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    Organisational behaviour

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    18 views44 pages

    O.B Unit 2 Notes complete@BBA 2nd Sem

    Uploaded by

    Uday Kiran
    Organisational behaviour

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 44
    MOTIVALIUN en a INTRODUCTION Every management tries to coordinate v. m i ° ous factors of production in such a way that their contribution is maximum in achieving organisational goals. The performance of non-human factors like machines, etc. will depend upon the level of technology and the competence of those who use them. To improve the overall performance in a business it becomes essential to incre ines. TI e the efficiency of human beings. The performance of persons depends upon two factors, i¢. (f) ability to do a work, and (ii) motivation. Both these factors taken together, will increase the efficiency of human beings. If a person does not have the capability or ability to do a work then he cannot increase his efficiency. On re other hand, even if a person has got the ability but is not properly motivated even then his performance will be low. m MEANING AND DEFINITION Motivation is an important factor which encourages persons to give their best performance and help in reaching enterprise goals. A strong positive motivation will enable the increased output of employee but a negative motivation will reduce their performance. A key element in personnel management is motivation. According to Likert, “it is the core of management which shows that every human being gives him a sense of worth in face-to-face groups which are most important to him. A supervisor should strive to treat individuals with dignity and a recognition of their personal worth. Motivation has been variously defined by scholars. Some definitions are discussed as follows: Berelson and Steiner ; “A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates, or moves and directs or chennels behaviour goals.’ Lillis: “Its the stimulation of any emotion or desire operating upon one's will and promoting or driving it to action.” ‘The Encyclopedia of Management : “Motivation refers to degree of readiness of an organism fo pursue some designated goal and implies the determination of the nature and locus of the forees, including the degree of readiness.” Dubin : “Motivation is the complox of forces starting and keeping a person at work in an organisation.” Scanned with CamScanner {for action among ae re mm NATURE OF morivATION ation isa psychological phen? needs, to satisty which ormally does: following inferences ¢ tes within an individual, i vhich genera ernen The need satisfying op, i Motiv he feels working more. the lack of certay person to do better {han hen From definitions given earlier the ‘an be derived : an inner feeling which energizes a person to work more. person prompt him for doing person which disturb his equilibrium, I needs by conditioning his energies. 1 Motivation is 2. The emotions oF desires of a atisfied needs of a a particular work 3. There are uns: A person moves to fulfil his unsatis 4 5, There are dormant energies in a person which are activated by channelisir actions. m TYPES OF MOTIVATION 5 t more work from his subordinates then he will have to moti They will either be offered incentive for more work, or sx ignition etc, or he may instill fear in them or usefewe When a manager wants to get them for improving their performance. be in the space of rewards, better reports, reco, for getting desired work. The following are the types of motivation : 1. Positive Motivation. Positive motivation or incentive motivation is based on reward. Tt workers are offered incentives for achieving the desired goals. The incentives may bein shape of more pay, promotion, recognition of work, etc. The employees are offered incentives and try to improve their performance willingly. According, to Peter Drucker real and positive motivators are responsible for placement, high standard of perfor=# information adequate for self-control and the participation of the worker as a Tespe citizen in the plant community.” Positive motivation is achieved by the co-operation # employees and they have a feeling of happiness. 2. Negative Motivati ; Nezative Motivation. Negative or fear motivation is based. on force ox fe Ft oe punished with demotions or lage In case, they do not act accordingly then they ™ | not willingly co-operate, ea Fe The fear acts as a push mechanism. The emplor work up-tona level shee ey they want to avoid the punishment. Though emp? and frustration. This t punishment is avoided but this type of motivation caus ant is lype of motivation generally becomes a cause of industrial unre Scanned with CamScanner ) Motmanun 63 In spite of the drawbacks of negative motivation, this method is commonly used to achieve desired results. There may be hardly any management which has not used negative motivation at one or the other time. \ \ g IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION Management tries to utilise all the sources of production in a best possible manner. This can be achieved only when employees co-operate in this task. Efforts should be made to motivate employees for contributing their maximum. The efforts of management will not bear fruit if the employees are not encouraged to work more. The motivated employees become an asset to the organisation. Importance of Motivation 7 i, | High performance 7 2. | Low employee turnover and absenteeism - 3. | Seter organizational image "J |_| Better industial relations 5. | Acceptability to change The following is the importance of motivation. 1. High Performance. Motivated employees will put maximum efforts for achieving organisational goals, The untapped reservoirs, physical and mental abilities are tapped to the maximum. Better performance will also result in higher productivity. The cost of Production can also be brought down if productivity is raised. The employees should be offered more incentives for increasing their performance. Motivation will act as a stimulant for improving the performance of employces 2. Low Employee Turnover and Absenteeism. When the employees are not satisfied with their job then they will leave it whenever they get an alternative offer. The dissatisfaction among employees also increases absenteeism. The employment training of new employees costs dearly to the organisation. When the employees are satisfied with their jobs and they are well motivated by offering them financial and non-financial incentives then they will not leave the job. The rate of absenteeism will also be low because they will try to increase their output. 3. Better Organisational Image. Those enterprises which offer better monetary and non- monetary facilities to their employees have a better image among them. Such concerns are successful in attracting better qualified and experienced persons, Since there is a better manpower to development programme, the employees will like to join such organisations, Motivational efforts will simplify personnel function also. 4. Better Industrial Relations. A good motivational system will create job satisfaction among employees. The employment will offer them better service conditions and various other incentives. There will be an atmosphere of confidence among employers and employees. Scanned with CamScanner 64 Motival There will be no reason for conflict and cordial relations among both sides will create health atmosphere. So motivation among employees will lead to better industrial relations, 5. Acceptability to Change. The changing social and industrial situations will require chan, and improvements in the working of enterprises. There will be a need to introduce new better methods of work from time to time. Generally, employees resist changes for fear an adverse effect on their employment. When the employees are given vari 5 opportunities of development then they can easily adapt to new situations. They will think of positive side of new changes and will co-operate with the management. If the employ are satisfied with their work and are not offered better avenues then they will op everything suggested by the management. Motivation will ensure the acceptability of new. changes by the employees. 4 @ THEORIES OF MOTIVATION ; From the very initial stages, when human organisations were established, find out the answer to one question : What motivates people maximum ? The advocates of scientific management and the classical theorists thought that men were primarily interested in satisfying theit basic needs of food, shelter, security etc, and therefore, wanted to maximise economic gain. They attempted to link performance and productivity with monetary rewards and the various ince schemes. It is due to this reason that F.W. TAYLOR gave the concept of SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT and the differential piece rate system for motivating the workers, This thinking wholly concentrated on one point that the external motivation or off the job situation, is sutherene fr the satisfaction of basic universal needs. But the traditional approach totally ignored the situation and considered the human beings as machines who do not have anv inna-« People had tried to ‘on the job Scanned with CamScanner 1. a +g. Hereberg’s motivation-hygiens theory OO ‘MeGregor’s theory X and theory Y ‘Vroom’s expectancy theory + +77 [Porter and Lawler model of motivation | 5. | Eauity theory of motivation = a [MoClelland's need theory of motivation | ,s 70. _| Goal seting theory 771.