjoyed it or not. Repeat watching may also result in more
improvement, especially with regards to reading, as studies such as Dowhower (1987)
and Rawson, Dunlosky, and Thiede (2000) offer rereading as the activity most
associated with improvement in both reading comprehension and reading speed.
However, it is not clear if re-watching videos with subtitles will help reading ability or
affect listening ability at all. Finally, the amount of time engaged with a foreign
language has also been shown to be associated with increased improvement (e.g. Ellis,
1985; Krause & Coates, 2008). Specifically, Ellis (1985) suggested that the quality and
quantity of input is among the most influential factors that influences improvement in
learning a foreign language, and so the amount of time that EFL learners spend watching
videos could also potentially be an influential factor in how much they improve.
Thus, while watching video with target language subtitles can potentially have
positive effects on EFL learners, the previous studies have not completely made the
effects clear. Specifically, it is still unknown what EFL skills (i.e. listening
comprehension, reading comprehension, reading speed) will be bolstered most by
watching online videos with English subtitles, or what factors (i.e. enjoyment, repetition,
time spent watching) are associated with higher levels of improving. This study attempts
to improve our understanding of these complex issues by answering the following
research questions:
1) Can watching YouTube videos help L1 Japanese EFL learners to improve their
listening comprehension, reading comprehension or reading speed?
2) Are enjoyment, the amount of time spent watching videos, or the number of re -
watches associated with more improvement in listening or reading ability?

3. Methods
3.1 Participants
40 first-year L1 Japanese EFL students majoring in commerce at a university in the
Kanto Region of Japan participated in this study (35 males, 5 females; age 18-19).
However, some students did not take the survey or either the pre - or post-test leaving
slightly different N values for certain parts of the data. They were all students of an
English course titled “English Reading & Writing 1”. They were also taking English
classes titled either “Eikaiwa (English Conversation)” or “English Listening &
Speaking”. None of the participants had lived abroad for more than 6 months or were

6
receiving special English training outside of their mandatory university stud ies.

3.2 Testing Listening and Reading

We randomly selected 5 questions from parts 1 (picture description) and 15
questions from 2 (short conversation) of the TOEIC listening section, taken from an
official TOEIC practice problem book (Educational Testing Service, 2016) to create the
pre- and post-tests of listening comprehension. Parts 3 (long conversations) and 4 (talks)
were not used partially in the interest of time and partially because they require reading
skills as well as listening skills to answer the questions. Reading tests were constructed
by randomly selecting three 200-word passages from Timed Reading for Fluency 1
(Nation & Malarcher, 2017), and administering them to participants to measure their
reading speed and comprehension. The instructor timed the students’ reading of the
passages, and students then answered the questions associated with each passage
without rechecking the passage. Both listening and reading tests were conducted in the
second class (pre-test) and the fifteenth class (post-test).

3.3 Survey
We checked for watching habits, student opinions towards watching videos and
using subtitles, and their enjoyment with a survey, which consisted of 7 Likert -style
questions and 2 open-ended response questions. The Likert style questions asked
students 1) if they liked the project, 2) if they feel their listening skill has improved, 3)
if they feel their reading skill has improved, 4) if they feel their reading speed has
improved, 5) if they feel English subtitles helped them listen to videos, 6) if they feel
English subtitles helped them comprehend videos and 7) if they feel English subtitles
helped them enjoy videos. The two open ended questions asked students to share what
they liked and disliked about watching YouTube videos as part of the class. More
specific data on student watching habits was taken from “YouTube Project” reports,
which were submitted online (see next section).

