Normal Orthometric Heights To Actual Orthometric Heights For Tplndissertation 2021

CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certify that they have read and hereby recommend for acceptance by the Ardhi
university a dissertation titled “IMPROVEMENT OF THE TPLN BENCHMARK
HEIGHTS USING ACTUAL GRAVITY, CONTANT AND LITHO 1.0 CRUSTAL
DENSITY MODELS”, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Science in Geomatics of the Ardhi University.
………………………………... ………..........................................
Dr. P. E. ULOTU Mr. HUMPHREY BUSEGA
(Supervisor) (Assistant Supervisor)
Date: ………………………. Date: ………………………........
…………………………………..
Dr. B. C Tarimo
(Head of DGST)
Date: ………………….
i
DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT
I, Fadhili Alex Sanga, hereby declare that, the contents of this dissertation are the result of my
own findings through my study and investigation, and to the best of my knowledge, they have not
been presented anywhere else as a dissertation for diploma, degree or any similar academic award
in any institution of higher learning.
……………………………………
10636/T.2017
SANGA FADHILI, ALEX
……………………………….
DATE
This dissertation is a copyright material protected under Berne Convection, the Copyright Act
1999 and other international and national enactments, in that behalf, on intellectual property. It
may not be reproduced by any means in a full or part, except for short extracts in fair dealings,
for researcher private study, critical scholarly review or discourse with an acknowledgement,
without written permission of the Directorate of Undergraduate studies on behalf of both the
author and the Ardhi University.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I sincerely thank the Almighty God for giving me strength, health and
everything that I needed to complete my study at Ardhi University. “They that trust in the LORD
shall be a mount Zion, which cannot be removed, but abideth for ever” Psalms 125:1.
I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Dr. Prosper E. Ulotu and
Mr. Humphrey Busega. Their hospitality, sincerity, motivation, vision and supportive knowledge
have deeply inspired me. They gave me direction from the beginning to the final output while
carrying out the research and to present the research work as clearly as possible. I was gifted
university student to work and study under their umbrella. May God bless their work and
contribution. Without forgetting great contribution made by Ms. Regina Valerian Peter, her
support to this dissertation is so special.
I thank my fellow friends especially Harold P. Olotu, Layda Said Layda and Tuntufye Greyson
Nsagigwa for the constructive discussion, may all of you be blessed. I am extremely grateful to
my family, especially my mother, Agnetha Katawa Sanga for her love, prayers, caring and
sacrifices for educating me and brighten my future. I would also like to thank my sister, Nuru
Alex Sanga her contribution and counselling as my sister has inspired me a lot.
Finally, my thanks go to all the people who have supported me to complete this research work
directly or indirectly.
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DEDICATION
To my mother, Agnetha Katawa Sanga and my late father, Alex Narberth Sanga, may his soul
rest in peace. Also, to my beloved sister; Nuru Alex Sanga. Your presence, love and support
always make me motivated, successful and well determined person.
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ABSTRACT
This research investigates and evaluates the Normal Orthometric Height system (NOH) as
adopted by Tanzania Primary Levelling Network (TPLN) during its establishment in 1960’s, and
also computes and evaluates Helmert Orthometric Height (HOH) of some selected TPLN
Benchmarks (BMs) for the purpose of improving their vertical coordinates. Investigation and
evaluation of these two height systems is important to decide which height system is most
appropriate for any levelling survey basing on TPLN BMs. The use of normal gravity that
resulted to NOH was inevitable as during that time (1960’s) there were no enough gravity data in
Tanzania and it was un-economical and time consuming to observe gravity at each levelling
station using gravimeters. Tanzania Gravity Database of 2008 (TGDB08) has 1′× 1′ grided
gravity data (gravity anomaly) that avail gravity required to establish any height system and
hence calls for improvement of TPLN BMs. Since the NOH do not contain enough information
about the real gravity field of the earth, while HOH uses actual gravity then new improved height
system of this dissertation (HOH) is likely to be more suitable compared to the NOH in use for
Tanzania mainland (1°N to 12°S and 29°E to 41°E). HOHs of about 40 published TPLN BMs
have been computed in this dissertation.
In computation of HOH the mean gravity along the plumb line has been improved by using
LITHO1.0 crustal density model which is more realist compared to constant density (2,670
kg/m3). Also, in computation of geopotential number, XGM2019e GGM of degree and order(d/o)
up to 5,540 and Local Geopotential Vertical Datum (W0LVD, TZG17
) having the value of
62,636,852.42 m2/s2 have been used in determination of geopotential number from the actual
potential on the surface of the earth (Wp) and actual potential on the reference surface (W 0)
respectively. The effect of using constant density in the computation of HOH has been evaluated
in this research and shows that the Root Mean Square (RMS) and Standard Deviation (SD) of the
differences of HOH computed using constant density from that computed using LITHO1.0
crustal density model are 7mm and 5mm respectively indicating that the effect is small but not in
establishment of zero order and first order controls in Tanzania. Student (t) test has shown that, at
95% confidence level there is significant difference between the NOH as adopted by TPLN and
HOH which has been computed both constant and LITHO1.O crustal density models in
dissertation.
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KEYWORDS: TPLN, Helmert orthometric height, Constant density, LITHO1.0 crustal density,
Geopotential number, Actual gravity
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT............................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..............................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION................................................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................v
ABBREVIATIONS.........................................................................................................................ix
LIST OF FIGURES.........................................................................................................................xi
LIST OF TABLES.........................................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER ONE...............................................................................................................................1
1.0 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background.............................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem........................................................................................................4
1.3 Hypothesis..............................................................................................................................4
1.4 Research Objectives................................................................................................................4
1.4.1 Main Objective.................................................................................................................4
1.4.2 Specific Objective............................................................................................................4
1.5 Significance of the Study........................................................................................................5
1.6 Beneficiaries...........................................................................................................................5
1.7 Scope and Limitations............................................................................................................5
1.8 Study Area..............................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO..............................................................................................................................6
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW...........................................................................................................6
2.1 Overview of Tanzania Primary Levelling Network (TPLN)..................................................6
2.1.1 TPLN Benchmarks...........................................................................................................6
2.1.2 Gravity Correction of the TPLN Benchmarks.................................................................7
2.2 Physical Height Systems.........................................................................................................7
2.2.1 Geopotential Number (C).................................................................................................7
2.2.2 Orthometric Height..........................................................................................................9
2.2.3 Normal Height................................................................................................................11
2.2.4 Dynamic Height.............................................................................................................12
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2.3 Overview of Gravity in Tanzania.........................................................................................12
2.3.1 Terrestrial Gravity..........................................................................................................13
2.3.2 Marine Gravity...............................................................................................................13
2.3.3 Aerial Gravity.................................................................................................................14
2.4 Gravity Reduction.................................................................................................................14
2.4.1 Free Air Gravity Reduction............................................................................................14
2.4.2 Buoguer Gravity Reduction...........................................................................................15
2.4.3 Poincare-Prey Gravity Reduction..................................................................................15
2.5 Gravity Data Base in Tanzania.............................................................................................16
2.5.1 TGDB08.........................................................................................................................17
2.5.2 TGDB17.........................................................................................................................17
2.6 An Overview of Gravimetric Geoid Models in Tanzania.....................................................17
2.6.1 Tanzania Gravimetric Geoid Model of 2007 (TZG07)..................................................18
2.6.4 Tanzania Gravimetric Geoid model of 2017 (TZG17)..................................................19
2.6.5 Tanzania Gravimetric Geoid model of 2019 (TZG19)..................................................19
2.7 Overview Global Geopotential Models (GGMs)..................................................................19
2.8 Overview of Global Crustal Density Models.......................................................................20
2.8.1 Constant Crustal Density Model....................................................................................21
2.8.2 LITHO1.0 Global Crustal Density Model.....................................................................21
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................................23
3.0 METHODOLOGY...................................................................................................................23
3.1 Determination of the Actual Gravity Potential of TPLN BMs.............................................23
3.2 Determination of the Geopotential Number.........................................................................25
3.3 Determination of Surface Point Gravity of from XGM2016 _ GOCOSPWR5...................25
3.4 Determination of Density Using LITHO1.0 Crustal Density Model....................................27
3.5 Computation of Helmert Orthometric Heights of selected TPLN BMs...............................29
CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................................31
4.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS............................................................................31
4.1 Results...................................................................................................................................31
4.1.1 Computed Geopotential Numbers of TPLN BMs..........................................................31
vii
4.1.2 Computed Surface Point Gravity of TPLN BMs...........................................................32
4.1.3 Computed Density from LITHO1.0 Crustal Density Model.........................................33
4.1.4 Computed HOH from both Constant and LITHO1.0 Crustal Density Models..............35
4.2 Statistics of Differences Between HN-O, (HH-O) L and (HH-O) C................................................36
4.3 Discussion of the Results......................................................................................................40
CHAPTER FIVE............................................................................................................................41
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION...........................................................................41
5.1 Conclusion............................................................................................................................41
5.2 Recommendation..................................................................................................................41
REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................42
APPENDICES................................................................................................................................46
viii
ABBREVIATIONS
BMs Benchmark(s)
CHAMP Challenging Minisatellite Payload
d.ddd Decimal degree
DGST Department of Geospatial Science and Technology
d/o Degree and Order
FBMs Fundamental Bench Marks
GGM Global Gravitational Model
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite Systems
GPS Global Positioning System
GMT Generic Mapping Tool
GOCE Gravity field and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer
GGA Gravity and Geoid for Africa
GRACE Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment
HOH Helmert Orthometric Height
HOHs Helmert Orthometric Heights
IBMs Intermediate bench marks
ICGEM International Center of Global Earth Models
IAG International Association of Geodesy
IGF International Gravity Formula
IGSN International Gravity Standardization Network
LITHO1.0 An updated crust and lithospheric model of the Earth at 1˚×1˚resolution
ix
MDT Mean Dynamic Topography
MSL Mean Sea Level
MATLAB Matrix Laboratory
NOH Normal Orthometric Height
NOHs Normal Orthometric Heights
NGA USA National Geospatial Agency
q_geoid Quasi-geoid
RMS Root Mean Square
S/N Serial Number
SD Standard Deviation
SRTM Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission
TPLN Tanzania Primary Levelling Network
TG Tide Gauge
TGDB Tanzania Gravity Database
TZG Tanzania Gravimetric Geoid Model
TZQ Tanzania Quasi Geoid Model
VD Vertical Datum
XGM Experimental Gravity Model
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Distribution of FBMs and IBMs of TPLN over Tanzania main land as per 1970’s
(Ulotu,2009).................................................................................................................3
Figure 1-2: Available TPLN BMs to be used in this research.........................................................5
Figure 2-1: Levelling and orthometric height (Hofmann-Wellenhof & Helmut, 2005)..................8
Figure 2-2: Definition of Orthometric height (Featherstone & Kuhn, 2006)..................................9
Figure 2-3: Normal orthometric height and normal height (Featherstone & Kuhn, 2006)...........11
Figure 2-4: The Bouguer plate.......................................................................................................15
Figure 2-5: Poincare-prey reduction..............................................................................................16
Figure 2-6: Lateral parameterization at tessellation on the global and regional scales (Pasyanos,
Masters, Laske & Ma, 2014)......................................................................................22
Figure 2-7: Lithospheric structure representation implemented in the LITHO1.0 model (Zhu et
al., 2016).....................................................................................................................22
Figure 3-1: A GUI of Graflab software that was used in computations of actual gravity potential
W(r,θ,λ) on the surface of the earth (Bucha & Janak, 2013).....................................24
Figure 3-2: Surface map of gravity anomalies from XGM2016 _ GOCOSPWR5(Valerian, 2018)
……………...…………………………………………………………………26
Figure 3-3: A surface and contour map of Tanzania q_geoid (Valerian, 2018)............................28
Figure 3-4: Makefile after been edited using Notepad++..............................................................29
Figure 3-5: An image shows different information including density as extracted at IBM Wami
with latitude 6.2122s and longitude 38.7124w..........................................................38
Figure 4-1: Difference between HOH computed using LITHO1.0 and HOH computed using
constant density......................................................................................................…38
Figure 4-2: Difference between HOH computed using constant density and NOH…….……….38
Figure 4-3: Difference between HOH using LITHO1.0 crustal density model and NOH…...….39
Figure 4-4: Graph showing Statistics of difference between NON, HOH (Litho1.0 𝞀) and HOH
(constant 𝞀) ……………………………………………………………………...….40
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1: Data used in this study.................................................................................................30
Table 3-2: Shows all important software installed and used in this study.....................................30
Table 4-1: Computed geopotential numbers of TPLN BMs.........................................................31
Table 4-2: Computed height anomalies, height of point on the telluroid, gravity anomalies,normal
gravity on telluroid and surface point gravity..............................................................32
Table 4-3: Density obtained from constant and LITHO1.0 crustal density model.......................33
Table 4-4: Existing height, Computed height from actual gravity and litho 1.0 density, computed
height from actual gravity and constant density and differences amongst them..........35
Table 4-5: Statistics of difference between NON, HOH (Litho1.0 𝞀) and HOH (constant 𝞀)......39
xii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
A height system is a one-dimensional coordinate system used to define the metric distance of
points on the topography from a reference surface along a well-defined path (Featherstone &
Kuhn, 2006). There are two important things to be considered while defining any height system.
The first thing to be considered is the refence surface and second thing is the path that the height
is measured. The path is highly influenced by the type of gravity data used in realization of height
system. Basing on consideration of gravity information there are two classes of height system,
ones that ignore the Earth’s gravity field and thus use straight-line paths and those that are
naturally linked to the equipotential surfaces and plumblines of the Earth’s gravity field and thus
follow curved paths. Height systems that ignore the Earth’s gravity field are known as
geometrical height system; a good example is the ellipsoid height. Height systems that take into
account the Earth’s gravity field are known as physical or natural height systems; a good example
is the orthometric height system. It’s difficult to realize orthometric height due to the fact that it
requires enough knowledge about the gravity inside the earth’s surface. Thus, due to this problem
two height systems were developed to approximate the orthometric height. The two-height
system that approximate the orthometric height system are normal orthometric height system and
the Helmet orthometric height system. Due to the lack of precise gravimeters (before the 1950s),
as well as the relatively labor-intensive nature of making gravity observations in the field, the
normal-orthometric height system was introduced and adopted. This height system uses only the
normal gravity field as an approximation of the Earth’s gravity field to derive all necessary
gravity-field-related quantities. Principally, actual geopotential numbers are replaced by
differences in the corresponding normal potential (normal-geopotential or spheropotential
numbers) and actual gravity is replaced by normal gravity. The great advantage is the avoidance
of making gravity observations, but this is at the expense of losing information of the real Earth’s
gravity field. Another benefit is that only latitudes are needed along the levelling line. Tanzania
Primary Levelling Network (TPLN) is based on the Tanga Tide Gauge (TG) station. TPLN was
designed in the 1960’s and implemented between 1961 and 1964 (Mayunga, 2016). Different
researches from other countries have shown that a simplified version of rigorous orthometric
1
heights is Helmert’s orthometric heights which approximates the topography above geoid by a
Bouguer shell and assumes the topography has mean density value everywhere. Foroughi et al.
(2017) compared the two commonly used height systems, i.e., classical and normal, and showed
that the classical height system, including geoid and orthometric heights has the best congruency
among other systems and therefore it is recommended to use if physical heights are required. This
shows how important are orthometric heights.
During the process of establishment of TPLN, the spirit levelled height difference data were
corrected using Normal gravity (Ulotu, 2009). The levelled orthometric heights in the TPLN are
corrected for gravity effects on the basis of normal gravity computed by means of International
Gravity Formula (IGF) (Deus, 2007). This made Tanzania to use normal orthometric height
which loose information about the real Earth’s gravity field compared to Helmert orthometric
height which uses actual observed gravity on the surface of the Earth. Therefore, reduced levels
of Fundamental bench marks and intermediate bench marks of the TPLN should be updated from
normal orthometric height system to Helmert orthometric height system. Thus, this study aims on
the use of actual gravity from TGDB08, constant density and the LITHO 1.0 crustal density
models for the purpose of improving the elevations of the benchmarks of the Tanzania Primary
Levelling Network.
Fundamental benchmark is a point established precisely with known elevation from a vertical
datum that can be MSL or Geoid. For the case of TPLN, the elevations of the FBMs and IBMs
should be improved so as to have more precise elevations. Different research based on land
survey has shown that systematic errors increase rapidly from the Tanga TG-BM also the
misclosures between backward and forward levelling between successive benchmarks is not more
than ±3mm√k where k is in kilometres. The distribution of the misclosures were done after the
completion of the observation on each loop (Gwaleba, 2018). Thus, all these facts call for
improvement of the FBMs and IBMs of TPLN benchmark heights.
The definition of orthometric height covers two main things as explained previously. This
research deals only with the modification of the path that defines the height of TPLN
benchmarks, it does not deal with the vertical datum or reference surface from where they have
been realized. Figure (1-1) the map shows that in south east part of Tanzania there are just
2
proposed loops which have not yet been implemented. The network is well distributed in north
and north east part of Tanzania.
Figure 1-1: Distribution of FBMs and IBMs of TPLN over Tanzania main land as per 1970’s
(Ulotu, 2009)
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1.2 Statement of the Problem
Tanzania uses orthometric height system but practically any levelling survey basing on FBMs
and IBMs of TPLN uses normal orthometric height system. This is due to the fact that spirit
levelling height difference data obtained during their establishment in 1960’s were corrected by
using normal gravity, for this reason the implemented height system basing on TPLN BMs is
normal orthometric height which are easy to be implemented but loses information about the real
gravity field of the Earth. Therefore, since different researchers and geodesists have proved that
Helmert orthometric height system has enough information about the real Earth’s gravity field
and predict fluid flow more precisely than normal orthometric height system, then different
countries around the world have improved their height system from NOH system to HOH
system. For the case of TPLN, the benchmarks still using ordinally height system which is
normal orthometric height instead of being improved using actual gravity so as to use so called
Helmert orthometric height system. It is the responsibility of this study to improve the heights of
some of the FBMs and IBMs of TPLN from NOH to HOH to reduce shortcomings and
deficiencies of the network.
1.3 Hypothesis
There is significant difference between Helmert orthometric heights of TPLN BMs computed in
this dissertation and NOH adopted by TPLN during its establishment in 1960’s.
1.4 Research Objectives