__| Reinforcement theory | g 1. MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY Probably the most widely known theory of indiv idual need and motivation comes from Abraham Maslow who was a clinical psychologist in US.A., Maslow He suggested that ev individual has a complex set of exceptionally strong needs and the behaviour of an indi ata parcular moment is usually determined by his strongest need. According to psycholo: Peds have a certain priority. As the more basic needs are satisfied, the individual seeks t higher needs. Ifthe basic needs are not satisfied, efforts to satisfy the higher needs will be postponed. NLslow stated that people have five basic levels of needs which they tend to satisfy in a hierarchical fashion. He proposed that human needs can be arranged in 2 particular order from the lowest level need to the highest level need. This hierarchy of human needs is shown in the following Figure: 5, SELF ACTUALISATION NEEDS 4. ESTEEM NEEDS 3, SOCIAL| NEEDS 2. SAFETY| NEEDS 1. PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS. TTASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS This need hierarchy can be explained a5 follows: ‘gs. The physiological needs step for ses ause ie care the strongest needs until they are reasonably satisfied ae spmmprising of hunger, ist shee , air and other first try to acquire these basic necessities of life, only then are taken at the first or starting 1, Physiological Ne motivation theory bee There are the basic bodily P= Human beings d level of needs. clothing, necessities of life they tend to move tw the secon Scanned with CamScanner Mot), Mi, I needs, the second needs are safety ang Secu, 4 o hlogical needs are satisfied (what jg reason rson to person), the _— beings tend to uit ‘, y. In today’s civilised socigy tg 2. Safety Needs. In the hierarchy Once a reasonable level of Physi tecped ee stents wf oe surly and stabil vhich are se a 8 - “i second level of needs which are danger or threats of violence etc., so that the {p d from physical dang 5 d Of source of j is usually prot . job security, security security res well upon economic and job security ry ecurity needs die i Net, is for old age, insurance against risk, medical insurance and other * Provision for old age, ins isfaction of physiological needs in the future wre" Measures to safeguard the satisfaction of phy: 8 ich muy, unpredictable. ; ; 3. Social Needs. Once the second level is satisfied, the human beings strive to satis, te social news, Man is a social animal, he wants to belong to a social group Whee emotional needs for love, affection, warmth and friendship are satisfied. Social] Needs cn, satisfied by being in the company of friends, relatives or other group such as Work pr, or voluntary groups. 4. Esteem Needs. Fourth in the hierarchy of needs is ego or self esteem Reeds whig, . concemed with self respect, self confidence, recognition, appreciation, applause, pray Power and control. These needs give the individuals a sense of self worth and, satisfaction. SAFETY SOCIAL ESTEEM PHYSIOLOGICAL SELF ACTUALISATION INTENSITY OF NEEDS ag 5. Self Actualisation Need: S. At th Tr need to fullll what a pe © tOP of the hicra i on considers to be the are fulfilled, a man hay the desire be the which is challenging ; ott "chy is the need for self actualisation ! . . es " Mission in his life. After all his other OT persona! ieveme; anid since this challenge sae ochieveme it is beneficial to him and the psychological satis allenge pi nt. He wants to do some!” €nge gives him ®nough push and initiative 0" Society, The sense of achiey, gens ction. ‘ement gives him a Scanned with CamScanner Motivation by ‘Thus, Maslow suggested the following points : (9 There are five levels of needs. {i All these needs are arranged in a hierarchy. (ii) A satisfied need is no longer a need. Once a need or a certain order of need is satisfied it ceases to be a motivating factor. (ic) Once one level of need is satisfied, the next level of need will , ge as th sei needs seeking to be satisfied. Tvl emerge a8 the’ depressed {@) The physiological and security needs are finite but the needs of higher order are infinite and are likely to be dominant in persons at higher levels in the organisation. (ri) Maslow suggests that various levels are interdependent and overlapping. Fach higher level emerging before the lower level need has been completely satisfied. Even though a need is satisfied it will influence behaviour because of interdependent and overlapping characteristic of needs. ca CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF MASLOW'S THEORY Maslow theory has been widely appreciated. (i) Ithelps the managers in understanding how to motivate the employees. (i) This theory is very simple, common and easily understandable. (ii) Itaccounts for both inter-personal and intra-personal variations in human behaviour. (io) This theory is dynamic because it presents motivation as a changing force ; changing from one level of needs to the another level. But despite the appreciation for this theory, it has been criticised by many on the following grounds : 1. Researchers have proved that there is lack of hierarchical structure of needs as suggested by Maslow, though every individual has some ordering for his need satisfaction. Some people of their lower level needs but may strive for self actualisation needs, The may be deprived are always some example of MAHATMA GANDHI is one of the most important, There people in whom, the need for self esteem is more prominent than social needs. 2. Another problem is that there is @ ack of direct cause and effect relationship between need and behaviour. One particular need may cause different type of behaviour in different persons. On the other hand, as a particular individual behaviour may be due to the result of different needs. Thus, need hierarchy 1s not as simple as it appears to be psychological feeling. Sometimes even the person may 3. atisfaction of needs is Need and satisfaction of ne Tow can the managers come to know about these not be aware about his own ne needs? : 1 some people say that hierarchy of peed simply does not exist. At all levels needs are s ie people say tha —_ 7 Scanned with CamScanner resent at given time. dual motivated by self actual Pay, i el lisation need, P given time. An individ 8 cam 4 fe ; But this criticism is solved by Maslow by sayi a, & forget his food. a interdependent and overlapping. 8 thar 4m 5. Another problem with this theory is the operationalisation of some of hit blem with this theory is U : akes it difficult for the researchers to test his theory. For instance, hoy aneepts ma Sc ' teas self actualisation ? %, Despite its drawbacks, Maslow's theory offers managers a good handle on Understang: motives or needs of individuals and how to motivate organisational members, Bs, ™@ 2. ALDERFER'S ERG THEORY Clayton Alderfer reformulated Maslow’s need hierarchy theory. The ERG need theory de by Alderfer, condenses the five needs given by Maslow into three needs. The E from the first letters of each of these levels of needs. These three needs are: 1. Existence Needs. The existence needs combine the ety needs 4 Maslow's model. The existence needs are satisfied by material incentives, These noe include the basic survival needs of human beings, needs for physical and Poychotgs ssfety from threats to people's existence and well being. Physiological and saf 2 Relatedness Needs, The relatedness needs, include Maslow’s social and esteem resi which are deriy ‘ed from other people. These include relationships with other people wer eds are satisfied by personal rela tionships and social interactions, are similar to Maslow’s self actualisation needs. This ns forts to achieve full potential in the o les for new challenges and opportunities. ARE © revised Maslow’s theory in othe: ways also: (© Mastow’s need hierarchy follows a rigid, step like progression, The ERG theory 0h other hand assumes that y be operative at the same tis! satisfied first, only then he can ve A person may be working, on his & needs even, though his exi ay be ‘unsatisfied. Maslow’s til that need is sati ERG theory also improves the Rot stay at a certain level uni Person will move to the next level only if the The 1s this by say individual's desire to increase a | can not theory on the ground that a per isfied. Maslow was of the opine Reeds of the previous level are ss o ing that when a higher level nced