3.4 Pedagogical Procedures

This project was assigned as homework in two Reading & Writing classes. In the
class, students usually read English passages, wrote summaries of them, and wrote short
essays. In addition, students watched one 10 to 20-minute YouTube video with English
subtitles every class and answered comprehension and vocabulary questions. Those
videos were mainly selected based on their interests and focused on sports, movies,

7
anime, and Japan.
A “YouTube Project,” which lasted for 14 weeks and attributed to 10% of their
final grade for the semester, was assigned as homework. According to the rules, students
were meant to watch English YouTube videos with English subtitles at home and submit
reports via an online platform. Each time, students needed to write (1) the title of the
video, (2) the length of the video, (3) how many times they watched the video, (4) how
interesting the video was, (5) comments about the video, and (6) three English
expressions they newly learned and the meanings. Questions (3) and (4) were given as
5-point Likert-style questions. The reports were collected weekly and points were
assigned based on the total length of their watching videos per week, which was
calculated by the length of each video and the times of repetition , as described below:

60 minutes or more = 5 points

45 minutes to less than 60 minutes = 4 points
30 minutes to less than 45 minutes = 3 points
15 minutes to less than 30 minutes = 2 points
more than 0 to less than 15 minutes = 1 point
0 minute = 0 point

3.5 Data Analysis Procedures

Reading speed was given in seconds, and reading and listening comprehension
were calculated as a percentage of correct answers. Significant differences in pre - and
posttests for these metrics were calculated with dependent t-tests, and Cohen's d was
calculated as a measure of effect size for significant results.
The influence of enjoyment, re-watching, and the amount of time spent watching
videos on improvement in listening and reading ability were calculated by grouping
students and conducting a multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) in SPSS 25.
Students were also categorized based on whether they “usually didn’t” or “regularly did”
re-watch the same YouTube videos (based on whether or not there were 3 or more
instances of re-watching over the semester). Finally, students were divided as having
watched “low” (0-20,000s), “medium” (20,001-40,000s) or “high” (40,000+s) amounts
based on how many seconds they had watched over the semester. Further qualitative
analysis was conducted to verify the results of associated factors by analyzing the
student comments collected from students who clearly improved at all three
measurements and those that didn’t improve at any of the measurements.

8
4. Results
41. Improvement
The results of students’ overall pre- and post-scores are displayed in Table 1. As
indicated by the results of the dependent t-tests, students showed clear improvement in
their reading comprehension and reading speed. On the other hand, a statistically
significant difference was not found in listening comprehension scores.

Table 1
Overall Pre- and Post-test Scores

Pre-test Post-test
T-test
Test Mean SD Mean SD

Listening
.3591 .1176 .3803 .1212 t(33)=0.72, p=.48 (n.s.)
Comprehension

Reading
.503 .1794 .6212 .1746 t(33)=2.78, p=.01, d=.48
Comprehension

Reading Speed 169.03 38.96 154.72 38.76 t(33)=-2.61, p=.01, d=.45

4.2 Factors Associated with Improvement

The descriptive data for student improvement, divided into the three categories
described in section 3.5, are given below in Table 2. The results of the MANOVA
showed that the model created could only find significant differences with regards to
changes in reading comprehension. Specifically, it found that there was a significant
effect on improvement in reading comprehension between enjoyment and tendency to
re-watch videos (p=.027), and between enjoyment and watching amount (p=.028), but
not between all three factors. However, there were no individual effects found for these
factors individually or in any other combination. These results suggest that neither
simply enjoying the videos, not simply watching a large amount of them was sufficient
on its own to drive improvements in reading comprehension. Rather, it seems that
students who both enjoyed the project and tended to either watch for extended periods
of time or re-watch videos were the most likely to show improvement. However, no
significant results were found with regards to what helped students become faster

9
readers or better listeners.