1.4.1 Main Objective
To come up with better orthometric heights of TPLN BMs that will help to reduce inconsistence
of the network during any levelling survey basing on selected FBMs or IBMs.
1.4.2 Specific Objective

i) Evaluation of effect of using constant density in computation of Helmert Orthometric Height
(HOH) of TPLN BMs.
ii) Computation of geopotential number of TPLN BMs using XGM2019e GGM and Local
Geopotential Vertical Datum (W0LVD, TZG17).
iii) Computation of Helmert Orthometric heights (HOHs) of TPLN BMs.
iv) Computation of surface gravity of TPLN BMs.
4
1.5 Significance of the Study
i) This study will reduce the inconsistencies during levelling survey based on FBMs and IBMs of
the TPLN.
ii) The results from this research will be used for further geodetic research on Tanzania height
system for further improvements.
1.6 Beneficiaries
Land surveyors, Geomaticians, Geodesists, Engineers especially in construction industry and
other Researchers who seek to improve Tanzania primary levelling network (TPLN).
1.7 Scope and Limitations

Only few of the completed and recovered FBMs and IBMs of TPLN with GPS observation data
as indicated in Figure 1-2.
1.8 Study Area

This study is conducted in Tanzania mainland with geographical location bound from 1°N to
12°Sand 29°E to 41°E. Figure (1-2) shows area of study and available benchmark of TPLN.
Figure 1-2: Available TPLN BMs to be used in this research
5
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview of Tanzania Primary Levelling Network (TPLN)
Tanzania Primary Levelling Network (TPLN) is based on the Tanga Tide Gauge (TG) station.
TPLN was designed in the 1960’s and implemented between 1961 and 1964 (Mayunga, 2016).
TPLN is made up of eight (8) loops which are loop A, loop B, loop C, loop D, loop E, loop F,
loop G and loop H Mean Sea level (MSL) established from TG does not coincide with the geoid,
they differ by the Mean Dynamic Topography (MDT). Tanzania TG based VD has a lot of
limitations or deficiencies to qualify for the National VD. Some of the problems include the
Mean Sea Level (MSL) establishment was based on the data which were observed for 2.3 years
only instead of being observed for at least 18.6 years, MDT was not accounted for at Tanga TG
station, effects of salinities, sea temperature, ocean currents and coast line configuration were not
modelled and therefore the effects were not removed and hence displace tidal VD from geoid see
(Ulotu, 2009).
During 1960’s a model for geoid of Tanzania did not exist then a local MSL was used in place of
the geoid surface. Tide Gauge Reference Benchmark (TGBM) was used to establish Tanga
Fundamental Benchmark. Thus, the existing TPLN based on Tanga tide gauge MSL as
approximation to the correct vertical datum (geoid). Generally, the existing vertical datum of
TPLN does not coincide with the geoid in Tanzania (Hofmann-Wellenhof & Helmut, 2005).
2.1.1 TPLN Benchmarks

The network consists of about fifty-three (58) fundamental and intermediate benchmarks. Most
of the FBMs and IBMs of the TPLN were established over 54 years ago and were not provided
with the horizontal coordinates. Since it is only a locality sketch of that time that exists for their
revival, it requires extra efforts, knowledge and skills to recover some of the FBM/IBM of the
TPLN. Due to lack of financial support from the higher authority, initiatives to recover all of the
FBM/IBM of the TPLN throughout Tanzania have not been completed. Until 2021 not all of the
benchmarks have been recovered and observed. GPS/Levelling refers to GPS observation on a
Bench Mark (BM) and hence computation of the orthometric height H, ellipsoidal height h and
coordinates for the point of interest (Ulotu, 2016).
6
2.1.2 Gravity Correction of the TPLN Benchmarks
In addition to the datum inconsistency of the TPLN, low density coverage and distribution, the
heights of TPLN were neither corrected for actual gravity nor adjusted as one network. This is
due to unavailability of enough gravity data that could be used to correct the spirit levelled data
during establishment of the TPLN in 1960’s. Due to this reason normal gravity was used instead
of actual gravity. Therefore, the height system used in Tanzania cannot be referred to as
orthometric height system because of its datum which is MSL and the corrections used during
that time. For Tanzania to fully enjoy the height system basing of TPLN the are two important
things to be done current researchers and geodesists, firstly we need to use actual gravity to
correct the spirit levelled height of the TPLN and secondly, we need to transform the VD of
TPLN from MSL to geoid.
2.2 Physical Height Systems

Height refers to the vertical distance of a point of interest from a well-defined reference surface.
The reference surface can either be MSL, geoid, ellipsoid or any other reference surface. Among
all mentioned reference surface, the geoid is the most common used reference surface for
establishment of a vertical datum. From the definition of geoid, is an equal-potential surface of
the earth’s gravity field that approximately coincide with the MSL in list square sense. Thus,
geoid is the best figure that represent the actual shape of the earth. We have different gravity
dependant height systems such as Geopotential number, normal height, dynamic height and
orthometric height system. Also, there are other height system that are not gravity dependant such
as ellipsoid height and others.
2.2.1 Geopotential Number (C)

A geopotential number is the difference between the Earth’s gravity potential at the point of
interest W and that on the reference geopotential surface chosen W o (Wellenhof & Helmut,
2005). One of the equal potential surfaces of the earth is the geoid. For a point on the surface of
the earth, the geopotential number can be obtained by simply finding the difference between the
potential on the geoid and that on the equal potential surface on which the point lies on the
surface of the earth. Fluid flows from points with higher potential energy to points with lower
potential energy. As the fluid flows the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. Therefore,
geopotential numbers govern fluid flow hence becoming the physically meaningful and
7
conceptually sensible heights. Thus, spirit levelling height difference data needs to be corrected
for gravity to reduce inconsistence that may cause levelling loop to have misclosures. See figure
(2-1) below;
Figure 2-1: Levelling and orthometric height (Hofmann-Wellenhof & Helmut, 2005)
Geopotential numbers have some interpretation problems to the users to be used in physical
applications, for example they have dimensions of length squared divided by time squared. The
conversion of these dimensions is done by dividing the geopotential number by the value of
gravity resulting to dimension of length. This process yields to another height systems (dynamic,
normal and orthometric).
Mathematically;
C=¿(Wo-W) (2-
1)
C is Geopotential number, Wo is Potential on the Geoid, w is Potential of a point on the surface of

the Earth, g is the surface point gravity H is Levelled height Optimal Geopotential Vertical
LVD, TZG13
Datum (W0 ) for Tanzania was initially calculated in 2016 and found to be
62636863.32m2 /s2 (Masunga & Ulotu, 2016). This value was obtained from TZG13 Gravimetric
Geoid Model and GPS & Ocean Levelling. But in 2018 there was an update of geoid for
Tanzania to form TZG17 with a better accuracy (5cm) than the 10cm-TZG13 by Valerian,
(2018). And in July 2015, the International Association of Geodesy (IAG) released a new
conventional value of W0 (62636853.4 m2 /s2) to define the global equipotential reference surface.
Thus, by using these updated values Kamugisha, (2019) come up with an update of Tanzania
Local Geopotential Vertical Datum from W0 LVD, TZG13
to W0LVD, TZG17
at Tanga Tide Gauge
8
Benchmark using GPS-Levelling and TZG17 Geoid Model and the calculated value (W0LVD, TZG17)
was found to be 62636852.42m2/s2. Potential of gravity (WP) on the surface of the earth for each
point of the TPLN is obtained using the potential of gravitation (V) from spherical approximation
equation and the centrifugal potential (Z).
2.2.2 Orthometric Height

Is the length of the plumbline as measured from the geoid to the point on the surface of the earth.
The orthometric height is given by the geopotential number divided by the integral mean value of
gravity taken along the plumbline. Orthometric height has a clearer geometrical interpretation.
The geoid reference surface is also unique, being the single equipotential surface of the Earth’s
gravity field that broadly corresponds with mean sea level in the open oceans (Featherstone &
Kuhn, 2006). Figure (2-2) shows Orthometric height (H O) as measured from the local geoid with
a constant potential (W0);
Figure 2-2: Definition of Orthometric height (Featherstone & Kuhn, 2006)
0 C
H = (2-2)
g
It’s difficult to measure directly orthometric height due to the fact that it requires knowledge
inside the earth’s surface. Thus, different approaches have been made to realize the orthometric
9
heights. First approach involves the use of normal gravity so as to obtain so called normal
orthometric height. In this approach geopotential number is replaced by spheropotential number
and actual gravity is replaced by normal gravity. Advantage of this approach is that it involves
avoidance of making gravity observations, but this is at the expense of losing information of the
real Earth’s gravity field. Another advantage is that only latitudes are needed along the levelling
line. normal-orthometric height is obtained by the normal geopotential (spheropotential) number
divided by the integral-mean value of normal gravity taken along the normal plumbline between
the quasi-geoid and the point of interest. Distinction from the normal height, where the integral
mean normal gravity is taken between the ellipsoid and telluroid and the spheropotential number
replaces the geopotential number.
,
N−O C
H = (2-3)
γ
Where H N−O is Normal orthometric height,C , is Spheropotential number, 𝜸 is Normal gravity.