is fst! xe wer level need takes place. For example. if art ted needs, he Will increase his social interact co ire Trustrated in meeting these needs also, be © and may ask for more material benefits. RG theory countey tisty his growth orig relatedness need. If his efforts back to existence needs Scanned with CamScanner \ tient movant AGES OF ER ‘Tem pisedvantages of the theory Fredrick Herzberg and his associates de commonly known as the two factor theory, in the late 1950s associates conducted a research based on the interview of 200 engineers and accountant for 11 different firms in Sec are perceived to be desirable goals to achieve and conversely oid. During the course of the interviews, these me 2° which they felt “exceptionally good” or crete rate the degree of which their feelings were influence which they described. Based cern ager he answers received from these 200 people, ors that tend to be consistently related to job satisfa some Feferred tg M ee 1 sim Ply prevent di. paar e¥eMt dissatisfaction and maintain status quo. Such factors elo nat produce ent negat tion oy 1G THEORY vantages of the ERG theory are as follows ain a 's ERG theory is more consistent with our knowledge of individual differences dual will have different importance for different group of needs fer 1 ae people. Every indi among Pe ypon his education, fomily background and cultural environment. A very red person will value the growth needs more than the social needs or even the antec needs. On the other and, a person who belongs to a very poor family will rate needs more important. In this context, ERG theory is more relevant as the existence Compared fo the Maslow’s theory. G theory takes the strong points of the earlier content theories but itis less restrictive and red to the others. 2. ER limiting as compa a UMITATIONS OF ERG THEORY are as follows: clear cut guidelines. This theory says that an individual can 1, The ERG theory does not offer frst. But how will we determine which of the three needs is satisfy any of the three needs fi more important to that person. concept as compared to the Maslow’s theory. Alderfer’s research has 2, This theory is a new pass judgement indicated some degree of support for the theories but yet it is too early to on the overall validity of the theory. 11 3. HERZBERG'S MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY veloped the MOTIVATION HYGIENE THEORY, and early 1960s. Herzberg and his ts who looked of the research was to find out as to y, undesirable conditions ittsburgh area, U.S.A, The purpose nn were asked to describe a few previous job “exceptionally bad” about jobs. They were -for better or worse-by each Herzberg concluded that there are ion and on the other hand, there are job conditions, he fact fors, which are consistently related to job dissatisfaction. The last of j IVATIONA MAINTENANCE OR HYGIENE factors and the first job conditions as IAL FACTORS. The motivational factors are intrinsic in nature and the hygiene factors trinsic in nature. These two factors are described in detail as follows + ot motivate people, they Hygi ien ; iene Factors. Hygiene factors or the maintenance factors do n positive results ive results. If these factors are not there it will lead to job dissatisfaction. These are Scanned with CamScanner 6.10 yr ot motivators, as they maintain a zero level of motivation or in other Words, Ma. ni , iminate dissatisfaction. these fag provide any satisfaction but eliminate dissatisfa , According to Herzberg there are ten maintenance or hygiene factor: 1. | Company Policy & Administration 2. | Technical Supervision Inter-personal relations with Supervisor Inter-personal relations with peers ay 3. 4 5. inter-personal relations with subordinates 6 | Salary 7. 8. Job security Personal life 9._| Working conditions 10. _| Status The word hygiene is taken from the medical science, where it means t. maintain your health but not necessarily improve it. Similarly, damage to efficiency but do not encourage growth. aking prevent, hygiene factors in this theory pee Assuch, these are also called di 2. Motivational Factors, These factors are intrinsic in nature motivational factors have a positive effect on output. Thus, these factors have satisfiers, and are related to the jb job satisfaction and often result in an increas in‘c 3 Positive influence on morale, satisfaction, cies = Productivity. Herzberg concluded thot sx factors motivate the employees “ 1 Achievement 2 Advancement 3. Possibility of growth Recognition —i 5._| Work toatl Responsibility Any increase in these factors will improve the lew vel of satisfacti can be for motivating the employees. tion, thus, these factors & Based on his research, Heraberg stated thal managers have 1 ‘ave hitherto been very much come™ with hygiene factors. As 9 res ty have ot been ale espe been very much sm employes. In order to increase the motivation its mass Py dee sai east is fention to the mo! factors. He further concluded that today’s motivational factors aF¢ tomorrow's hyp oo » a need is satisfied, it stops influencing the behaviour, Further aS bysiene factors. oe bas ’s motivator, because motivation 8 also inflyung + OMe person’s hygiene ™ 4 another person's MU Wl by the personality eeacesst®™ individuals. fi Scanned with CamScanner Motieation 9 GRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE THEORY Herzberg’s theory is appreciated on the ground that it provides an insight into ¢ ; motivation by drawing attention to the job factors which are often overlooked. It shows the value o! ap enrichment in motivation. Thus, Herzberg’s theory has solved the problems of managers who failed to motivate the employees adequately. he task of However, this theory has also not gone unchallenged. It has been criticised on the following grounds : 1, Not Conclusive. Herzberg study was limited to the engineers and accountants. The critics say that this theory is not conclusive because the professionals or the white collar workers may like responsibility and challenging jobs. But the general workers are motivated by pay and other benefits. The effect of hygiene and motivational factors may totally be reverse on some other categories of people. 2. Methodology. Another criticism of this theory is directed at the method of research and data collection. The interviewers were asked to report exceptionally good or exceptionally bad job experience. This methodology is defective because such information will always be subjective and biased. 3, Job Enrichment. This theory has given too much emphasis on job enrichment and has totally ignored job satisfaction of the workers. He didn’t attach much importance to pay, status or interpersonal relationships which are generally held as great motivators. Keeping in view all these points we can conclude that Herzberg’s theory has been widely read and there will be few people who are not familiar with these recommendations. This theory provides valuable guidelines to the managers for structuring their jobs in order to include such factors in the jobs which bring satisfaction. WW. MCGREGOR’S THEORY X THEORY Y Douglas McGregor introduced these two theories i, Theory X and Theory Y, based on two distinct views of human beings. He proposed, at opposite extremes, two pairs of assumptions about human beings which he thought were implied by the actions of the managers. Theory X deals with one extreme, based on one set of assumptions and Theory Y, deals with another extreme based on another set of assumptions. These theories are not based on any research, but according to McGregor, these are intuitive deductions. Theory X. This theory is based on the traditional approach to human behaviour. The assumptions generally, held by the managers in this theory are: 1. The average human beings inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it, whenever Possible, As the employees are lazy, they must be controlled, coerced, threatened with punishment to achieve goals, to which they are indifferent. 3. Average employees. will try to avoid responsibility and seek formal directions whenever possible, because they have relatively little ambition, Scanned with CamScanner 6.12 4. Most workers place security above all other factors associated yy, ch work Managers assumptions about human nature are negative in their appre these views feel that extreme control is most appropriate for dealing with irr. immature employees, This ix an autocratic style of leadership based on y theory of what workers are like and what management must do to motivate then, have to be persuaded and pushed into performance. nent by direction and control is Theory Y. This approach assumes that mar method for motivating such people whose physiological and social needs have Whose social esteem and self actualisation needs are becoming, more important. For such. Theory Y, seems to be applicable, which is the contrast of Theory X. - This theory makes the following assumptions about people : 1. The average human being does not inherently dislike work. He can view work 25-= enjoyable as rest or play. Emplovees will exercise self direction and self control in the attainment of the object which they are committed. 