Table 2
Student Improvement Divided by Category

Reading Reading
Listening
Comp Speed

Category Division N M SD M SD M SD

Medium (3) 9 .0389 .2261 .1 .2828 -20.22 20.32

Enjoyment High (4) 16 -.0093 .1667 .1375 .2277 -9.63 40.18

Very High (5) 7 .0714 .0906 .0857 .2795 -21.29 20.64

Usually didn’t 21 .0204 .1659 .1136 .2436 -9.27 35.58

Re-
watching
Regularly did 11 .0227 .1822 .1273 .2573 -24.36 18.91

Low 19 0 .1662 .105 .2564 -12.4 34.4

Amount of
Medium 7 .0714 .2177 .2 .1633 -19.43 26.26
watching

High 6 .0333 .1211 .0667 .2944 -14.67 31.47

4.3 Student Opinions Towards the YouTube Project

The responses to the Likert questions in the survey are displayed in Table 3 below.
In general, most students had a positive attitude toward the project and the effectiveness.
When looking at the data of all participants, they mostly liked the project and felt that
10
it helped them improve in every area except for reading speed. For further analysis, we
looked specifically at the scores of the clearest improvers (those who showed
improvement on all three measures, or on two measurements and null or improvemen t
on the remaining one; N=7) and clear non-improvers (those who had lower post-test
scores on all three measurements or on two measurements and null improvement on the
last; N=4). In looking at their responses, it seems that there was little difference in how
much they enjoyed the YouTube project, but that improvers responded more positively
to the questions regarding how much they felt the project helped them. These differences
were most pronounced in whether they felt any of their skills (listening or rea ding
comprehension/speed) had improved and whether or not they felt that using the subtitles
helped them to comprehend or enjoy the program.

Table 3
Mean Responses to the Likert Questions in the Survey

All Clear Clear Non-

Questions Participants Improvers Improvers
(N = 37) (N=7) (N=4)

1) Did you like the project? 3.919 4.222 4.0

2) Do you feel your listening skill

3.514 4.222 3.0
has improved?

3) Do you feel your reading skill

3.459 4.0 3.25
has improved?

4) Do you feel your reading speed

3.189 3.556 2.75
has improved?

5) Do you feel English subtitles has

3.784 3.778 3.75
helped you listening to videos?

6) Do you feel English subtitles has

3.757 3.889 3.50
helped you comprehend videos?

7) Do you feel English subtitles has

3.784 3.889 3.5
helped you enjoy videos?

11
 We also looked at the comments left by the clear improvers and non -improvers in
the open-ended questions in order to see if we could discern any more information about
why they might have improved or failed to do so. First, with regards to what aspect
learners liked about the videos, it seems that non-improvers tended to comment mainly
about the contents of the videos, writing responses such as, “I enjoyed learning through
my favorite genre,” “It was fun because I was able to watch various plays of the Major
League,” and “I was able to watch the videos I am interested in in English. ” On the
other hand, improvers tended to write more about the linguistic aspects of the videos,
with representative comments such as “It was interesting that English pronunciations
are different from Japanese,” and “I was able to know various English words.”
Furthermore, three of the improvers mentioned that they felt they had improved through
watching videos, saying “My listening has improved,” “I was able to understand as I
watched videos,” and “I was able to understand English a little [through watching the
videos].” With regards to what students disliked about videos, two of the improvers
wrote about the difficulty that they faced, saying the “English was too fast,” and “Some
videos were difficult.” In contrast, no non-improvers gave any response to this question.

5. Discussion
Looking at the results of our study summatively, there are several hints that we can
get about how watching YouTube videos with subtitles can be beneficial to L1 Japanese
EFL learners. However, our paper does have some limitations and leaves much to future
studies, all of which will be discussed below.
First, the results of our study found that students in the class, overall, imp roved
their reading comprehension and reading speed. It is likely that these results were not
due entirely to watching YouTube videos, as (1) the class average improved in general,
despite some students watching very few videos, and (2) the class doing man y different
reading activities in the class that also likely helped to improve these scores. However,
there is a solid possibility that these gains were due in at least some small part to
YouTube watching. First, students with the largest, clearest gains t ended to self-report
that the YouTube videos aided in their improvement, while those that did not improve
did not feel this way. Furthermore, there appears to be a trend in more watching and
higher rates of re-watching being tied to more improvement, although the sample size
was too small to bear this out statistically. However, when enjoyment was also
considered, there was a clear trend that students who enjoyed watching YouTube videos