Normal orthometric heights are easy to be computed but since they do not use surface gravity the
are less likely to predict the fluid flow correctly.
On the other hand, the 2nd approach is based on the Poincare– Prey relationship for mean gravity
and the Bouguer shell gravity expression that accounts for the topographic mass above the geoid
but neglects the terrain effects. Therefore, the adopted mean gravity becomes (Heiskanen and
Moritz, 1967).
s 1
g=g + FH −2 πGρH (2-4)
2
where gs is Observed Gravity at the topographic Surface, F is Free-air gravity gradient, G is

Universal gravitational constant, ρ is Topographic density, H is Spirit levelled height above MSL
Thus, the Helmert orthometric height can be obtained as follows from the above equation;
H −O C
H =
1
g s + FH −2 π G ρ H
2
(2-5)
10
Therefore, in order to compute Helmert orthometric height, the main input variables are
geopotential number, surface point gravity, approximate height from MSL and crustal density as
shown in equation 2-5.
2.2.3 Normal Height

As different scientists faced the problem of determining the integral-mean value of actual gravity
along the plumbline, then in 1945 Molodensky introduced the concept of the normal height
system (Molodensky et al. 1962). The key differences from the orthometric height system are:
the avoidance of hypotheses to determine the gravity field inside the topography; the theoretical
replacement of the Earth’s surface by the telluroid; and the use of a reference ellipsoid with
associated gravity field (Torge, 2001). The telluroid is an auxiliary surface obtained by the point-
wise projection of points P on the Earth’s surface along the straight-line ellipsoidal normal to
points Q that have the same gravity potential value in the normal gravity field U Q as the original
points P in the Earth’s gravity field W p, i.e., (UQ = Wp) (See Figure 2-3). As such, the telluroid is
not an equipotential surface. The normal gravity field U approximates the real Earth’s gravity
field W and conceptually generated by masses within a reference ellipsoid (Moritz, 1992).
Furthermore, Normal gravity can be calculated at any point without hypothesis and the normal
gravity behaviour is very linear. Figure (2-3) shows the normal height and normal orthometric
height as they are measure from quasi-geoid and geoid respectively.
11
Figure 2-3: Normal orthometric height and normal height (Featherstone & Kuhn, 2006)
N C
H = (2-6)
γ
Where HN is Normal height, C is Geopotential number, γ is Mean value of gravity taken along the
plumbline
2.2.4 Dynamic Height

Dynamic heights are just geopotential numbers, scaled into a metric unit. This system is most
closely related to the system of geopotential numbers. Prior to the introduction of the geopotential
number, the 8 dynamic height system proposed by Helmert (1884) was in use. Dynamic height is
obtained by Dividing the geopotential number by a constant normal gravity value (Heiskanen and
Moritz, 1967). A gravity value at mid-latitude (±45°) has been taken as the global value, such as
that generated by the reference ellipsoid. Since the geopotential number is divided by a constant
value, dynamic heights retain the same characteristics except that they have the dimension of
length. Importantly, the flow of fluids is guaranteed from a greater to a lower height, and the
theoretical loop closure is zero regardless of the chosen path.
Mathematically
12
dyn C
H = (2-7)
γ0
Where; H dyn is Dynamic height, C is Geopotential number and γ 0 is Constant normal gravity value
(Usually evaluated at γ (±45˚))
2.3 Overview of Gravity in Tanzania

Gravity observation in Tanzania started in the 1890’s and reference was to different local datums
prior to arrival of the Potsdam datum in early 1950’s (Ulotu, 2009). The gravity data in Tanzania
include terrestrial, satellite, aerial and altimetry marine gravity. Like many other African
countries, in Tanzania there is no any official organization within the country which engage fully
in maintaining information obtained either directly (using gravimeters) or indirectly (using
GGMs and satellite missions like i.e., GOCE, GRACE) from gravity surveys conducted within
the country. There are several organizations in Tanzania that store gravity data and design gravity
database for easy accessibility to the authorized individual who have interest in using gravity.
The gravity sources in Tanzania are categorized in two groups; those which are within the
country and those from overseas. In the country includes Ardhi University under the Department
of Geospatial Sciences and Technology (DGST), Tanzania Petroleum Development Center
(TPDC), Ministry of Minerals and Energy, Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human Settlements
Development, Eastern and Southern African Mineral Resources Development Centre and
University of Dar es salaam (UDSM) Department of Geology. The overseas sources of Tanzania
gravity data are such as Bureau Gravimetrique International (BGI) which has a task of storing
the gravity data from all over the world, Gravity and Geoid for Africa (GGA), USA National
Geospatial Agency (NGA), Danish National Space Centre (DNSC) of the Technical University of
Denmark (DTU) which provides the satellite altimetry marine gravity data and Global
Exploration Technology (GETECH) which provides the gravity data for Oil and mineral
exploration and also for dissertation purposes (Ulotu, 2009).
2.3.1 Terrestrial Gravity

Gravity observation in Tanzania started in the 1890’s and reference was to different local datums
prior to arrival of the Potsdam datum in early 1950’s. Gravity data collected after 1971, i.e., after
the declaration of the 1971 (International Gravity Standardization Network IGSN71), was
standardized to Potsdam and IGSN71 (Ulotu, 2009). Gravity coverage in many places of
13
Tanzania is uneven distributed and sparse. Most of the gravity data has been observed for mineral
prospecting, and big gaps are found in game reserves and national parks and areas which so far
have no indication of having hydrocarbon products or valuable minerals. During 2008 there were
39,677 points used with coverage 15S    4˚N and 26˚E  𝜆  44˚E. Also, there are 4
absolute gravity stations by FG5 in 2008 About 26 first and second order relative gravity stations
well distributed within Tanzania.
2.3.2 Marine Gravity

Marine gravity data includes terrestrial ship borne (sea surface and or sea bottom), and satellite
altimetry. Mean altimetry and point ship track sea gravity data are obtained from different
sources outside Tanzania which includes the sea altimetry data (Example KMS02 2' x 2' grid
gravity anomaly data which are provided by Danish National Space Centre (DNSC) of the
Technical University of Denmark (DTU) and ship track point gravity which are provided by the
BGI (Ulotu, 2009).Now Tanzania has DTU10 2’2’ mean marine gravity anomaly from Danish
Space Centre of the University of Copenhagen, Denmark which is more improved than KMS02
2’x2’.
2.3.3 Aerial Gravity

Up to 2008 there were no any aerial gravity data in Tanzania as aerial gravity surveys were not
conducted during that time but during 2013 there is some improvement as now Tanzania is fully
covered by 5’x 5’ surface aerial gravity anomaly of about 5mGal. Also, there is 5’x5’ surface
aerial gravity anomaly of about 5mgal resolution outside the boundaries of Tanzania from
Mozambique and Malawi (Forberg & Olsesen, 2013). There is possibility of obtaining more
gravity data from Uganda & Kenya.
Since gravity on the surface of the earth is the one to be used in determination of Helmert
orthometric heights, then terrestrial gravity is the most needed type of gravity in this research.
2.4 Gravity Reduction
Gravity measured on the surface of the earth must be referred to the geoid for geodetic and
geophysical purposes. For geodesist involves determination of geoid, interpolation and
extrapolation of gravity while in the other hand for geophysical and geological purpose it
involves investigation of the earth’s crust. Determination of gravity on the geoid by using the
14
observed gravity on the surface of the earth is what referred to gravity reduction. Gravity
reduction involves a complete removal or shift of the topographic masses outside the geoid
followed by Lowering of the gravity station from the earth’s surface to the geoid (Vanicek &
Krakiswky, 1986).
2.4.1 Free Air Gravity Reduction

In free air gravity reduction gravity on the geoid may be obtained from observed gravity on the
surface through Taylor’s expansion as shown below;
' ∂g
g =g− H + …+, (2-8)
∂H
Where g' is the gravity on geoid, g is the observed gravity on the earth’s surface at point p, H is
the orthometric height of surface gravity point above the geoid. By taking he linear part of the
−∂ g
above equation, we have H as the free-air reduction to geoid (Hofmann Wellenhof &
∂H
Moritz, 2005). In this reduction the concept that there should be no masses above the bounding
surface (geoid), can be implemented mathematically by shifting the topographic masses in
advance to the geoid’ so that the reduction is actually in free-air. Therefore, for many practical
applications the simplest formula becomes as follows where H is in metres;
'
g =g+ F (2-9)
−∂ g −∂ γ
where F= H= H=+ 0.3086 H [mGal] (2-10)
∂H ∂H
2.4.2 Buoguer Gravity Reduction
This involves a complete removal of topographical masses outside the bounding surface (geoid).
From the gravity measured on the surface of the earth we have to remove the pate known as
Bouguer plate followed by downward continuation through free air gravity gradient. The
Buoguer plate is calculated by Equation (2-11). Figure (2-4) shows the Bouguer plate as
illustrated by Hinze.W (2003).
15
Figure 2-4: The Bouguer plate (Hinze.W, 2003)
AB ¿ 2 πGρH (2-11)
'
g =g+ A B+F (2-12)
where A B is Bouguer plate, G is the gravitational constant of 6.67x10 -11, ρ is the density of the
topography of about 2.67g/cm3, g' is the gravity on geoid, g is the observed gravity on the earth’s
surface and F is the free air gravity gradient by substituting the constants, we get the value of
Bouguer gradient as 0.1967mgal/Metre. This process is known as incomplete bouguer reduction
unless the terrain correction is applied to become complete Bouguer reduction.
2.4.3 Poincare-Prey Gravity Reduction

If we have gravity measured on the surface of the earth and we need the gravity inside the earth’
surface we need to apply Poincare-prey gravity reduction. Consider Figure (2-5) showing plumb
line, earth topography, geoid, actual potential, orthometric height and point Q at H Q from an
equipotential surface (geoid) illustrated by Wellenhof & Helmut (2005).
Figure 2-5: Poincare-prey reduction (Hofmann-Wellenhof & Helmut, 2005)
16
Poincare prey reduction involves restoration of the Bouguer plate that was removed during the
process of bouguer gravity reduction. Thus, generally it follows the following steps;
a) Gravity measurement on the surface of the earth ( gp)

b) Removing Bouguer plate (-0.1119H)
c) Adding free-air reduction (+0.3086H)
d) Restore Bouguer plate (-0.1119H)
The gravity inside the earth can now be estimated using Equation (2-13)
gQ= gp+0.0848H[mGal] (2-13)
Where gQ is the gravity inside the earth at point Q, gp is the gravity measure at point P on the
surface of the earth and H is the orthometric height of point p in metres. This reduction is used in
evaluation of Helmert orthometric heights It is also considered as a good approximation of layers
immediately underneath the Earth ‘s surface (Wellenhof & Helmut, 2005)
In this research Poincare-prey gravity gradient has been used in determination of the Helmert
orthometric heights of the TPLN benchmarks.
2.5 Gravity Data Base in Tanzania

Tanzania as other east Africa countries has a gravity network well designed to give out a unified
datum for the whole country. The gravity network comprises of the following, has seven IGSN71
gravity stations which are well interconnected, and the 40 base which were established by
Overseas Geological Surveys (OGS) in 1958-1961 as a part of the Eastern and Central Africa
Gravity Net (ECAGN) (Ulotu, 2009). In 1968 Sowerbutts was able to create and establish the
first ever gravity database for Tanzania. The University of Dar-es-Salaam in cooperation with the
East and South Africa Mineral Resource Development Center (ESAMRDC) prepared and wrote a
report known as Review of Gravity Survey Tanzania. There were gravity data of about 14,000
points stored by the University of Dar-es-Salaam. Simon (2001) was able to develop the first
digital gravity database based on the gravity point collected by Parker & Marobhe (1991). This
gravity database was heavily updated to TGD08 by Ulotu (2009).
2.5.1 TGDB08
TGDB08 database was developed by Ulotu (2009). The database used cross-validation approach
to clean the gravity data at 99% confidence level. The TGDB08 was created from 39,677
17
statistically cleaned point gravity data at 99% confidence level covering (4°N to 15°S latitude and
26°E to 44°E longitude (Ulotu, 2016). Pure GGM ITG-GRACE03S, combined GGM EIGEN-
CG03C and SRTM3.1 CGIAR-CSI DEM for RTE computation were used to densify the gravity
at 1'×1' grid intervals.
2.5.2 TGDB17
The Tanzania Gravity Database of 2017 (TGDB17) has 47,456 points gravity data, 42,562 AGP
5'×5' gravity anomaly and the 1'×1' free-air marine gravity anomaly. The gravity data covers
covering 5°N to 15°S latitude and 25°E to 44°E longitude. The data were cleaned at 99%
confidence interval (Mrema, 2017). The TGDB17 is created from point and mean gravity. This
database was developed in a Database Management System (DBMS) known as Microsoft access
software. The DBMs is free, easy-to-use and it is in the package of Microsoft office. The
database was designed and created considering the requirements needed for keeping and
representing the gravity data.
2.6 An Overview of Gravimetric Geoid Models in Tanzania

The gravimetric approach uses gravity measurements to determine geoid model. The surface of
geoid model is the best reference surface for the orthometric height system because the definition
of orthometric height requires geoid to be used as a vertical datum. Tanzania has coverage of
geoid models which are TZG07, EGM08, AGP07, TZG08, TZG13, TZG17 and TZG19, and the
knowledge of these geoids are available in Oliver, (2007), Pavlis et al., (2008), Merry, (2007),
Ulotu, (2009), Forsberg et al., (2013), Valerian, (2018), Forsberg, (2019) respectively.
2.6.1 Tanzania Gravimetric Geoid Model of 2007 (TZG07)

TZG07 is the first dedicated gravimetric geoid model by Olliver (2007) whose boundaries are
latitudes 12°S to 1°S and longitude 29°E to 40°E with 5 arc minutes’ resolution. The model is
established referred to Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS80). A total of 43,402 point and
mean terrestrial gravity anomalies was used, 9,539 observations in the form of a combination of
marine ship track and 2´ KMS02 mean altimetry data to form marine 5´ mean gravity anomaly
dataset (Ulotu, 2009). The Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM-3´´) digital elevation
model was used and pure satellite GRACE gravitation model up to degree and order of 120
(EIGENGRACE02S) were used. The accuracy of TZG07 which is the first dedicated gravimetric
geoid model of Tanzania has the accuracy of 47cm.
18
This is second dedicated gravimetric geoid model of Tanzania by Ulotu (2009). TZG08 geoid
model has a resolution of (1′ × 1′) referenced to GRS80 computed using the Royal Institute of
Technology of Sweden (KTH) method of Least Squares Modification of Stokes formula (LSMS)
with additive corrections. According to (Ulotu, 2009) the geoid height computation by the LSMS
with AC has two main contributions: first part is computed from the modified part of the formula
(LSMS) and second part is from the additive corrections (AC). When the two parts are put
together, they give the sought geoid height. The data used to generate this model are pure satellite
GGM (ITG-GRACE03S) to degree and order 120 gravity anomaly data defined on MEE for the
long wavelength part and the other from dense GGM EIGEN-CG03C 3” terrestrial surface
gravity anomaly to provide short-wavelength component.