3. Given proper working conditions, average person can learn to accept and even 9 = responsibility. 4. Commitment to objectives 5. All the people are capable of making innovative é& creative decisions and the & making is not the sole province of the people in management positions. a function of the rewards associated with their achiev This theory has assumed a new approach in management. It emphasises on co-operation management and employees. The individual and_ organisational goals do not conflict 7 approach Thus theory places greater emphasis on satisfaction of high level needs of the &P*. Mocregor tumoelf holds that the assumptions of theory Y are more valid than Theor’ * delegabon of authority, job enlargement, management by objectives and participative techniques are great motivators for the employee, 7 ADDIICARIITY ne Turan uo... — Scanned with CamScanner Motivation g 5. THEORY 2 ything. It is William Ouchi, proposed Theory Z in early 80's. The letter Z does not stand fox any ne eal jyst to denote the state of affairs in organisation and human behaviour as has been 4 ~ rican and theories X and Y. Ouchi came out with this theory after making a comparative study of Am apes Japanese management practices. It is an integrative model, containing the best of both Amarin Japanese practices. It takes into account the strengths of Japanese Management e.g. Social ‘va security, concern of employees, as well as American Management e.g. speedy decision making, risk taking skills individual autonomy, innovation and creativity Theory Z is a mixed US-Japanese Management System for modern organisations. co FEATURES OF THEORY Z Theory Z as proposed by William Ouchi has the following characteristics: 1, Trust: Trust and openness are the building blocks of Theory Z. The organisation must work toward trust, integrity and openness. In such an atmosphere, the chances of conflict are reduced to the minimum. Trust, according to Ouchi, means trust between employees, supervisors, work groups, management, unions and government. 2 Organisation-Employee Relationship: Theory Z suggests strong linkages between employees and tie organisation. It argues for the life time employment for people in the organisation. To ensure stability of employment managers must make certain conscious decisions when there is a situation of layoff. For example, it should not be followed and instead, the owners/shareholders may be asked to bear the losses for a short while. To Prevent employces from reaching a ‘plateau’ promotions may be slowed down. Instead of vertical progression, horizontal progression may be encouraged at various levels. Carcer Path for employees must be laid down clearly so that employees are aware of what they can achieve and to what extent they can grow within the organisation, over a period of time. 3. Employee Participation: Participation here does not mean that employees should Participate in all organisational decisions, There can be a situation where management may arrive at a decision without consulting employees, a decision where employees arv invited to suggest but the final green signal given by the management. But all decisions whore employees are affected must be subjected to a participative exercise, where employees snd management sit together, exchange views, take down notes and arrive at decisions jointly. The basic objective of employees involvement is to give recognition to their suggestions, problems and ideas in a genuine manner. 5 4. Structureless Organisation Ouchi proposed a structureless organisation run, not on the basis of formal Felationship, Specialisation of tasks and positions but on the basis of team work and understanding, In organisations, emphasis must be on team Work and cooperation, on sharing of information, resourc and plans at various levels without any friction. To promote a ‘System Thinking among employees, they must be asked to take turn in various departments at various levels, to find out how their wenn Miects others or is affected by others. It also makes employees realise the meaning of worde such as ‘reconciliation’, ‘adjustment, ‘give and take’ in an organisation such as a rr Scanned with CamScanner 614 es, © 5 Molt ance fr Ennio? Joyees, leaders must be prepared to inve: ia sil ‘n sharing their ideas openly and frankly, jy tee tes {or employees to realise their potential. The bay, ly and enthusiastically. The attempt must be, d any conflict between their pers, To obtain commitment f ; smployces § energies in developing employ es class barriers, in erating ee i cratively, willing work coopera el L ere emplayees do not see must be to healthy work climate whi organisational goals have started experimenting with the ideas of Theory Z in recent in So el Udyog Limited and Bharat Heavy Electronics Limited (et, aaa cua place i designed on’ the japanese pattern Ly having a cornmun ey acne nfo both the officers and the workers etc. Other ideas of Ouchi such 5 emeloya al wing 4 common work cullure, participative decision making, «), ona owners bearing temporary losses in order to provide a cushion for employer, i Aithcult to implement in Indian Companies because of several complicating. promi differences in culture, caste, language, religion ete often come in the way of transforming into concrete action plans. @ 6G. VROOM'S EXPECTANCY THEORY Victor Vroom made an important contribution to the understanding of the concept of and the decision processes that people use to determine how much effort they will expend ox jobs. Criticising Herzberg’s two factors theory, he said that a Person’s motivation towards an any time would be determined by an individual's Perception that a certain type of action wou! f© a specific outcome and his personal preference for this outcome. This model is based on £ that motivation is determined by the nature of the reward People expect to get as a resul Performance. Because man is a rational human being he will try to maximise the perceived are made to believe that if they beh: a certain type of outcome according to their personal pr 7 in Vroom’s model given in the form of an equation. Since the m mulpr, all the three variables must have high Positive value to imply motivated perfor oices. If any of the variable is zero, the Probability of motivated performance tends to be 22"0 MOTIVATION = VALENCE x EXPECTANCY x INSTRUMENTALITY All these three va riables are explained as follows : 1 Particular way, they will receive ‘There are three variables Valence. Valence means the Whenever an individual ha Preference. The valence is so is deemed to be attaining it. Vale - divi attraction (or repulsion) of an outcome to the ind! of? * preference for a reward valance is the strength mething subjective and vari er Positive for an individual if he Prefers attaining the outcome ® ince is zero, if the individual a and " i | is indifferent towards the outcom™ a will be negative if the individual Prefers not attaining the outcome to att2i"™ simple words we can say that the worker must value the Teward as desired and sat® It is not the actual value of the reward, but the perceived th val ed value of the reward in the worker which is important. For example, a p _ recognition for the hard work, will not have an: in ‘on who is more interested valence for cash reward. P| Scanned with CamScanner wan 6.15 Expectancy. It is also referred to as the Effort-Perf 2 E q - ormance Py towhich the person believes his efforts will lead to the the task. Expectancy is the probability that a particular the perception in the mind of the individual of the {i behaviour will lead to a certain outcome. Since it is an association between effort id performance, its value can range between 0 and 1. If the individual feels that the probabitit of achieving an outcome is zero, he will not even try. On the other hand, if probabili a higher, he will put more efforts to achieve the desired outcome 7 Tobability. It refers to the first level outcome ie, cor action will lead to the outcome, it is ikelihood that a Particular action or extent mpletion of INSTRUMENTALITY SECOND LEVEL, OUTCOMES FIRST LEVEL OUTCOME expectancy] | | OUTCOME i OUTCOME 1A ¥ F | OUTCOME LJ ourcome 1c ‘OUTCOME | H UTCOME ‘OUTCOME S 2 [| 2B OUTCOME —| 2c 3. Instramentality (Performance-Reward —Probability).Instrumentality refers Fae Probabilities attached by the individual to each possible pesformanceutzome ternative just as the individual previously assigned probabilities to various levels of effort leading, ifferent words, instrumentality refers to the aif s expectancy). In simple wor y roth nd creat onan eiteer ua performance will lead to a particular desired promotion and feels that superior is the first belief and expectation of a person that his Teward. For example, if an individual wants 4 is » promotion. Superior performance Performance is very important