12
AND who either watched or re-watched more frequently had larger gains in reading
comprehension. Thus, while it is not clear to what degree the YouTube videos,
specifically, aided students’ reading speed and comprehension, there is enough data to
suggest that it was an integral part of the learning for students who enjoyed the activity.
Secondly, the results do not suggest that listening comprehension scores were
bolstered by the class or YouTube watching activity. The reasons for this are unclear,
but could possibly be due to a number of factors. First, there is the possibili ty that the
TOEIC test questions being used were too difficult for students in general. In looking
at the listening comprehension scores both before and after the class, the scores
remained under 40% accuracy, which, for a 3 or 4-choice multiple choice test, indicates
that very little was actually being understood at either stage. This is in stark contrast to
the reading comprehension scores, which show a clearly higher level of understanding
in general. Another reason for this could simply be because the c lass was aimed at
reading and writing, and not listening, so there were not class activities that could have
worked in tandem with the extra-curricular activities to help bolster this skill, as
opposed to reading. Future research could perhaps repeat this experiment in a speaking
and listening focused class to see if this is indeed a factor. Although some previous
studies (e.g. Markhan, 1989; Woodall, 2010) suggest that reading and listening
simultaneously can help to improve listening skills, this was not born out in our
particular data set.
Finally, with regards to the factors that are associated with greater improvement,
we found a number of helpful results that might help guide teachers using similar visual
media in the future. First, it seems that the most gains were achieved when students both
enjoyed the activity and either re-watched videos consistently or watched higher
volumes of videos, although it is not clear whether or not these same gains can be made
by watching in high frequency without enjoying them, as might be suggested by works
such as Ellis (1985) or Rawson et al. (2000). One potential reason that re-watchers
improved is that they might have tried re-watching without subtitles, which would
challenge their listening abilities, but we cannot determine this for sure with our data.
However, our study does not indicate if the enjoyment was aiding in improvement or if
improving actually caused students to enjoy the videos more. Furthermore, in looking
at the qualitative data, it seems that the reason for enjoying videos was much more
indicative or improvement than simply having enjoyed them or not, which is congruent
with one of the results of Spring et al. (2019). Specifically, our data suggests that
students were enjoying the linguistic or educational aspects of the videos (i.e. learn ing

13
about pronunciation or acquiring new vocabulary) improved far more than students that
simply enjoyed the videos because of their contents. Thus, teachers utilizing YouTube
videos to help their students learn English should perhaps consider focusing on finding
videos that are interesting for students on a linguistic level (i.e. by highlighting new
words, pronunciation or grammatical constructions) rather than trying to find videos
that are simply interesting because of their content. Finally, we found th at even though
two students complained about the videos being too difficult, they were amongst the
largest improvers in our data set, which indicates that feeling the videos are difficult
does not necessarily hinder them from improving. Spring et al. (2019 ) also found that
improvement could be made by students who didn’t enjoy their learning activity as long
as they overcame any problems that they encountered. While this study did not
determine if students overcame the problem of feeling the videos were difficult, the fact
that they did show large improvement suggests that they might have. Therefore, if
instructors want to assign videos to students, they should perhaps encourage them to
continue watching, even if they feel that they are difficult.
Although our study found some connection between watching YouTube videos and
improvement in reading comprehension and speed, it is limited in a number of ways.
First, the data in our study was taken from a limited number of participants that
consisted of students in a reading and writing class. In order to determine how much
learning is due to YouTube watching alone, and how much is due to in -class activities,
comparative data or a larger sample size should also be considered in the future.
Alternatively, data from a large number of participants could be taken so that more in -
depth statistical analyses could be conducted based on their viewing habits. Furthermore,
it is clear from our data that some participants did not watch many videos at all and
largely ignored the project and homework assignment. In order to better determine the
usefulness of watching videos with subtitles outside of the classroom, a larger sample
of students that actually participated earnestly would be helpful. Finally, it would be
helpful in the future to data with a different set of listening questions over a greater
period of time to see if there are any benefits to listening comprehension through
watching subtitled videos. The study could also potentially be repeated with learners of
various L1s to help determine whether or not the gains seen in this study are L1
dependent.

6. Conclusion
This study sought to determine if there were any benefits for L1 Japanese EFL

14
learners in watching YouTube videos with subtitles to help them study English. We
found that doing so can positively influence reading comprehension and reading speed,
although it is not clear how much these can be improved through watching videos alone.
Furthermore, our study suggests that learners who both enjoy watching the videos and
tend to watch for longer periods of time and/or re-watch videos are more likely to
improve these skills by watching YouTube videos. Finally, it seems that the reasons for
having enjoyed videos will also affect how beneficial watching them will be to
improvement. Specifically, students that enjoyed the videos for their linguistic and
educational aspects improved more, whereas those that simply enjoyed the content were
less likely to show improvement. Furthermore, even if students felt that videos were
difficult, it did not seem to impede their ability to learn from the videos.