Tanzania Gravimetric Geoid Model of 2013 (TZG13) was computed in 2013 by Forsberg et al.,
(2013). The model was computed from aerial gravity data measured during the 2013 DTU-Space
and the Tanzania-SMD airborne gravity survey project, supplemented by terrestrial point gravity,
marine gravity data (ship borne measurements and satellite altimetry- DTU10GRA), combination
of RL4 GRACE, GOCE satellite GGMs and EGM08. Digital terrain models used in the
computation process was based on SRTM 3´´ CGIAR-CSI. Geoid height N of the benchmarks at
(λ, θ) were interpolated from the 1.2′×1.2′ TZG13 geoid model (Peter, 2018).
2.6.4 Tanzania Gravimetric Geoid model of 2017 (TZG17)

This is fourth dedicated gravimetric geoid model of Tanzania computed by (Valerian, 2018).
TZG17 was developed by using terrestrial point gravity data from Tanzania Gravity Database of
2008 (TGDB08), airborne gravity data limited to boundaries of Tanzania, validated pure GGM
and digital elevation models. TZG17 is 1´x 1´ resolution referenced to GRS80 with latitude 01°N
&12°S and longitude 29°E & 41°E.The model covers both mainland and marine regions of
Tanzania. It comprises 38,483 terrestrial point gravity data from Tanzania, validated pure GOCE
GGM (GO-CONS-GCF-2- SPW-R5) to d/o 200 and composite GGM (XGM2016) to d/o 719,
combination of four validated 1- and 3- arc seconds global digital elevation models: SRTM-1’’
v3, ALOS-1’’ v2, MERIT -3’’ and SRTM -3’’ CGAIR V4.1. The model has the accuracy of 5cm
upon the removal of systematic errors.
19
The approximate q_geoid height anomaly was computed by KTH method using terrestrial surface
gravity anomaly data that contributed to the short wavelength part of the q_geoid model, pure
GGM GO_CONS_GCF_2_SPW_R5 up to d/o 200 contributed to the long wavelength part of the
approximate q_geoid model and by adding dome additive corrections (combined atmospheric
correction, downward continuation correction and ellipsoidal correction) the tanzania q_geoid
model was obtained. By using Quasi Geoid to Geoid Correction (QGC) Tanzania q_geoid was
converted to TZG17 (Peter, 2018).
2.6.5 Tanzania Gravimetric Geoid model of 2019 (TZG19)

TZG19 geoid model by (Forsberg, 2019) was computed by “remove- restore” technique. The new
geoid model TZG19 was computed by using the same procedures as used during computational
of TZG013 model, Global model term 𝑁EGM was determined using the new PGM17 model and the
terrain part is unchanged from TZG013 using SRTM 15” data. PGM17 incorporates the Tanzania
airborne data, and has full use of GOCE and GRACE satellite data based on the XGM2016
model published on the International Association of Geodesy. The local geopotential vertical
datum used in this dissertation was computed using TZG17.
2.7 Overview Global Geopotential Models (GGMs)

Global Geopotential models are representations of the Earth’s gravitational potential outside the
masses of the Earth in terms of spherical harmonic coefficients. There are satellite-only (pure)
GGMs and combined GGM. Pure GGM is computed mainly from satellite missions such as
GOCE, GRACE and CHAMP without any contribution of the terrestrial data. On the other side,
the combined GGM includes satellite measurements integrated with terrestrial, shipborne,
airborne gravity, elevation data and satellite altimetry observations in order to provide a detailed
gravity field (El-Ashquer et al., 2020). In other word we can describe GGM as Global
mathematical function that approximates the real gravity potential of the earth in the space
outside the Earth. From such an approximating gravity potential all related gravity field
functionals can be computed such as gravity potential, gravity vector and gravity. A global model
approximates the gravity field of the earth i.e., is a mathematical function which describes the
gravity field of the earth in the 3-dimensional space. A GGM is usually a set of spherical
harmonics (SH) coefficients of the Earth’s gravity potential outside the earth (Including the
surface of the earth)
20
Different GGMs have evaluated based on their performance to be used in Tanzania at different
time. For example, Magina (2015) through dissertation titled “Validation of pure global
gravitational model (GGM) in Tanzania using terrestrial gravity data” discovered that
GO_CONS_GCF_2_DIR_R5 of 2014 composed of GOCE, GRACE and Lageos data was the
best when compared to other GGMs. Also, Lwehumbiza (2017) through dissertation titled
“Evaluation of recent GRACE and or GOCE GGMs over Tanzania using terrestrial gravity data”
discovered that pure GO_CONS_GCF_2_SPW_R4 and combined EIGEN-6C4 were the best
GGMs.
Farida (2020), “Evaluation of recent GGMs over Tanzania using ground gravity” discovered that
XGM2019e_2159 having degree and order up to 2190 comprising of satellite model GOCO06s,
15’ ground gravity anomaly provided by NGA, altimetry and topographically derived gravity
information as data sources to the best GGM as released until 2019. In this research
XGM2019e_5540 has been used though not yet evaluated.
2.8 Overview of Global Crustal Density Models

Due to uneven distribution of masses around the earth and differences of type of materials inside
the earth’s crust, there is different densities inside the lithosphere. Although in gravimetric terrain
reduction a mean density value of 2670kgm -3 often used in computation of the topographic
effects on the gravity field quantities by most of the geodesists and geologists (Tenzer et al.,
2011). Although this value is widely used, it was only the approximate of density in terrain
composed of crystalline (Hinze, 2003). Only twenty five percent of the continental surface is
crystalline, while remaining portion is underlain by sedimentary rocks.
In attempt of getting rid of this constant density several global crustal density models were
obtained by means of seismic velocities. These models include the CRUST series from
CRUST5.1, CRUST2.0 to CRUST1.0 published by the US Geological Survey and the Institute
for Geophysics and Planetary Physics at the University of California. The suffix represents the
resolution of the given models in degrees. Using CRUST1.0, Pasyanos, Masters, Laske & Ma.,
(2014) constructed a one degree tessellated global model of the crust and lithospheric model of
the Earth (LITHO1.0).
21
2.8.1 Constant Crustal Density Model
This model involves the use of constant value of about 2670kgm -3. Woodlard (1966) on his
article clarified that this value was firstly used by Hayford and Bowie (1912). Hayford (1909)
used same ideas as used by (Harkness, 1891) who calculated the average of rock density on
topography of the Earth. Harkness (1891) value of 2670kgm -3 was confirmed later, for instance
by Gibb (1968). Constant density has been used in evaluation of mean gravity along the
plumbline through Poincare-prey gravity reduction to estimate orthometric height. The
orthometric height obtained by this process is known as Helmert orthometric height. By using
this constant density is where we will have the Poincare-prey gradient value of -0.0848mgal/m.
In this research both Constant and LITHO1.0 density models are going to be used in
approximation of the mean gravity value along the plumbline through Poincare-prey gravity
reduction.
2.8.2 LITHO1.0 Global Crustal Density Model

The LITHO1.0 model is a 1˚x 1˚ tessellated model of the crust and uppermost mantle of the
Earth, extending into the upper mantle with the lithospheric lid and underlying asthenosphere
inclusive (Pasyanos, Masters, Laske & Ma, 2014). This model was developed from CRUST1.0
model and incorporated more types of newly available data. Lateral parameterization is defined
with a spherical tessellation surface, while depth parameterization is achieved through thickness
and associated parameters (density, depth and velocities) of the layers.
The model is parameterized laterally as tessellated surface. This tessellation was achieved by first
constructing a regular polyhedron with 20 equilateral triangular faces, 30 edges, and 12 vertices,
which are approximately 60 degrees apart. Each triangle was then subdivided into four daughter
triangles, halving the node separation each time until the desired spacing was achieved. With six
subdivisions (60˚→30˚, 30˚→15˚, 15˚→8˚, 8˚→4˚, 4˚→2˚ and finally 2˚→1˚) of the starting
object, 40,962 vertices and 81,920 triangles at approximately 1˚ were created as shown in Figure
(2-6). Example of the tessellated nodes on global and regional scales is shown in figure (2-6). As
LITHO1.0 is the latest crustal density model, it has been used in this dissertation in
approximation the mean gravity value along the plumb line for computation of HOHs of TPLN
BMs.
22
Figure 2-6: Lateral parameterization at 1˚ tessellation on the global and regional scales
(Pasyanos, Masters, Laske & Ma, 2014).
The model is well parameterized in a profile by nine consecutive layers which are: as a series of
geographically identified nine sub layers, which are; water, ice, upper sediments, middle
sediments, lower sediments, upper crust, middle crust, lower crust and lithospheric mantle as
shown in Figure 2-7. LITHO1.0 model adopted the bathymetry and topography data of
CRUST1.0 which were provided by ETOPO1 (Amante & Eakins, 2009). Horizontal datum of
this model is WGS84 geographic and vertical datum is the sea level. The topography, bathymetry
and ice thickness in this model were derived from ETOPO1 by binning and averaging the data in
1- degree cells. The lithospheric structure of this model is shown in figure (2-7).
Figure 2-7: Nine layers identified in the LITHO1.0 model (Zhu et al., 2016).
23
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
This part describes the techniques, methods, practical applications of different mathematical
models, all data and the software used in this study to achieve the main objective of this research.
It explains the procedures implied in the computation of Helmert orthometric height of the
selected BMs of TPLN. Furthermore, this chapter explains how different parameters such as
surface point gravity, geopotential number and density have been determined and utilized in
computation of HOH by using mathematical formular as shown by Equation (3-1).
H −O C
H =
1
g s + FH −2 πGρH
2
(3-1)
where gs is observed gravity at the topographic surface, F is free-air gravity gradient, G is

universal gravitational constant, ρ is topographic density, H is spirit levelled height above MSL.
Sect. (3.1) to (3.7) explain clearly how parameters of Equation (3-1) were computed in this study.
3.1 Determination of the Actual Gravity Potential of TPLN BMs

Actual gravity potential is a resultant of gravitational potential and centrifugal potential. Due to
the fact that TPLN BMs are placed on the surface of the earth, geopotential numbers of all
selected BMs are required for computation of HOH. Gravitational potential can be expressed in
terms of spherical harmonics as shown in Equation (3-3). Equation (3-2) was used in computing
actual gravity potential on the surface of the earth.
W P =W ( r , θ , λ )=V ( r , θ , λ ) + ϕ(r ,θ) (3-2)
Where W ( r , θ , λ ) is potential of a point on the surface of the earth, V ( r ,θ , λ ) is Gravitational

potential and ϕ (r , θ) is centrifugal potential. Furthermore;
( )
∞ n n +1
GM R
V ( r ,θ , λ )= ∑ ∑
R n=0 m=0 r
C nm Y nm (θ , λ) (3-3)
24
where r is radial distance, θ is co-latitude, 𝜆 is longitude, GM is product of mass of the earth and
Newton’s gravitational constant, R is mean earth radius, Cnm is constant coefficient for degree n
and order m, Y nm is fully normalized equation of surface spherical harmonic function and
V ( r ,θ , λ ) is Gravitational potential.
{
Y nm= Pnm (cosθ )cos |m λ , m≥ 0
|
P n|m| ( cosθ ) sin| m| λ , m<0
(3-4)
where Pnm are fully normalized Legendre functions of the 1 st kind (Hofmann-Wellenhof &
Helmut, 2005). The spherical harmonics coefficients were obtained from XGM2019e having
maximum d/o 5,540.
2
w 2 2
ϕ (r , θ)= r (sinθ) (3-5)
2
where w is earth’s rotation rate, θ is co-latitude, r is radial distance,ϕ (r , θ) is centrifugal