in receiving the promotion, up pee ar adedaptine evel outcome and the promotion is the second tenel ulema? me per pn 8 iat m1 st ny the desired prome (Secon evel outea i mental in obtaining Se el outcome) will be instru separa Nitcome), The value of instrumentality also varies between 0 to Tas it the prob. outcome), The value of ins! a ofachieving the desired outcome. rest wher all V x Fx I) motivational force will be hv Scanned with CamScanner 6.16 My recognise and determine the situation as it exists ang ta The management must for modification of behaviour, so that highest value c,' He 01 ¢ factors fo ‘ ies at highest : improve up daragsncar fs Searle can deal with the different situations in the folloy, individually. Manage a i {i) Low Effort-Performance Expectancy Steps to be taken Reasons —_—___ ‘skills should provide opportuni, “oe necessary training, so that tho | Management ] nee aie do not Re eae their fare efforts will | improve skills in order to improve etton A trai ty, lead to better performance, telationship. - ert, (ii) Low Performance-Reward instrumentality Relationship Fanos Steps to be taken Reward policy may be inconsistent and may | Management chould re-evaluate the apprainy tea depend upon factors other than performance | and formulate policies that strengthen this relation hich the worker may not be aware of or may | just and equitable Management " ‘ot consider fair. opportunities for training to improve improve effort performance relationship Should pap Skills in cede el iii) Low Reward-Valence : Reasons Steps to be taken The rewards may not be desirable for the | Management must investi workers. Some workers may find monetary | rewards which are Rewards desirable while some others may value recognition more, igate the desirability of given on the basis of performance, 5 EVALUATION OF THE EXPECTANCY MODEL Vroom’s theory has become “ery Popular and it has provided an alternative to content the which according to him, were inadequate explanations of the complex process of work motivatict The plus points of this theory are (@ The expectancy model ig highly useful in understandin i improve the relationship between the individual and the organisational goals. This explains how individual's goals influence his efforts and like need-based models ve!” individual behaviour is goal oriented, jour. he § Organisational behaviour ! Gi) The expectancy theory is a cognitive theory, considered rational hum; beliefs and expectations, which values human dignity indo an beings who can anticipate their future on the basis ¢ (ii) This theory helps the managers in looking beyond what Maslow and Herzberg int?” Accoreting to him motivation dees ot mean satisfying the unsatisfied needs, The ™ nee Must make it possible for an Corployee to see that effort can result in approprist® satisfying rewards. This level ot © pectations will impr ‘ove the motivation to work. Scanned with CamScanner ite these plus points, there are some drawbacks of Vroom’s expectancy model as giver De plow! a room's theory is difficult to research and apply in practice. This is evident by the fact thal there have been a very few research studies designed specifically to test Vroom's theory. (i) This theory assumes man to be a rational human being who makes all the decisions consciously. But there are numerous instances where decisions are taken with no conscious thought. This is particularly true for routine jobs. qi) Although, it is an important theory of motivation but it is quite complex. Many managers, in actual organisational situations, do not have the time or sources to use a complex system on the job. To conclude, we can say that from the theoretical point of view, this model is a step in the righ! direction, but from practical point of view, it does not help the manager in solving the complex ‘motivational problem. 7. PORTER AND LAWLER MODEL OF MOTIVATION Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler came up with a comprehensive theory of motivation combining the various aspects that we have so far been discussing and using two additional variables in their model. Though built in large part on Vroom’s expectancy model, Porter and Lawler’s mode is a more complete model of motivation. This model has been practically applied also in their study of managers. This is a multi variate model which explains the relationship that exists between jot attitudes and job performance. The various elements of this model are explained in the following figure = PERCEIVED EQUITABLE REWARDS INTRINSIC. REWARDS, Pla EXTRINSIC REWARDS: aden Rec ea bca ot —r%« x SATISFACTION Scanned with CamScanner_ ic assumptions about human behaviour : This model is based on four bi (As mentioned above, it is a multi variate model. According to this moda) in iy behaviour is determined by a combination of factors in the individyay environment. (ii) Individuals are assumed to be ration: their behaviour in the organisations. (iii) Individuals have different needs, desires and goals. (f) On the basis of their expectations, individuals decide between alternate behavio, such decided behaviour will lead toa desired outcome. as 5 al human beings who make conscious deg ‘Ons 4 The various elements of this model are as follows : 1. Effort. Effort refers to the amount of energy which a person exerts on a job, 2. Value of Reward. First of all people try to figure out whether rewards that are jy, received from doing a job will be attractive to them. This is referred to a, vane Vroom’'s theory. ase 4 person who is looking for more money, for him for example, extra vacation time my be an attractive reward. If the reward to be obtained is attractive o. valent, th individual will put extra efforts to perform the job, otherwise he will lower his effort 4, oe Effort leads to Performance. The expected level of Performance will depe: poms eifor, the abilities and traits of the individual and his role percep’ include knowledge, skills and intellectual capaci i i B ‘pacity to perform the job. Traits are important for many jobs are endurance e in ; ©, Preservance, and goal directedness. Th Seana waits _ moderate the effort-performance relationship. In addition, poy Per fermi ing Jobs should have accurate role Perception which refers to the way it eee thelr lésares pple may Perceive their roles differently, Only thos. fined by th isati form we Ly put forth the reuse ciac Y the organisation, will be able to perform well wien 5. Rewards. Performance leads tc ‘erfa 'S to certain outcomes in tl namely extrinsic rewards and intrinsic rewarde S54 Etrasi rewards are the external rewards given by others in the organisation in the "ey, Tecognition oF praise. Intrinsic «1 i “ f wards are inte ings of job, sete and sense of competence that individuals feel wire they dove ee “tiene od job. 6. Satisfaction. Satisfaction will y isfa esult from both extrinsi i SS eee i sic and instrinsi How for being satisfied, an individual will compare his actual newanle ada pers? eae if hibe rewards meet or exceed Perceived equitable reward “the individ!” jee! satisfied and if these are less than i me : a S u Oo aes, will dissatisfied. he equitable rewards, the individual ™ Scanned with CamScanner en o SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PORTER AND LAWLER MODEL Porter and Lawler model is a departure from the traditional analysis of satisfaction and formance relationship. In practice, we find that motivation is not a simple cause and effect F iationship, rather it is a complex phenomenon. This model is of great significance to managers since iteensitises them to focus their attention on the following points to keep their employees motivated: 1. Match the abilities and traits of individuals to the requirements of the job by putting the right person on the right job. 2, He should carefully explain to the subordinates their roles or what they must do to be : rewarded. Then he must make sure that they understand it. 3. Prescribe in concrete terms the actual performance levels expected of the individuals and these levels should be made attainable. 4, To achieve and maintain motivation, the appropriate reward must be associated with successful performance. 