References
de Bruijn, O., & Spence, R. (2000). Rapid Serial Visual Presentation: A Space-time
Trade-off in Information Presentation. Proceedings of the Working Conference on
Advanced Visual Interfaces, 189-192. May, 2000, Palermo, Italy.
Dewaele, J. M., & Alfawzan, M. (2018). Does the Effect of Enjoyment Outweigh that
of Anxiety in Foreign Language Performance? Studies in Second Language Learning
and Teaching, 8, 21–45.
Dingler, T., Shirazi, A.S., Kunze, K., & Schmidt, A. (2015). Assessment of Stimuli for
Supporting Speed Reading on Electronic Devices. Proceedings of the 6th Augmented
Human International Conference, 117-124. March 9-11, 2015, Singapore, Singapore.
Dowhower, S. L. (1987). Effects of Repeated Reading on Second-Grade Transitional
Readers' Fluency and Comprehension Reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 22(4),
389-406.
Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Educational Testing Service. (2016). Koshiki TOEIC® Listening & Reading Mondaishu
1 [Public TOEIC® Listening & Reading Problems 1]. Tokyo, Japan: ETS.
Frank, S.D. (1994). The Evelyn Wood Seven-day Speed Reading and Learning Program.
New York, NY: Fall River Press.
Fujita, R. (2017). Comparative Analyses of Films and Textbook Materials Focusing on
the Speech Rate and the Readability. Teaching English Through Movies: ATEM
Journal, 22, 71-84.
Garza, T. (1991). Evaluating the Use of Captioned Video Material in Advanced Foreign

15
 Language Learning. Foreign Language Annals, 24(3), 239-258.
Hayati, A., & Mohmedi, F. (2011). The Effect of Films with and Without Subtitles on
Listening Comprehension of EFL Learners. British Journal of Educational
Technology, 42(1), 181-192.
Hirano, J. (2012). TOEIC Bridge wo Katsuyo Shita Rimediaru Eigo Kyoiku [Remedial
English education utilizing TOEIC bridge]. Teaching English Through Movies: ATEM
Journal, 17, 53-62.
Krause, K., & Coates, H. (2008). Students’ Engagement in First-year University.
Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 33, 493–505.
Markham, P. (1989). The Effects of Captioned Television Videotapes on the Listening
Comprehension of Beginning, Intermediate, and Advanced ESL Students.
Educational Technology, 29(10), 38-41.
Markham, P. (1999). Captioned Videotapes and Second-language Listening Word
Recognition. Foreign Language Annals, 32(3), 321-328.
Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia Learning (2nd ed). New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press.
Nation, P., & Malarcher, C. (2017). Timed Reading for Fluency 1. Sachse, TX: Seed
Learning.
Rawson, K. A., Dunlosky, J., & Thiede, K.W. (2000). The Rereading Effect:
Metacomprehension Accuracy Improves Across Reading Trials. Memory & Cognition,
28(6), 1004-1010.
Ryu, D.H. (2011). The Effects of Film Subtitles on Students’ Language Awareness.
Teaching English Through Movies: ATEM Journal, 16, 17-31.
Schultz, L. M. (2012). Affect with Chinese Learners of English: Enjoyment, Self-
perception, Self-assessment, and Abilities Across Level of Language Learning.
Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies, 5, 65–81.
Seo, J. (2014). A Study on Language Development Through Movie Utterances: On the
Basis of Desperate Housewives. Teaching English Through Movies: ATEM Journal,
19, 89-103.
Spring, R., Kato, F., & Mori, C. (2019). Factors Associated with Improvement in Oral
Fluency when Using Video-synchronous Mediated Communication with Native
Speakers. Foreign Language Annals, 52(1), 1-14.
Woodall, B. (2010). Simultaneous Listening and Reading in ESL: Helping Second
Language Learners Read (and Enjoy Reading) More Efficiently. TESOL Journal, 1(2),
186-205.

16