potential. Thus, by using Equation (3.3) and Equation (3.5) actual gravity potential can be
determined. All these mathematical equations have been programmed in the Graflab for
simplification of computation of the actual gravity potential. Graflab user interface is shown in
the Figure (3-1).
25
Figure 3-1: A GUI of Graflab software that was used in computations of actual gravity potential
W(r,θ,λ) on the surface of the earth (Bucha & Janak, 2013).
Graflab is MATLAB-based graphical user interface program for computing functionals of the
geopotential including actual gravity potential (W pGGM) up to ultra-high degrees and orders, which
allows: – evaluation of 38 functionals of the geopotential up to ultra-high degrees and orders. The
computation of the geopotential functions is done by applying the technique so called lumped
coefficients approach (Bucha & Janak, 2013). From Figure (3-1) the GUI has three main sections,
the first section deals with selection of GGM. In case of this study XGM2019e having maximum
degree of 5540 downloaded from ICGEM website (http://icgem.gfz-potsdam.de/tom_longtime )
was used. In the same section for computation actual gravity potential minimum degree(nmin)
was set to zero and maximum degree (nmax) was set as specified by selected GGM (5540). The
second section is point type selection, where by ellipsoidal coordinates of the selected TPLN
BMs were imported. The last section is calculated parameters and output selection where by
output folder and required parameter (WpGGM) were set. Finally actual gravity potential of the
selected points on the surface of the earth was computed.
26
3.2 Determination of the Geopotential Number
By using actual gravity potential (Wp) on the surface of the earth as computed using Combined
Global Geopotential Model (XGM2019e) with maximum degree of 5540 as explained in Sect
(3.1) and local geopotential vertical datum (W0LVD, TZG17) having the value of 62636852.42 m2/s2
computed by (Kamugisha, 2019) which was computed using GPS-levelling and TZG17
gravimetric geoid model.
Mathematically;
C=¿ W0LVD, TZG17 - WpGGM (3-6)
where, C is geopotential number, W0LVD, TZG17

is the actual potential on the reference surface
(MSL) and WpGGM is the actual potential on the surface of the earth as obtained from XGM2019e
of maximum degree and order of 5540. Finally using Equation (3-6) the required geopotential
numbers of the TPLN BMs can be obtained for computation of HOH.
3.3 Determination of Surface Point Gravity from 1'×1' TGDB08 Gravity Anomalies
Since it is uneconomical and time-consuming process for gravity observation over the area of
interest, then surface point gravity values of each TPLN BM was obtained by interpolation
method using surface gravity anomaly having surface map as shown in Figure (3-2). In this
method, a grided file of gravity anomalies from TGDB08covering area of interest was used to
predict the surface gravity anomalies of the benchmarks.
27
Figure 3-2: Surface map of gravity anomalies from 1'×1’ TGDB08 gravity anomaly (Peter, 2018)
∆ g=gobs −γ Q (3-7)
gobs =∆ g+ γ Q (3-8)
where ∆ g is the surface gravity anomaly that has been interpolated using grided file from
TGDB08 surface gravity anomalies grid file, gobs is surface point gravity on the surface of the
earth and γ Q is the normal gravity of a point on telluroid. Furthermore; the normal gravity on
telluroid can be computed using Equation (3-9) and (3-10) from (Moritz, 1980, pp.83-84).
γ Q=[γ 0−( 0.3087691−0.0004398 sin2 φ ) hQ + 7.2125× 10−8 hQ2 ]mga l (3-9)
GRS 80
γ0 =¿ (3-10)
From Equation (3-9) and (3-10) γ 0 is the normal gravity on reference ellipsoid (GRS80), φ is
geographical coordinate and hQ is the height of point on the telluroid above a reference ellipsoid
which further more by Equation (3-11) we can get hQ as;
28
hQ =h P−ζ P (3-11)
where h P is the ellipsoidal height of point on the topography surface obtained through GNSS
positioning and ζ P is the height anomaly computed by using quasi-geoid model of Tanzania that
was computed in geoidal model determination (TZG17).
Figure 3-3: A surface and contour map of Tanzania q_geoid (Valerian, 2018)
After determination of height anomaly and ellipsoid height from TZQ17 and GPS positioning
respectively, height of point on the telluroid (hQ ) was computed using Equation (3-11) and hence
the normal gravity of the point on telluroid was obtained according to Equation (3-9).
3.4 Determination of Density Using LITHO1.0 Crustal Density Model

Firstly, Litho1.0.tar file was downloaded from https.igppweb.ucsd.edu/-gabi/litho1.0html and
then the file was uncompressed using WinRAR software. This resulted into two files, README
file and LITHO1.0 directory. All the important steps for accessing the data from the model were
found from the README file. LITHO1.0 directory contains two other subdirectories (progs and
litho_model). The progs directory contains the programs written in C++ programming language
for accessing the data stored in litho_model subdirectory. A new file called bin was created
within the LITHO1.0 directory. This bin file was created as the directory for storing the
executable files.
29
The second important step was to use Notepad++ to edit the makefile under progs to comply with
the computer’s working environment variables. BIN was used to set the path showing the
subdirectory where the new bin file was created. Then C++ compiler was specified at CPP where
the C++ codes are to be compiled, for this research a GNU-g++ compiler was used and at last
FLAGS whereby the directory to the path model was set. Screenshots from Notepad++ of a
makefile after being edited is shown in Figure (3-4).
Figure 3-4: Makefile after been edited using Notepad++

The above information was run as instructed by the README file and executable program file
was created automatically in the created new bin file in the LITHO1.0 subdirectory. This
executable program is used to access the density information at different points that found on
different layers such as CRUST1, CRUST2, CRUST3, SEDS1, SEDS and other layers as shown
on the Figure (3-5). The earth’s crust is the outermost part of the earth and extends up to 70km
from the surface of the earth (Montagner, 2011). In LITHO1.0 this crust has been divided to three
sections CRUST1, CRUST2 and CRUST3. Since the mean gravity along the plumb line is
computed at mean depth from the geoid or other reference surface as explained in Sect. (2.2.2)
the published orthometric heights of TPLN BMs were divided by two. This process was
important in detecting exact layer and depth where density information is required. And each
layer has specified depth from the Mean Sea Level (MSL) (Pasyanos, Masters, Laske & Ma,
2014). As LITHO1.0 crustal density offers two different ways of accessing the data either profile
mode of point mode, a profile mode (-p) was run as shown in appendix (2).
30
Figure 3-5: An image shows different information including density as extracted at IBM Wami
with latitude 6.2122S and longitude 38.7124E.
From Figure (3-5) the density information at (38.7124E,6.2122S) are found in second column
from left. Generally, columns have the following information from left to right depth(m) rom
MSL, density (kg/m3), Vp (m/s) Vs (m/s), Qkappa, Qmu, Vp 2 (m/s), Vs2 (m/s), eta and layername
(Pasyanos, Masters, Laske & Ma, 2014). Negative(-ve) sign shows that a specific layer is above
the MSL. At (38.7124E, 6.2122S) shows that the specified position has one layer (from SEDS1
TOP to SEDS1 BOTTOM) having density of about 2,111.12 kg/m 3 with height of about 276
above the MSL and other layers are below the MSL as shown in Figure (3-5). Orthometric height
of a specified point (BM) was divided by two to have an approximate mean height along the
plumbline where density information is required for computation of HOH.
3.5 Computation of Helmert Orthometric Heights of selected TPLN BMs

After computation of all three unknown parameters which are surface point gravity, density and
geopotential numbers as explained from Sect. 3.1 to 3.4 then HOHs of selected TPLN BMs were
computed using Equation (3.1.2).
H −O C
H =
1
g s + FH −2 πGρH
2
(3.12) where gs is observed gravity at the topographic surface, F is free-air gravity gradient, G is
universal gravitational constant, ρ is topographic density, H is spirit levelled height above MSL
and C is geopotential number.
3.6 Data Used in this Study and its Sources
31
From Equation (3.12) the key input parameters show the nature and type of data that are
important to complete this study. All data that have been used are summarized in Table (3-1) with
their associated reliable source.
Table 3-1: Data used in this study
DATA SOURCE
GGM Data (XGM2019e) d/o up to 5,540. ICGEM (icgem.gfz-portdam.de/tom_longtime).
Spirit Levelled heights of TPLN BMs. DGST.
TGDB08 Data and TZQ Data. DGST.
LITHO1.0 Crustal Density Model. https.igppweb.ucsd.edu/-gabi/litho1.0html .
GPS/Levelling data of selected TPLN BMs. DGST and Previous Researchers.
3.7 Software Used in this Study

In this study different software were installed and used for completion of this dissertation. Table
(3-2) shows all important software installed and used in this study.
Table 3-2: Shows all important software installed and used in this study.
NAME USE
Microsoft excel For arranging the extracted data from LITHO1.0 model and assisted in
computation of different mathematical functions.
Microsoft world For report writing.
Notepad++ For editing makefile to comply with computer environment and analysis
of data as extracted from LITHO1.0.
ArcGIS For creation of map showing area of interest and location of available
TPLN benchmarks to be used in this study.
MATLAB For computation of actual potential (Wp) on the surface of the Earth.
Graflab Run in MATLAB for computation actual gravity potential on
topography.
Surfer15 For statistical analysis, prediction of gravity and height anomalies.
WinRAR For uncompressing GGM and Litho1.0.tar files.
GMT For drawing surface map of gravity anomalies from 1′x 1′ grided file.
32
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

4.1 Results
4.1.1 Computed Geopotential Numbers of TPLN BMs
The geopotential number of each TPLN benchmark used in this study were computed using
Equation (3-6) as explained in Sect. (3.2) and the following is the result of the compute
geopotential numbers. where (λ, 𝜑, h) are ellipsoidal coordinates, Wp is actual potential on the
surface of the earth, W0 is Local geopotential vertical datum (W0LVD, TZG17
) and Cp is the
geopotential number.
Table 4-1: Computed geopotential number values of TPLN BMs

S/N BM Name Wp (m2/s2) Wo (m2/s2) Cp (m2/s2)
1 FBM Babati 62623758.98 62636852.42 13093.44
2 FBM Dar 62636734.82 62636852.42 117.60
3 FBM Dar 62636746.55 62636852.42 105.87
4 FBM Iringa 62621701.88 62636852.42 15150.54
5 FBM Kondoa 62623240.83 62636852.42 13611.59
6 FBM Kondoa 62623243.26 62636852.42 13609.16
7 FBM Kondoa 62623240.83 62636852.42 13611.59
8 FBM Kwala 62636062.26 62636852.42 790.16
9 FBM Kwala 62636048.63 62636852.42 803.79
10 FBM Mafinga 62618880.69 62636852.42 17971.73
11 FBM Makuyuni 62626392.70 62636852.42 10459.72
12 FBM Maweni 62636230.62 62636852.42 621.80
13 FBM Maweni 62636226.70 62636852.42 625.72
14 FBM Maweni 62636232.51 62636852.42 619.91
15 FBM Mbeya 62619418.72 62636852.42 17433.70
33
16 FBM Mnyusi 62634460.32 62636852.42 2392.10
17 FBM Moshi 62628928.72 62636852.42 7923.70
18 FBM Mwanza 62625714.71 62636852.42 11137.71
19 FBM Mwanza 62625710.53 62636852.42 11141.89
20 FBM Tabora 62624760.02 62636852.42 12092.40
21 FBM Tabora 62624763.87 62636852.42 12088.55
22 FBM Tabora 62624760.03 62636852.42 12092.39
23 IBM 18 Pugu 62635841.57 62636852.42 1010.85
24 IBM 5/47Dodoma 62625781.39 62636852.42 11071.03
25 IBM 5/47Dodoma 62625802.67 62636852.42 11049.75
26 IBM A24/50 Moshi 62629091.27 62636852.42 7761.15
27 IBM A25/51 Moshi 62628973.13 62636852.42 7879.29
28 IBM Arusha 62626397.86 62636852.42 10454.56
29 IBM Kibirashi 62625810.65 62636852.42 11041.77
30 IBM Kiomboi 62621260.87 62636852.42 15591.55
31 IBM Korogwe 62633921.98 62636852.42 2930.44
32 IBM Morogoro 2/77 62632017.80 62636852.42 4834.62
33 IBM Tanga A/29/7 62636656.22 62636852.42 196.20
34 IBM Wami 62636672.54 62636852.42 179.88
35 IBM-3/54 Kilosa 62632060.81 62636852.42 4791.61
36 IBM-5/47Dodoma 62625778.90 62636852.42 11073.52
37 IBM-A24/51 Moshi 62628963.60 62636852.42 7888.82
38 IBM-A25/1Moshi 62629046.24 62636852.42 7806.18
39 TGBM 62636819.26 62636852.42 33.16
40 FBM Olduvai 62621948.92 62636852.42 14903.50
34
4.1.2 Computed Surface Point Gravity of TPLN BMs
Surface point gravity of each TPLN benchmark were computed using Equation (3-8). In Table
(4-2) (dg_surf) is the surface gravity anomaly, (γQ) is the normal gravity on the telluroid
computed by equation (3-7), (g) is the surface point gravity of the TPLN BMs computed as
explained in Sect. (3.3), hQ is the height of point on the telluroid and ζ p is the height anomaly. By
using Equation (3-8), surface point gravity of TPLN BMs were computed.
Table 4-2: Computed height anomalies, height of point on the telluroid, gravity anomalies,
normal gravity on telluroid and surface point gravity
S/N BM Name ζP hQ dg_surf γQ g
(m) (m) (mgal) (mgal) (mgal)
1 FBM Babati -17.872 1338.803 -20.4122 977663.4579 977643.0457
2 FBM Dar -27.474 11.964 1.7204 978117.0432 978118.7636
3 FBM Dar -27.474 10.765 1.7202 978117.4126 978119.1328
4 FBM Iringa -16.370 1549.254 59.7547 977665.5363 977725.2910
5 FBM Kondoa -18.398 1392.093 -2.4447 977656.9057 977654.4610
6 FBM Kondoa -18.398 1391.845 -2.4384 977656.9818 977654.5434
7 FBM Kondoa -18.398 1392.093 -2.4384 977656.9053 977654.4668
8 FBM Kwala -25.855 80.806 -29.3718 978096.2097 978066.8379
9 FBM Kwala -25.855 82.199 -29.3718 978095.7796 978066.4078
10 FBM Mafinga -14.519 1837.546 64.6403 977589.1872 977653.8275
11 FBM Makuyuni -18.374 1069.519 -26.3878 977738.6308 977712.2431
12 FBM Maweni -26.686 63.732 -3.7991 978070.3346 978066.5355
13 FBM Maweni -26.686 64.133 -3.7976 978070.2105 978066.4129
14 FBM Maweni -26.686 63.539 -3.8086 978070.3921 978066.5835
15 FBM Mbeya -11.887 1782.788 45.5649 977621.6511 977667.2161
16 FBM Mnyusi -23.885 244.539 21.2903 978016.4902 978037.7805
17 FBM Moshi -17.679 809.894 -22.0140 977816.619 977794.6050
18 FBM Mwanza -16.863 1138.915 -19.0130 977707.4102 977688.3972
19 FBM Mwanza -16.862 1139.342 -18.8780 977707.2784 977688.4004
20 FBM Tabora -17.849 1236.577 -38.9797 977706.9137 977667.9341
21 FBM Tabora -17.849 1236.184 -38.9715 977707.0344 977668.0629
22 FBM Tabora -17.848 1236.576 -38.9800 977706.9135 977667.9335
23 IBM 18 Pugu -26.601 103.289 16.4604 978091.0506 978107.5110
24 IBM 5/47Dodoma -19.566 1132.123 -6.5701 977759.2766 977752.7065
25 IBM 5/47Dodoma -19.568 1129.946 -6.1661 977759.9523 977753.7861
26 IBM A24/50 Moshi -17.799 793.153 -2.0192 977822.0605 977820.0413
27 IBM A25/51 Moshi -17.835 805.277 -30.7595 977818.2938 977787.5342
35
28 IBM Arusha -18.372 1068.991 -26.7594 977738.7623 977712.0029
29 IBM Kibirashi -19.061 1129.170 45.1071 977745.7416 977790.8487
30 IBM Kiomboi -19.283 1594.695 -0.3895 977585.4944 977585.1050
31 IBM Korogwe -22.878 299.253 -9.5530 977998.3616 977988.8086
32 IBM Morogoro 2/77 -22.332 494.308 9.1783 977968.6765 977977.8548
33 IBM Tanga A/29/7 -27.314 20.111 -37.7657 978083.0758 978045.3101
34 IBM Wami -26.199 18.141 -21.7405 978103.6972 978081.9568
35 IBM-3/54 Kilosa -20.704 489.704 -30.4652 977970.6762 977940.2110
36 IBM-5/47Dodoma -19.565 1132.380 -6.9970 977759.2095 977752.2126
37 IBM-A24/51 Moshi -17.835 806.251 -30.9273 977817.9933 977787.0660
38 IBM-A25/1Moshi -17.664 797.782 37.2593 977820.4819 977857.7412
39 TGBM -27.253 3.434 -44.6572 978087.6926 978043.0354
40 FBM Olduvai -16.695 1523.816 -3.9585 977593.1896 977589.2311
4.1.3 Computed Density from LITHO1.0 Crustal Density Model