5, Make sure that the rewards dispensed are valued by the employees. Thus, he should find out what rewards are attractive to the employee and see if such rewards can be given to him. Porter and Lawler model has definitely made a significant contribution to the better "understanding of work motivation and the relationship between performance and satisfaction. But even then todate it has not made much impact on the actual practice of Human Resource Management, W)B/EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION ‘The Equity theory owes its origin to several prominent theorists. However, it is J. Stacey Adam's formulation of the theory which is most highly developed and researched statement on the topic. According to Adams, equity theory is based on the simple assumption that people want to be treated fairly. Many employees are concerned not only with satisfying their own needs but also compare what others receive. The theory defines equity as the belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others and inequity as the belief that we are treated unfairly in relation to others. Employees feel satisfied or dissatisfied with comparative observations of their friends, neighbours and colleagues. Whenever the employee feels that he is lacking in some way in comparison to others, he tends to work hard to reach the level of others. People are motivated by the inequity they note with others. The equity theory helps in understanding both the causes and likely consequences of feelings of unequitable treatment among organisation members, ‘Adams has defined two specific words viz, person and other. Person is any individual for whom equity of uneeqity exists. Other i defined as any individual with whom a person is in relevant xchange relationship or with whom a pemon compares himself. Adams describes the equit comparison process in terms of input/output ratios. Inputs are an individual’s contribution to the otganication’ Sach as the person's trainin, elucation, skills, experience, ethnic background, effort and loyalty. Outputs are what he receives in return, An individual can receive many positive a 4 negative outcomes from the organisation. The outcomes which an individual receive are in the faim Scanned with CamScanner 20 al relationships, level of supervision «iy et, recognition, soci " or negative. | tcome is positive en their outcomes and their relevant inputs, Each group of people. Let us call the ern ing fj Son water. The following Figures if pay, working conditions, Jone decides whether an ow assess the ratio betw' People his ratio with the ratio of anoth i d the obj comparison one person and comparisons: er person oF cect of compariso "'§ OUTCOMES SON'S OUTCOMES — OTHER’ — > Fo 0 en Ts OTHENSINPUTS uy OTHER'S OUTCOMES NEGATIVE - pERSON'S OUTCOMES ~ OTHER'S OUTCOMES a ce NSIPUTS ~ OTHER'S INPUTS INEQuITY PERSON'S OUTCOMES ., OTHER'S OUTCOMES Positive (PERSON'S INPUTS OTHER'S INPUTS INEQUITY ‘ADAMS'S EQUITY THEORY results when an individual perceives the ratios as equal, Th happens in a work environment where a person feels that he and his co-worker are pai amount and that their relevant inputs are also the same. A feeling of equity can also occ sther's outcomes are higher (or lower) than the person’s and when other's inputs are d lower). This form of equity is common in organisations. A person does not feel inequitably tex his superior is getting a higher salary than him. Thus, inequity as a motivation force will act as follows :- Individual Perceives inequity Individual experiences tension y Individual wants to reduce tension t Individual takes action A feeling of equity (Change inputs (i) Change outcomes: (i) Alter perceptions of self (iv) Alter perception of others (¥) Change comparisons (vi) Leave Situation RESPONSES TO INEQUITY In case, there is inequality in the ratios of oute | of inequity-positive and negative. In negative in comes: th the organisation and in positiv ay and inputs, people can experieh® jogs! people feel that they are unde® P™ ew than @ inequity they fool that thew are maid more Scanned with CamScanner wor cagth. The amount of inequity is proportional to the size of the perceived discrepancy in the | nn he basic equity theory assumes that upon feeling inequity, the person is motivated to r* d a as her, the greater the inequity the greater the motivation to reduce it. r No en ' ¥, —jpignot that the person feeling inequity alone gets motivated to restore equity. The person wil ling of equity also gets motivated but to maintain the current situation. ‘The person with a feeling of inequity can try a number of alternatives viz. - ) Change Inputs. A person can change his inputs depending upon whether the perceiv inequity is positive or negative. Under a condition of negative inequity, he may reduce | efforts, productivity or quality of work. Under a condition of positive inequity he m increase those inputs. (ii), Change Outcomes. A person may attempt to change his outcomes by requesting a sala increase or asking for a bigger office. Anything perceived to be an outcome important to # | individual can shift his ratio of inputs to outcomes. (ii) Alter Perceptions of Self. Rather than actually changing the inputs and outcomes, peop may change their perceptions of their inputs or outcomes. If they feel overpaid, they m: | begin to ‘See’ more responsibility and duty in their job. If they feel underpaid they m. fa reduce the perceived importance of the job by suggesting to themselves that ‘it is ju am another job’. ts} iv) Alter Perception of Other. People may change their perceptions of the inputs an outcomes of the comparison other. A person who feels overpaid may impute mot importance to the task of the other party than in the past. (¥) Change Comparisons. If comparing oneself with a specific person creates feelings « inequity, choosing someone else for comparison purposes may result in less uncomfortabl feelings. (vi) Leave Situation. A person may withdraw from the situation that produced the feeling c inequity. The withdrawl can be permanent such as leaving the organisation for some othe organisation or it can be temporary such as increased absences or tardiness. . ; EVALUATION OF THE EQUITY THEORY The equity theory has generated extensive research, with many of the results being supportive The theory recognises the influence of social comparison processes on motivation. Individuals ar Concemed not only with the amount of rewards they receive for their efforts but also with th "lationship of this amount to what others receive. Equity motive tends to be one of the importan Motives with the employees. Lastly compared to the other theories, the equity theory adopts a "ealistic approach to motivation. This theory postulates that a major share of individual behaviour is based on the perceived situation rather than on the actual set of circumstances. Such a hypothesis Proved correct by several findings which indicate that it is the perceived equity or inequity of the “uation that stimulates motivation and satisfaction. from criticism. The central theme of the theory is the jud Thee ment ot quity theory is not free “ pelt -irness is not appreciated by all. Equity predictions are fait treat ff ‘eatment. But, m reality, the concept of f ple Dore ikely ty apply. to people who are morally mature, There are some Practical difficulties al PH equity theary eg.) How does 2 person choose the comparison ather ? (ii) How te Scanned with CamScanner ; Mot, iT about inputs/outcomes relationships ? (iii) Is a given factor ay cen ea en Hor what circumstances will each method of inequity be used? Regardless of these problems, the equity theory continues to offer us some imporen, into employees motivation. The managers find it very useful in managing and Motivating Ni through equitable rewards, hy @ 9. MCCLELLAND'S NEED THEORY OF MOTIVATION Another appreciable contribution to the concept of motivation is David McClellan, Theory. According to McClelland there are three major motives or needs in work place. , Motivate the people. These are ; @ The Need for Achievement. Some people have high achievement motivation, They ore excel to achieve standards and strive to succeed. Such people should be Biven taste Powers enabling them to utilise their potential effectively. Opportunities would felp be to strive for higher achievements. Gi) The Need for Power. The need for power is concerned with influencing others and wires arguments. People with high need for power derive satisfaction from being in posi influence and control. To motivate such people positions of power and authority shout’ given to them. Gi) The Need for Affiliation. Some people need and desire friendly and close interpen= relationships. People dominated by such need are interested in jobs that pro= opportunities for social interaction. According to this theory, every person has three types of needs may be in varying degre? motivator should use motivators to the extent to which each person needs it. Each peso”? Physiological and safety neesds also, which must also be satisfied, Limitations. Despite the Appreciation of the theory, it suffers from the following limitations * Need and satisfaction of needs is a psychological thing. Sometimes even the person o be aware of his own needs. In such a case, it will be difficult for the manager to unde the employce’s need * There is no direct cause and effect relationship between need and behaviour. O8€ 7 need may cause different types of behaviour in different persons, On the othe? Particular individual behaviour may be the result af different needs, ¢ The physiological and safety needs are more important as compared to McClellan! m 10. GOAL-SETTING THEORY e of Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a major soe ivation. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort to be p™! motivation. i Scanned with CamScanner \ sation oe 6. wot ese performance. Dificult goals when accepted, result in higher perk ” s ; erfor incl ack leads to higher per e et eo feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback. sing theory emphasises the following, points : mance than do easy Goal Se" tailiy ie: +h as ability and acceptance of th If factors sucl he goals are held s 0 the more difficult goal, the higher the level of performance ‘Ofte coh oe she will exert a high level ‘a ployee accepts a hard task, he or igh level of effort until it is vi ta toned. achieved, lowered or il better when they get feedback People will do yg ck on how well they are is their goals because feedback helps to identify discrepancies between what they re done and what they want to do, y nave done (a Feedback is not equally potent. Self-generated feedback-where the employee is able to monitor his or her own progress- has proved to be a more powerful motivator than exterally generated feedback. (a (je) If people participate in goal setting, they are more likely to accept even a difficult goal than if they are arbitrarily assigned it by their boss. People are basically committed to choices in which they have a part. A major advantage of participation may be increasing acceptance of the goal itself as a desirable one toward which to work. (c) There are four factors which influence the Goal-performance relationship. These are * Goal Commitment. Goal setting theory assumes that an employee is committed to the goal, that is, he is determined not to lower or abandon the goal. This will more likely happen when the goals are made public, when the employee has an internal locus of control and when the goals are self set rather than assigned. + Self-Efficacy. Self efficacy refers to an individual’s belief that he is capzble of performing a task. The higher the self efficacy of a person, the more confidence he will have in his ability to succeed in a task. In difficult situations, people with low self efficacy, are more likely to lessen their efforts or give up altogether wheress people with high self efficacy will try harder to master the challenge: xy respond to negative feedback with ine fficacy are likely to lessen their efforts ed Moreover, people with higher self effi effort and motivation whereas those low in self e when given negative feedback. ji setting doesn’t work Task characteristics. Research indicates that individual goal setting doesn't OF equally well on all tasks. The evidence suggests that goats seen 19 aoe ell substantial effect on performance when tasks are jomplex, we learned rather than novel, and independent rather interdependent tasks group goals are preferable. culture bound. It c ‘ ent, where both managers and employees see ‘dered important by both it will not conditions exist. simple rather than ¢ than interdependent. On National Culture, Goal setting theory is an apply in countries where the employees are reasonably independ challenging goals and where performance is cons} lead to desired performance in countries where oppos!' — ee Scanned with CamScanner Motivas; Otivatin, 6.24 ifi reat motivating force, 1, i { specific goals, are a g Unis lude, it can be said that hard and q pisnaevden Un psopen conditions these can lead to higher performance. However, there i 0 Prove, y.,, such goals will lead to increased job satisfaction. @ 11, REINFORCEMENT THEORY Reinforcement theory philosophically, Reinforce: They argue that one ne are reinforces any probability th is a counter point to the Goal-setting theory, These the: OFies are at od, ment theorists believe that bel haviour of people is environmentally « Sed 4 not be concerned with internal cognitive events, what controls beha: crrsequence that, when immediately following, a Tesponse, increases at the behaviour will be repeated. Strictly speaking, Reinforcement theory is not a theory of moti it provides alysis of what controls behaviour, Reinforcement is an important influence However, only a few schola: ere prepared to argue that it is the only influence. ts, behaviours one engages in at work and the amount of effort one allocates to each task are affected the consequences that follow from one’s behaviour, Za ation. However, Scanned with CamScanner Various Universities of Telangana BBA-(2™ Semester) Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Paper Code : BB204 Organizational Behaviour Objective : The main objective is to explain the fundamentals of nana individual and group behaviour at work place so as lo improve the effe Unit-I Organizational Behavior : Meaning Importance and Historical Development of Organisational Behavior, Factors Influencing Organizational Behavior, Perception and Attribution Concept, Nature and Process, Factors Influencing Perception. Values and Attitudes. Personality St Personality Development, Determinants of Personality. Concept and Theories of Learning. ging biesiness and to understand ness of an organization, Unit-II Motivation : Concept, Importance and Theories of Motivation. Leadership-Concept, Characteristics, Theories and Styles of Leadership, Managerial Grid, Leadership Continuum and Leadership Effectiveness. Unit-III Group Dynamics : Meaning or Groups and Groups Dynamics, Formation, Characteristics and ‘Types of Groups, Theories of Group Dynamics, Group Cohesiveness-Factors Influencing Group Cohesiveness- Group Decision Making Process. Types of Teams. Analysis of Interpersonal Relationship : Transactional Analysis, Johari Window. Unit-IV Management of Change : Meaning and Importance of Change, Factors Contributing to Organisational Change, Change Agents, Resistance to Change-Causes of and Dealing, with Resistance to Change, Organisational Development-Meaning and Process. Unit-V Organizational Culture, Conflict and Effectiveness : Concept of Organisational Culture, Distinction between Organisational Culture and Organisational Climate, Factors Influencing Organisational Culture, Morale-Concept and Types of Morale. Managing Conflict, Organisational Effectiveness-Indicators of Organisational Effectiveness, Aci Organisational Effectiveness. Organisational Power and Politics. Scanned with CamScanner EEE a INTRODUCTION Leadership is an important clement of 1 d group of people workin an organi . ward: cscential. “The power of leadership is the pooe al, snme type nf The leader stimula he unites and concentrates wh at we feel only grouping! form to the unutilised energy in every man Rroupingly and scatteringly. He © ives As Marry Parker Follet States “he person who influences m ences me m he who makes me feel that | can do great deeds,” tis not he nhs does great deeds. Dut MEANING AND DEFINITIONS Leadership is the ability to build up confidence and zeal among people and to create 1m to be led. To be a successful leader, a manager must possess the qualities of [or esight, ¢ e, self-confidence and personal integrity. Different situations may demand differ am ure -marked that there aré Leadership has been defined in various ways. Stogdill has rightly re 9 define it. The definitions y definitions of leadership as there are people who have tried t en by some famous authors and management experts are given below : DEFINITIONS “Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work with confidence and zeal.” —Keontz and O'Donnell. of decisions.” —Dubin, R. from a group of followers voluntarily, without the use ot coercion.’ —Alltord and Beaty. “Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives.” —George R. Terry of group interaction directed toward —Hemphill, J.t “Leadership is the exercise of authority and making 1 is the ability to secure desirable actions ‘Leadership is the initiation of acts which result in insistent pattern the solution of mutual problem.” Scanned with CamScanner NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS An analysis of the definitions cited above reveals the following important chrrictn leadership : ; 1. Leadership is a personal quality 2. exists only with followers. If there are no followers, there is no leadership 3. Itis the willingness of people to follow that makes person a leader. 4. Leadership is a process of influence. A leader must be able to influence the +: attitude and beliefs of his subordinates. : It exists only for the realisation of common goals. 6. Itinvalves readiness to accept complete responsibility in all situations. 7. Leadership is the function of stimulating the followers to strive will organisational objectives. 8. Leadership styles do change under different circumstances. 9. Leadership is neither bossism nor synonymous with management. ow tm LEADERSHIP STYLES OR TYPES OF LEADERS ‘The term ‘leadership style, refers to the consistent behaviour pattern of a leader as pe! people around him. Every leader develops a pattern in the way he handles his suber followers in various situations. The leadership style is the result of the philosophy. 