The density information from both constant and LITHO1.0 crustal density models were extracted
following all the steps as explained in Sect. (3.4) and the final results are in Table (4-3), where, λ
geographical longitude, 𝜑 is the geographical latitude, ρ (Litho 1.0) is the density from
LITHO1.0 density model and ρ (Constant) is the density from constant density model.
Table 4-3 Density obtained from constant and LITHO1.0 crustal density models
S/N BM Name Λ 𝜑 ρ (Litho 1.0) ρ (Constant)
(d.ddd) (d.ddd) (kg/cm3) (kg/cm3)
1 FBM Babati 35.74945 -4.20655 2828.22 2670.00
2 FBM Dar 39.28528 -6.77834 1020.00 2670.00
3 FBM Dar 39.28528 -6.7783 1020.00 2670.00
4 FBM Iringa 35.69857 -7.7943 2110.00 2670.00
5 FBM Kondoa 35.80876 -4.90173 2827.09 2670.00
6 FBM Kondoa 35.8088 -4.9017 2827.09 2670.00
7 FBM Kondoa 35.8088 -4.9017 2827.09 2670.00
8 FBM Kwala 38.57848 -6.79834 2078.05 2670.00
9 FBM Kwala 38.57848 -6.79834 2078.05 2670.00
10 FBM Mafinga 35.30221 -8.29965 2110.00 2670.00
36
11 FBM Makuyuni 36.09696 -3.55344 2807.25 2670.00
12 FBM Maweni 39.0138 -5.12012 1020.00 2670.00
13 FBM Maweni 39.0138 -5.1201 1020.00 2670.00
14 FBM Maweni 39.0139 -5.12 1020.00 2670.00
15 FBM Mbeya 33.4379 -8.88585 2705.90 2670.00
16 FBM Mnyusi 38.61873 -5.2425 2085.88 2670.00
17 FBM Moshi 37.34342 -3.35549 2820.62 2670.00
18 FBM Mwanza 32.89766 -2.52289 2782.01 2670.00
19 FBM Mwanza 32.89698 -2.5229 2782.01 2670.00
20 FBM Tabora 32.82011 -5.03196 2744.01 2670.00
21 FBM Tabora 32.82018 -5.03192 2744.03 2670.00
22 FBM Tabora 32.82 -5.03194 2744.03. 2670.00
23 IBM 18 Pugu 39.12639 -6.8822 1020.00 2670.00
24 IBM 5/47Dodoma 35.74747 -6.1834 2744.00 2670.00

25 IBM 5/47Dodoma 35.74556 -6.1836 2811.30 2670.00
26 IBM A24/50 Moshi 37.30889 -3.3815 2822.22 2670.00
27 IBM A25/51 Moshi 37.323 -3.37917 2821.57 2670.00
28 IBM Arusha 36.09694 -3.5506 2807.16 2670.00
29 IBM Kibirashi 37.43682 -5.38173 2771.94 2670.00
30 IBM Kiomboi 34.40874 -4.28142 2835.67 2670.00
31 IBM Korogwe 38.46067 -5.16633 2110.00 2670.00
32 IBM Morogoro 2/77 37.71611 -6.8042 2110.00 2670.00

33 IBM Tanga A/29/7 39.09889 -5.0744 2633.37 2670.00
34 IBM Wami 38.71237 -6.21218 2111.12 2670.00
35 IBM-3/54 Kilosa 36.98594 -6.83149 2826.69 2670.00
36 IBM-5/47Dodoma 35.74939 -6.18403 2811.13 2670.00

37 IBM-A24/51 Moshi 37.32306 -3.3792 2821.56 2670.00
38 IBM-A25/1Moshi 37.30886 -3.3673 2822.22 2670.00
39 TGBM 39.10739 -5.04068 1020.00 2670.00
37
40 FBM Olduvai 35.35351 -3.04472 2784.18 2670.00
4.1.4 Computed HOH from both Constant and LITHO1.0 Crustal Density Models
The final outputs of this dissertation were computed using Equation (3.1) as explained in Sect.
(3.0) to Sect. (3.7). In Figure (4-4), HN-O is the normal orthometric height (NOH), (HLH-O) is the
HOH compute by using LITHO1.0 crustal density model, (H CH-O) is the HOH computed by using
constant density of 2,670kg/cm3, 𝜟H1 are the differences of HOH computed using LITHO1.0
from HOH computed using constant density, 𝜟H2 are the differences of NOH from HOH
computed using constant and 𝜟H3 are the differences of NOH from HOH computed using
LITHO1.0 density model. The difference between these height systems were evaluated in this
dissertation in order to investigate if the differences amongst them is significant. Although these
differences may be affected by the datum definition as they both don’t refer to the geoid instead,
they refer to MSL which is not an equipotential surface and as it is affected by the MDT effect.
Table 4-4 Existing height, Computed height from actual gravity and litho 1.0 density, computed
height from actual gravity and constant density and differences amongst them
S/N BM Name HN-O HLH-O HCH-O 𝜟H1 𝜟H2 𝜟H3
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
1 FBM Babati 1338.874 1339.221 1339.2 0.012 0.335 0.347

1
2 FBM Dar 12.239 12.023 12.02 0.000 -0.216 -0.216
3 FBM Dar 10.513 10.824 10.82 0.000 0.311 0.311
4 FBM Iringa 1549.545 1549.481 1549.4 0.014 -0.079 -0.136

7
5 FBM Kondoa 1392.666 1392.199 1392.1 0.013 -0.480 -0.467

9
6 FBM Kondoa 1391.263 1391.951 1391.9 0.013 0.675 0.688

4
7 FBM Kondoa 1392.666 1392.199 1392.1 0.013 -0.480 -0.467

9
8 FBM Kwala 81.073 80.788 80.79 0.000 -0.285 -0.285
9 FBM Kwala 81.073 82.181 82.18 0.000 1.108 1.108
38
10 FBM Mafinga 1836.387 1838.123 1838.1 0.019 1.718 1.637
0
11 FBM Makuyuni 1070.213 1069.772 1069.7 0.007 -0.447 -0.441

7
12 FBM Maweni 63.237 63.574 63.57 0.000 0.337 0.337
13 FBM Maweni 64.244 63.975 63.97 0.000 -0.269 -0.269
14 FBM Maweni 63.237 63.381 63.38 0.000 0.144 0.144
15 FBM Mbeya 1782.839 1783.061 1783.0 0.005 0.217 0.222

6
16 FBM Mnyusi 243.999 244.579 244.58 0.000 0.580 0.578
17 FBM Moshi 809.793 810.340 810.34 0.004 0.543 0.547
18 FBM Mwanza 1139.667 1139.138 1139.1 0.006 -0.535 -0.529

3
19 FBM Mwanza 1139.667 1139.566 1139.5 0.006 -0.107 -0.101

6
20 FBM Tabora 1235.726 1236.800 1236.7 0.005 1.069 1.074

9
21 FBM Tabora 1236.751 1236.407 1236.4 0.005 -0.349 -0.344

0
22 FBM Tabora 1235.726 1236.800 1236.7 0.005 1.069 1.074

9
23 IBM 18 Pugu 103.67 103.347 103.35 0.000 -0.323 -0.324
24 IBM 5/47Dodoma 1132.704 1132.246 1132.2 0.008 -0.466 -0.462

4
25 IBM 5/47Dodoma 1130.975 1130.069 1130.0 0.008 -0.914 -0.906

6
26 IBM A24/50 Moshi 793.346 793.696 793.69 0.004 0.346 0.350
27 IBM A25/51 Moshi 806.156 805.805 805.80 0.004 -0.356 -0.351
28 IBM Arusha 1068.955 1069.245 1069.2 0.007 0.284 0.290

4
29 IBM Kibirashi 1129.579 1129.207 1129.2 0.006 -0.377 -0.372

0
30 IBM Kiomboi 1595.003 1594.812 1594.7 0.018 -0.209 -0.191
39
9
31 IBM Korogwe 300.032 299.637 299.64 0.001 -0.396 -0.398
32 IBM Morogoro 2/77 493.729 494.335 494.34 -0.003 0.603 0.606
33 IBM Tanga A/29/7 19.646 20.060 20.06 0.000 0.414 0.414
34 IBM Wami 14.442 18.391 18.39 0.000 3.949 3.949
35 IBM-3/54 Kilosa 490.33 489.960 489.96 0.002 -0.371 -0.370
36 IBM-5/47Dodoma 1131.927 1132.501 1132.4 0.008 0.566 0.574

9
37 IBM-A24/51 Moshi 805.414 806.779 806.78 0.004 1.361 1.365
38 IBM-A25/1Moshi 798.01 798.271 798.27 0.004 0.257 0.261
39 TGBM 3.317 3.390 3.39 0.000 0.073 0.073
40 FBM Olduvai 1507.121 1524.427 1524.4 0.011 17.294 17.306

2
From Table (4-4) the abbreviation of symbolization of the differences are 𝜟H1= HLH-O - HCH-O,
𝜟H2= HCH-O- HN-O and 𝜟H3= HLH-O- HN-O.
4.2 Statistics of Differences Between HN-O, HLH-O and HCH-O

Comparison was made between the computed HOH using LITHO1.0 crustal density model and
the NOH of the TPLN benchmarks. The comparison between these height systems was important
so as to evaluate and investigate if there are any differences between them. Also, this step was
necessary to enable detection of any required improvement on the ordinary height system of
TPLN (Normal Orthometric Height System) The obtained results are presented in Figure (4-1)
and the statistics in Table (4-5). Before statistics, a test was performed at 95% to presence detect
any outliers in the data so as to remain with data that cannot affect statistical analysis. Only one
point (FBM Olduvai) was detected as an outlier. Therefore only 39 points were used in statistical
analysis. Thus, this BM should be well checked to understand the reason why it has large
difference compared to others as shown on table (4-4).
40
GRAPH SHOWING DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
HOH(Litho1.0 𝞀) AND HOH(constant)
0.020
Differences (m)
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
-0.005
Benchmark
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Figure 4-1: Difference between HOH computed using LITHO1.0 and HOH computed using
constant density
Figure (4-1) shows the graph of the residuals obtained after subtracting the Helmert orthometric
heights obtained using constant density from Helmert orthometric heights obtained using
LITHO1.0 crustal density model.

HOH(constant 𝞀 ) AND NOH
5.000
Differences (m)
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
Benchmark
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Figure 4-2: Difference between HOH computed using constant density and NOH
41
Figure (4-2) shows the residuals obtained after subtracting the normal orthometric heights from
Helmert orthometric heights obtained from constant density.