5 experience of the leader. It also depends upon the types of followers and the conditions prey an organisation. I. Leadership Style based on Attitude and Behaviour According to their attitude and behaviour patterns leaders are classified as under = ratic or participative stylo leader Democt Paternalistic style leader. Scanned with CamScanner eaters as 4, Autocratic OF Authoritarian Style Leader. An autocratic also known as authoritarian style "leadership implies vielding absolute power. Under this styl, the leader expects complete sipedience from his subordinates and all decision-making power is centralised i the lesley No suggestions or initiative from subordinates is entertained. The leader forces the subordinates to obey him without questioning. An autocratic leader is, in fact, no leader. He je merely the formal head of the organisation and is generally disliked by the subordinates. ‘The style of lendership may be practised to direct those subordinates who feel comfortable todepend completely on the leader. Laissez-faire of Free-rein Style Leader, Under this type of leadership, maximum freedom * eMlowed to subordinates, They are given free had in deciding their own policies and inethods and to make independent decisions. The leader provides help only when required by his subordinates otherwise he does not interfere in their work. The style of leadership creates self-confidence in the workers and provides them an opportunity to develop their talents, But it may not work under all situations with all the workers and under all situations. Such leadership can be employed with success where workers are competent, sincere and self- disciplined. 3. Democratic or Participative Style Leader. The democratic or participative style of leadership implies compromise between the two extremes of autocratic and laissez-fair style of leadership. Under this style, the supervisor acts according to the mutual consent and the decisions reached after consulting the subordinates. Subordinates are encouraged to make suggestions and take initiative. It provides necessary motivation to the workers by ensuring their participation and acceptance of work methods. Mutual trust and confidence is also created resulting in job satisfaction and improved morale of workers. It reduces the number of complaints, employee's grievances, industrial unrest and strikes. But this style of leadership may sometimes cause delay in decisions and lead to indiscipline in workers. Paternalistic Style Leader. This style of leadership is based upon sentiments and emotions of people. A paternalistic leader is like a father to his subordinates. He looks after the subordinates like a father looks after his family. He helps, guides and protects all of his subordinates but under him no one grows. The subordinates become dependent upon the leader. |l. Leadership Style based on official Recognition/Relationship (Formal And Informal Leaders) From the view point of official recognition from top management, leaders may be classified as under: 1.Formal Leader 2.Informal Leader 1. Formal Leader A formal leader is one who is formally appointed or elected to direct and control the activities of the subordinates. He is a person created by the formal structure, enjoys organisational authority and ¥5 accountable to those who have elected him in a formal way. The formal leader has a two-fold "ponsibility. On the one hand, he has to fulfil the demands of the organisation, while on the other Scanned with CamScanner lea ln 7a fying the My Ying their ea, nd direct his subordinates ins a elp, Je he is also supposed to help, guld aspirations. nian «not formally recognised. They derive authority from the Peopte Informal leaders are sanisation we can always find some persons who comman be cae nl ude and protect the interest of the people, They an ee ane 1 tendons have only one task to perform, i, 10 help ther fy Seatac hd fet an ;rou goals. Informal lenders are created t0 satisfy those cts hy he loa ender: Anonanston can make tote eof nes strengthen the formal leadership. Hho Reeds, MAL leadae 2 I, Leadership Style based on Concern for Production v/s Concern for Peoplo, (The Managorial Grid) Robert R. Blake and Jone S, Mouton developed the Manager ‘means of managerial training and of identifying various combina People ; and (ti) concem for production. There are managerial grid : 1. Improverished Management, The first s! tyle (1.1) is the improverished m Which the manage is least concerned with either people or production. anagement ung “Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done. 'S appropriate to sustain orcanisasn members," 2 Country Club Management. The which the orientation, country club management management (leaders) have great conce “Thoughtful action to comfortable friendly organisation, as shown in grid at 1.9 is ore m for their people but la needs of people for satisfyin atmosphere and work tempo.” k producti 5 Felationships leads to Task Management. “Effi sucha way at 9.1, the 'y in operations result from arranging conditions for wok = that human elements interfere toa minimum degree.” As shown in th leaders with high concern for Production fall under this style, Their core: People, however, is minimum, Team Management, “Work through a common stake Fespeet.” As shown in the well as people accomplishment is from in organisation purpose grid at 9.9, the leaders fh fall under this style, e ommitted people, interdepende™ leads to relationships of trust having high concern for productio® * | ad. “Adequate organisation performance ‘0 get out work while m shown in the grid at 5.5 both people and production the necessity intai ‘ps Sa a on athe say aintaining morale of people at a satisfactory ! is has - The leaders of this and try to mainti concer tyle have medium cor ain a balance in the two. Scanned with CamScanner 75 ssuoazorne mA ' ° 9. : — : oy f 9S e gx | va MPOERISHED 9.1 TASK = MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT . ial grid implies that the er has high concern for us combinations of Sad the manager to such a style. 4 8 CONCERN FOR PRODUCTION 4 5 8 The Managerial Grid most desirable leader behaviour is team management (9.9) production as well as people. The managerial grid is useful leadership styles. But it is unable to point out the factors Scanned with CamScanner 7A 6 Ue, ra n Decision Making (Likert's System Management an Institute of Social Research, U5 4 1 p of 40 researchers in the field of," Of leag, . "4 WV. Leadership Style based 01 Director of M ween years with the New ‘atterns 0 Likert treats the on which decision-making, leaders) e view that these variables ane hel f Management’ published in 195) ganisation as a complex syster, and ay stem bags Rensis Likert was the research for fourt gs include + Ne jished in 1967 ‘ relahonships, in ove together, He was of th coe coal be related to protection and Frat over time. He recognised the onganisa, eystem made up of interrelated work groups having group loyalties. He was also of ty, \ ) oditional job oriented supervision was the cause of low productivity and low morale j participating management in the field of decision-making: 5 into four categories ¢ He classified leadership sty style, there is no participation of workers be, 8 ecage extensive famous writin: Organisation’ pub principle of supporting communication and control nm ratic. In this and trust in subordinates. per confidence in subordinates and the. (i) Exploitative Autoct jeaders have no confidence {G9 Benevolent Autocratic, There is no pro] is that of a master and servant. (i) Participative. The subordinates are allowed to p Leader does not have full confidence in them. Ue) Democratic, In this style the confidence and trust in subordinates is full soy meaningfully participate in decision-making. ot Likert has used a continuum of four managerial systems, i, from system 1 to system ¢ 1: ven below shows some of the main characteristics of these systems. - i LIKERT'S SYSTEMS OF MANAGEMENT LEADERSHIP Dito articipate in decisions involving ; System System 2 Leadership aa (Exploitative (Benevolent Eye os - Autocratio) Autocratio) (Participative) (Dennen Condes sd as no confidence |Has condescending [Substantial but not[Complee = fst sland mist in/onfdene and as, complete confidence and] fidence snd rinates | subordinates such 2s master has| trust; still wishes to keep toservant control of decisions borin |Sukcdiate do oo Sorina dno Subordinates feet rather] S Freedom fel at at fre eel very eae todaews touiscuss | compl | ss in t | dis i thee? oe oo iscuss thing about |thing about the job discuss thee the job with their}the job with their| yg) their super | superior bese with their superior Superiors sccking [Seldom gels ideas|Sometimes gy Superiors secking|§ E gets | Usually gets ideas and] Al nvlvement witard epiokan offdess ad. pions opinions and vu suboed ints sulurinnes inf suborcinates ines make| ideas solving job | solving job i ! cons wom | and abs problems. weet! ofthe ake | mse of the Organisation, MeGraw-tHll Book Company, New York, 1967: P-4 ee

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