HOH(Litho1.0 𝞀) AND NOH
5.000
Differences (m)
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
-1.000
-2.000
Benchmark
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Figure 4-3: Difference between HOH using LITHO1.0 crustal density model and NOH
Figure (4-2) shows the residuals obtained after subtracting the normal orthometric heights from
Helmert orthometric heights obtained by using LITHO1.0 crustal density model.
The statistics of the residuals obtained after subtracting heights values from one height system to
another are shown in Table (4-5). 𝜟H1, 𝜟H2 and 𝜟H3 being difference of HOH computed using
LITHO1.0 from HOH computed using constant density, difference of NOH from HOH computed
using constant and difference of NOH from HOH computed using LITHO1.0 density model.
Table 4-5: Statistics of difference between NON, HOH (Litho1.0 𝞀) and HOH (constant 𝞀)
STATISTIC 𝜟H1 𝜟H2 𝜟H3
Number of values 39 39 39
Sum 0.199 9.302 9.501
Minimum -0.003 -0.914 -0.906
Maximum 0.019 3.949 3.949
Mean 0.005 0.239 0.244
SD 0.005 0.848 0.848
RMS 0.007 0.837 0.872
42
All information from Table (4-5) are presented graphically in Figure (4-4) with first column (red
colored) showing differences between the HOHs obtained from constant density with that
obtained from LITHO1.0 crustal density model, second (blue colored) and third column (yellow
colored) shows statistics of difference of NOHs from both constant and LITHO1.0 crustal density
model respective.
Figure 4-4: Graph showing Statistics of difference between NON, HOH (Litho1.0 𝞀) and HOH
(constant 𝞀)
4.3 Discussion of the Results
Statistical analysis shows that the effect of using a constant density instead of the varying density
(from LITHO 1.0) in the computation of HOH has small effect in the computed orthometric
height. From Table (4-5) in Sect. (4.1.4) the root mean square of the difference between Helmert
orthometric height computed using LITHO1.0 crustal density model and constant density is very
small of about 7mm, while the standard deviation is 5mm. This indicate that statistically when
constant density is used it contributes error of about ±5mm. Thus, this effect is small but not in
establishment of zero order and first order controls in Tanzania. Therefore, surface point gravity
and geopotential number as shown in Equation (2-5) should always be determined accurately for
good results in determination of Helmert orthometric height of different points on the surface of
the earth regardless of whether the density information is from constant density model or other
lithospheric density models (i.e., LITHO1.0 crustal density model as used in this study).
43
The fact that variance and mean of the population (all 58 TPLN BMs) were not known,
Student(t) test was conducted at 95% confidence interval and the results show that there is no
significant difference between the Helmert orthometric height computed from constant density
and that computed using LITHO1.0 crustal density model see Table (4-4) and Figure (4-4).
The heights in use (NOH) of TPLN BMs deviate much from HOH as computed by this
dissertation using constant and LITHO 1.0 density. Statistically as shown in Table (4-5),
differences NOH from HOH computed from both constant density and LITHO1.0 have the same
values of SD of about 84.8cm while RMS values are 83.7cm and 87.2cm respectively.
More than that Student(t) test was done to test the hypothesis that claim there is significance
difference between NOH as adopted by TPLN and HOH the one that has been computed in this
study. At 95% confidence there is significance difference between the two height systems. This
shows that TPLN should adapt the use of HOH from varying density (using LITHO 1.0 crustal
density model and others) instead of NOH as adopted during its establishment because HOHs
have enough information about the real Earth’s gravity field and predict fluid flow more precisely
than NOHs as explained clearly in Sect. (1.1) to Sect. (1.2).
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion
The BM heights of TPLN has been improved from NOH to HOH, which is the main objective of
this dissertation. The results (computed HOHs of TPLN BMs) are shown in Table (4-4). The
improvement has been attained by replacing the normal gravity and constant density with the
actual gravity and density from LITHO1.0 crustal density model respectively.
Hypothesis test for comparison between HOHs computed from constant density of about
2,670kg/cm3 and that computed from LITHO 1.0 crustal density model has shown that the use of
constant density does not affect the computed Helmert orthometric height. From Equation (3-1)
44
the values of HOHs of TPLN BMs are affected by the computed geopotential numbers and
surface point gravity.
As different researchers around the world have claimed HOHs to be more superior than the
NOHs due to the use of actual gravity, that make it possible to predict fluid flow more accurately.
This shows that how important are the output of this dissertation especially on the selected BMs
of TPLN. The HOH are well presented in Table (4-4).
5.2 Recommendation
a) There should be more improvement on Local Geopotential Vertical Datum (W 0LVD, TZG17) which
has been used in this research in determination of geopotential number of TPLN benchmarks.
The improvements should be done using the latest Gravimetric Geoid Models for Tanzania
(TZG19 and others) and new GPS observation at Tanga Tide Gauge Benchmark (TGBM).
b) It’s recommended that in the future vertical datum that defines TPLN benchmark should also
be improved from Mean Sea Level (MSL) to Geoid because previous researches have shown that
MSL deviate from the Geoid up to 1m indicating that it is unrealistic to keep using the ordinary
reference surface for vertical control establishment in Tanzania.
c) Recovery of all TPLN benchmarks and completion of TPLN especially in southern part of
Tanzania where there are only proposed levelling loops which have not been implemented yet as
shown on Figure (1-1) in Sect. (1.1).
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: Source code used to create path for executable file to access LITHO1.0 data
1 BIN = F:\litho1.0\LITHO1.0\bin
2 CPP = GNU g++
3 FLAGS = -DMODELLOC=\"/faddy(F:)/litho1.0/LITHO1.0/litho_model\"
4 #
5 access_litho.o: access_litho.cc
6 $(CPP) -c access_litho.cc $(FLAGS) -o access_litho.o
7 #
49
8 access_litho: access_litho.o
9 $(CPP) access_litho.o -lm $(FLAGS) -o $(BIN)/access_litho
10 #
APPENDIX 2: Data extracted from LITHO1.0 crustal density model

sanga@fadhili-Latitude-E6420:~/Desktop/litho1.0/LITHO1.0$ bin/access_litho -h
access_litho -p lat lon [ -d depth] [-l level] [-e] [-h]
-h help
-p lat lon (runs in profile mode)
-d depth (runs in point mode)
-l level
sanga@fadhili-Latitude-E6420:~/Desktop/litho1.0/LITHO1.0$ bin/access_litho -p -4.20655 35.7494
159922. 3300.00 7906.18 4296.84 0.00 70.00 7906.18 4296.84 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
159922. 3300.00 8067.53 4596.89 0.00 200.00 8067.53 4596.89 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
46972. 3300.00 8067.53 4596.89 0.00 200.00 8067.53 4596.89 1.00000 LID-TOP
46972. 3150.55 7486.46 4263.12 0.00 600.00 7486.46 4263.12 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
50
31021. 3150.55 7486.46 4263.12 0.00 600.00 7486.46 4263.12 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
31021. 2973.79 6862.59 3951.19 0.00 600.00 6862.59 3951.19 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
15549. 2973.79 6862.59 3951.19 0.00 600.00 6862.59 3951.19 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
15549. 2828.22 6238.71 3639.25 0.00 600.00 6238.71 3639.25 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
-1379. 2828.22 6238.71 3639.25 0.00 600.00 6238.71 3639.25 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
-1379. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
-1456. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
sanga@fadhili-Latitude-E6420:~/Desktop/litho1.0/LITHO1.0$ bin/access_litho -p -6.77834

39.28528
91764. 3300.00 8183.20 4447.39 0.00 70.00 8183.20 4447.39 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
91764. 3300.00 8350.21 4757.95 0.00 200.00 8350.21 4757.95 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
22435. 3300.00 8350.21 4757.95 0.00 200.00 8350.21 4757.95 1.00000 LID-TOP
22435. 3157.63 7497.11 4270.68 0.00 600.00 7497.11 4270.68 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
17810. 3157.63 7497.11 4270.68 0.00 600.00 7497.11 4270.68 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
17810. 2977.96 6870.56 3955.26 0.00 600.00 6870.56 3955.26 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
13003. 2977.96 6870.56 3955.26 0.00 600.00 6870.56 3955.26 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
13003. 2840.35 6308.41 3663.45 0.00 600.00 6308.41 3663.45 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
8145. 2840.35 6308.41 3663.45 0.00 600.00 6308.41 3663.45 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
8145. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-BOTTOM
5933. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-TOP
5933. 2338.40 3762.98 1971.99 0.00 600.00 3762.98 1971.99 1.00000 SEDS2-BOTTOM
2024. 2338.40 3762.98 1971.99 0.00 600.00 3762.98 1971.99 1.00000 SEDS2-TOP
2024. 1967.79 2104.97 659.17 0.00 600.00 2104.97 659.17 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
234. 1967.79 2104.97 659.17 0.00 600.00 2104.97 659.17 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
234. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-BOTTOM
-34. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-TOP
91761. 3300.00 8183.21 4447.40 0.00 70.00 8183.21 4447.40 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
91761. 3300.00 8350.22 4757.96 0.00 200.00 8350.22 4757.96 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
22435. 3300.00 8350.22 4757.96 0.00 200.00 8350.22 4757.96 1.00000 LID-TOP
22435. 3157.63 7497.11 4270.68 0.00 600.00 7497.11 4270.68 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
17810. 3157.63 7497.11 4270.68 0.00 600.00 7497.11 4270.68 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
17810. 2977.96 6870.56 3955.26 0.00 600.00 6870.56 3955.26 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
13003. 2977.96 6870.56 3955.26 0.00 600.00 6870.56 3955.26 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
51
13003. 2840.35 6308.41 3663.45 0.00 600.00 6308.41 3663.45 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
8145. 2840.35 6308.41 3663.45 0.00 600.00 6308.41 3663.45 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
8145. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-BOTTOM
5933. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-TOP
5933. 2338.40 3762.97 1971.98 0.00 600.00 3762.97 1971.98 1.00000 SEDS2-BOTTOM
2024. 2338.40 3762.97 1971.98 0.00 600.00 3762.97 1971.98 1.00000 SEDS2-TOP
2024. 1967.78 2104.96 659.15 0.00 600.00 2104.96 659.15 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
234. 1967.78 2104.96 659.15 0.00 600.00 2104.96 659.15 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
234. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-BOTTOM
-34. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-TOP
152992. 3300.00 7971.83 4332.52 0.00 70.00 7971.83 4332.52 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
152992. 3300.00 8134.52 4635.06 0.00 200.00 8134.52 4635.06 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
47669. 3300.00 8134.52 4635.06 0.00 200.00 8134.52 4635.06 1.00000 LID-TOP
47669. 3116.26 7394.76 4213.38 0.00 600.00 7394.76 4213.38 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
31685. 3116.26 7394.76 4213.38 0.00 600.00 7394.76 4213.38 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
31685. 2937.27 6775.57 3900.22 0.00 600.00 6775.57 3900.22 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
16034. 2937.27 6775.57 3900.22 0.00 600.00 6775.57 3900.22 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
16034. 2807.01 6263.01 3626.17 0.00 600.00 6263.01 3626.17 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
-754. 2807.01 6263.01 3626.17 0.00 600.00 6263.01 3626.17 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
-754. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
-988. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP

35.80876
155153. 3300.00 7945.79 4318.37 0.00 70.00 7945.79 4318.37 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
155153. 3300.00 8107.95 4619.92 0.00 200.00 8107.95 4619.92 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
46993. 3300.00 8107.95 4619.92 0.00 200.00 8107.95 4619.92 1.00000 LID-TOP
46993. 3126.34 7406.96 4223.17 0.00 600.00 7406.96 4223.17 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
31045. 3126.34 7406.96 4223.17 0.00 600.00 7406.96 4223.17 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
31045. 2942.00 6783.33 3903.70 0.00 600.00 6783.33 3903.70 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
15232. 2942.00 6783.33 3903.70 0.00 600.00 6783.33 3903.70 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
15232. 2827.09 6389.28 3668.41 0.00 600.00 6389.28 3668.41 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
-1325. 2827.09 6389.28 3668.41 0.00 600.00 6389.28 3668.41 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
-1325. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
52
-1351. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
155153. 3300.00 7945.79 4318.36 0.00 70.00 7945.79 4318.36 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
155153. 3300.00 8107.95 4619.92 0.00 200.00 8107.95 4619.92 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
46993. 3300.00 8107.95 4619.92 0.00 200.00 8107.95 4619.92 1.00000 LID-TOP
46993. 3126.34 7406.96 4223.17 0.00 600.00 7406.96 4223.17 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
31045. 3126.34 7406.96 4223.17 0.00 600.00 7406.96 4223.17 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
31045. 2942.00 6783.34 3903.70 0.00 600.00 6783.34 3903.70 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
15232. 2942.00 6783.34 3903.70 0.00 600.00 6783.34 3903.70 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
15232. 2827.09 6389.29 3668.42 0.00 600.00 6389.29 3668.42 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
-1325. 2827.09 6389.29 3668.42 0.00 600.00 6389.29 3668.42 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
-1325. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
-1351. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
155153. 3300.00 7945.79 4318.36 0.00 70.00 7945.79 4318.36 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
155153. 3300.00 8107.95 4619.92 0.00 200.00 8107.95 4619.92 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
46993. 3300.00 8107.95 4619.92 0.00 200.00 8107.95 4619.92 1.00000 LID-TOP
46993. 3126.34 7406.96 4223.17 0.00 600.00 7406.96 4223.17 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
31045. 3126.34 7406.96 4223.17 0.00 600.00 7406.96 4223.17 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
31045. 2942.00 6783.34 3903.70 0.00 600.00 6783.34 3903.70 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
15232. 2942.00 6783.34 3903.70 0.00 600.00 6783.34 3903.70 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
15232. 2827.09 6389.29 3668.42 0.00 600.00 6389.29 3668.42 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
-1325. 2827.09 6389.29 3668.42 0.00 600.00 6389.29 3668.42 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
-1325. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
-1351. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP

38.57848
150037. 3300.00 7954.27 4322.97 0.00 70.00 7954.27 4322.97 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
150037. 3300.00 8116.60 4624.84 0.00 200.00 8116.60 4624.84 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
26620. 3300.00 8116.60 4624.84 0.00 200.00 8116.60 4624.84 1.00000 LID-TOP
26620. 3084.31 7304.93 4165.58 0.00 600.00 7304.93 4165.58 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
19572. 3084.31 7304.93 4165.58 0.00 600.00 7304.93 4165.58 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
19572. 2901.45 6689.19 3849.31 0.00 600.00 6689.19 3849.31 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
12488. 2901.45 6689.19 3849.31 0.00 600.00 6689.19 3849.31 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
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12488. 2791.37 6325.40 3625.43 0.00 600.00 6325.40 3625.43 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
5209. 2791.37 6325.40 3625.43 0.00 600.00 6325.40 3625.43 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
5209. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-BOTTOM
4712. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-TOP
4712. 2362.90 3946.74 2094.49 0.00 600.00 3946.74 2094.49 1.00000 SEDS2-BOTTOM
1100. 2362.90 3946.74 2094.49 0.00 600.00 3946.74 2094.49 1.00000 SEDS2-TOP
1100. 2078.05 2411.24 977.69 0.00 600.00 2411.24 977.69 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
-77. 2078.05 2411.24 977.69 0.00 600.00 2411.24 977.69 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
-77. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-BOTTOM
-138. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-TOP

38.57848
150037. 3300.00 7954.27 4322.97 0.00 70.00 7954.27 4322.97 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP 150037.
3300.00 8116.60 4624.84 0.00 200.00 8116.60 4624.84 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
26620. 3300.00 8116.60 4624.84 0.00 200.00 8116.60 4624.84 1.00000 LID-TOP
26620. 3084.31 7304.93 4165.58 0.00 600.00 7304.93 4165.58 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
19572. 3084.31 7304.93 4165.58 0.00 600.00 7304.93 4165.58 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
19572. 2901.45 6689.19 3849.31 0.00 600.00 6689.19 3849.31 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
12488. 2901.45 6689.19 3849.31 0.00 600.00 6689.19 3849.31 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
12488. 2791.37 6325.40 3625.43 0.00 600.00 6325.40 3625.43 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
5209. 2791.37 6325.40 3625.43 0.00 600.00 6325.40 3625.43 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
5209. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-BOTTOM
4712. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-TOP
4712. 2362.90 3946.74 2094.49 0.00 600.00 3946.74 2094.49 1.00000 SEDS2-BOTTOM
1100. 2362.90 3946.74 2094.49 0.00 600.00 3946.74 2094.49 1.00000 SEDS2-TOP
1100. 2078.05 2411.24 977.69 0.00 600.00 2411.24 977.69 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
-77. 2078.05 2411.24 977.69 0.00 600.00 2411.24 977.69 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
-77. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-BOTTOM
-138. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-TOP

35.30221
181950. 3300.00 7916.21 4302.29 0.00 70.00 7916.21 4302.29 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
181950. 3300.00 8077.77 4602.71 0.00 200.00 8077.77 4602.71 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
47716. 3300.00 8077.77 4602.71 0.00 200.00 8077.77 4602.71 1.00000 LID-TOP
47716. 3105.90 7371.33 4199.74 0.00 600.00 7371.33 4199.74 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
54
31756. 3105.90 7371.33 4199.74 0.00 600.00 7371.33 4199.74 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
31756. 2927.97 6754.43 3888.15 0.00 600.00 6754.43 3888.15 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
16134. 2927.97 6754.43 3888.15 0.00 600.00 6754.43 3888.15 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
16134. 2796.59 6231.80 3611.13 0.00 600.00 6231.80 3611.13 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
-652. 2796.59 6231.80 3611.13 0.00 600.00 6231.80 3611.13 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
-652. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
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36.09696
163226. 3300.00 7859.67 4271.56 0.00 70.00 7859.67 4271.56 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
163226. 3300.00 8020.07 4569.84 0.00 200.00 8020.07 4569.84 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
43678. 3300.00 8020.07 4569.84 0.00 200.00 8020.07 4569.84 1.00000 LID-TOP
43678. 3127.19 7430.95 4231.51 0.00 600.00 7430.95 4231.51 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
28930. 3127.19 7430.95 4231.51 0.00 600.00 7430.95 4231.51 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
28930. 2951.74 6811.71 3921.89 0.00 600.00 6811.71 3921.89 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
14621. 2951.74 6811.71 3921.89 0.00 600.00 6811.71 3921.89 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
14621. 2807.25 6192.46 3612.27 0.00 600.00 6192.46 3612.27 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
-1037. 2807.25 6192.46 3612.27 0.00 600.00 6192.46 3612.27 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
-1037. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
-1276. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
71188. 3300.00 8216.76 4465.63 0.00 70.00 8216.76 4465.63 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
71188. 3300.00 8384.44 4777.46 0.00 200.00 8384.44 4777.46 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
30922. 3300.00 8384.44 4777.46 0.00 200.00 8384.44 4777.46 1.00000 LID-TOP
30922. 3176.51 7450.22 4164.19 0.00 600.00 7450.22 4164.19 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
21599. 3176.51 7450.22 4164.19 0.00 600.00 7450.22 4164.19 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
21599. 2981.92 6877.68 3958.71 0.00 600.00 6877.68 3958.71 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
13500. 2981.92 6877.68 3958.71 0.00 600.00 6877.68 3958.71 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
13500. 2854.17 6391.72 3691.80 0.00 600.00 6391.72 3691.80 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
5821. 2854.17 6391.72 3691.80 0.00 600.00 6391.72 3691.80 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
5821. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-BOTTOM
4028. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-TOP
4028. 2348.27 3836.99 2021.33 0.00 600.00 3836.99 2021.33 1.00000 SEDS2-BOTTOM
1626. 2348.27 3836.99 2021.33 0.00 600.00 3836.99 2021.33 1.00000 SEDS2-TOP
55
1626. 2012.20 2228.32 787.45 0.00 600.00 2228.32 787.45 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
83. 2012.20 2228.32 787.45 0.00 600.00 2228.32 787.45 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
83. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-BOTTOM
-151. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-TOP
71188. 3300.00 8216.76 4465.63 0.00 70.00 8216.76 4465.63 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
71188. 3300.00 8384.44 4777.46 0.00 200.00 8384.44 4777.46 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
30922. 3300.00 8384.44 4777.46 0.00 200.00 8384.44 4777.46 1.00000 LID-TOP
30922. 3176.51 7450.22 4164.19 0.00 600.00 7450.22 4164.19 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
21599. 3176.51 7450.22 4164.19 0.00 600.00 7450.22 4164.19 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
21599. 2981.92 6877.68 3958.71 0.00 600.00 6877.68 3958.71 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
13500. 2981.92 6877.68 3958.71 0.00 600.00 6877.68 3958.71 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
13500. 2854.17 6391.72 3691.80 0.00 600.00 6391.72 3691.80 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
5821. 2854.17 6391.72 3691.80 0.00 600.00 6391.72 3691.80 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
5821. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-BOTTOM
4028. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-TOP
4028. 2348.27 3836.99 2021.33 0.00 600.00 3836.99 2021.33 1.00000 SEDS2-BOTTOM
1626. 2348.27 3836.99 2021.33 0.00 600.00 3836.99 2021.33 1.00000 SEDS2-TOP
1626. 2012.20 2228.32 787.45 0.00 600.00 2228.32 787.45 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
83. 2012.20 2228.32 787.45 0.00 600.00 2228.32 787.45 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
83. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-BOTTOM
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71190. 3300.00 8216.75 4465.63 0.00 70.00 8216.75 4465.63 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
71190. 3300.00 8384.43 4777.45 0.00 200.00 8384.43 4777.45 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
30921. 3300.00 8384.43 4777.45 0.00 200.00 8384.43 4777.45 1.00000 LID-TOP
30921. 3176.51 7450.23 4164.19 0.00 600.00 7450.23 4164.19 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
21598. 3176.51 7450.23 4164.19 0.00 600.00 7450.23 4164.19 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
21598. 2981.93 6877.69 3958.72 0.00 600.00 6877.69 3958.72 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
13500. 2981.93 6877.69 3958.72 0.00 600.00 6877.69 3958.72 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
13500. 2854.17 6391.71 3691.80 0.00 600.00 6391.71 3691.80 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
5822. 2854.17 6391.71 3691.80 0.00 600.00 6391.71 3691.80 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
5822. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-BOTTOM
4028. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-TOP
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4028. 2348.26 3836.97 2021.31 0.00 600.00 3836.97 2021.31 1.00000 SEDS2-BOTTOM
1626. 2348.26 3836.97 2021.31 0.00 600.00 3836.97 2021.31 1.00000 SEDS2-TOP
1626. 2012.18 2228.28 787.42 0.00 600.00 2228.28 787.42 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
83. 2012.18 2228.28 787.42 0.00 600.00 2228.28 787.42 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
83. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-BOTTOM
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212770. 3300.00 7903.71 4295.49 0.00 70.00 7903.71 4295.49 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
212770. 3300.00 8065.01 4595.45 0.00 200.00 8065.01 4595.45 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
40553. 3300.00 8065.01 4595.45 0.00 200.00 8065.01 4595.45 1.00000 LID-TOP
40553. 2929.39 6901.67 3944.45 0.00 600.00 6901.67 3944.45 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
26159. 2929.39 6901.67 3944.45 0.00 600.00 6901.67 3944.45 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
26159. 2797.68 6412.53 3699.88 0.00 600.00 6412.53 3699.88 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
11976. 2797.68 6412.53 3699.88 0.00 600.00 6412.53 3699.88 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
11976. 2705.90 6026.57 3506.90 0.00 600.00 6026.57 3506.90 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
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61385. 3300.00 8269.46 4494.27 0.00 70.00 8269.46 4494.27 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
61385. 3300.00 8438.22 4808.10 0.00 200.00 8438.22 4808.10 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
39572. 3300.00 8438.22 4808.10 0.00 200.00 8438.22 4808.10 1.00000 LID-TOP
39572. 3150.76 7440.15 4222.93 0.00 600.00 7440.15 4222.93 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
27021. 3150.76 7440.15 4222.93 0.00 600.00 7440.15 4222.93 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
27021. 2960.73 6825.47 3927.62 0.00 600.00 6825.47 3927.62 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
14773. 2960.73 6825.47 3927.62 0.00 600.00 6825.47 3927.62 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
14773. 2850.31 6468.89 3703.97 0.00 600.00 6468.89 3703.97 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
2317. 2850.31 6468.89 3703.97 0.00 600.00 6468.89 3703.97 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
2317. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-BOTTOM
1875. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-TOP
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906. 2364.64 3959.80 2103.20 0.00 600.00 3959.80 2103.20 1.00000 SEDS2-TOP
906. 2085.88 2433.00 1000.32 0.00 600.00 2433.00 1000.32 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
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57
-228. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-BOTTOM
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70169. 3300.00 8283.44 4719.91 0.00 200.00 8283.44 4719.91 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
46995. 3300.00 8283.44 4719.91 0.00 200.00 8283.44 4719.91 1.00000 LID-TOP
46995. 3116.01 7379.44 4208.22 0.00 600.00 7379.44 4208.22 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
31173. 3116.01 7379.44 4208.22 0.00 600.00 7379.44 4208.22 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
31173. 2931.04 6757.24 3888.43 0.00 600.00 6757.24 3888.43 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
15431. 2931.04 6757.24 3888.43 0.00 600.00 6757.24 3888.43 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
15431. 2820.62 6395.75 3664.23 0.00 600.00 6395.75 3664.23 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
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170587. 3300.00 7955.56 4323.68 0.00 70.00 7955.56 4323.68 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
170587. 3300.00 8117.92 4625.60 0.00 200.00 8117.92 4625.60 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
38002. 3300.00 8117.92 4625.60 0.00 200.00 8117.92 4625.60 1.00000 LID-TOP
38002. 2953.17 6917.11 3961.38 0.00 600.00 6917.11 3961.38 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
24331. 2953.17 6917.11 3961.38 0.00 600.00 6917.11 3961.38 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
24331. 2843.30 6490.30 3747.97 0.00 600.00 6490.30 3747.97 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
10326. 2843.30 6490.30 3747.97 0.00 600.00 6490.30 3747.97 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
10326. 2782.01 6245.15 3625.40 0.00 600.00 6245.15 3625.40 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
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181699. 3300.00 7922.62 4305.77 0.00 70.00 7922.62 4305.77 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
181699. 3300.00 8084.31 4606.44 0.00 200.00 8084.31 4606.44 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
36365. 3300.00 8084.31 4606.44 0.00 200.00 8084.31 4606.44 1.00000 LID-TOP
36365. 2893.15 6760.61 3877.41 0.00 600.00 6760.61 3877.41 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
22890. 2893.15 6760.61 3877.41 0.00 600.00 6760.61 3877.41 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
22890. 2793.72 6362.93 3678.57 0.00 600.00 6362.93 3678.57 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
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9419. 2744.01 6164.09 3579.15 0.00 600.00 6164.09 3579.15 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
-1057. 2744.01 6164.09 3579.15 0.00 600.00 6164.09 3579.15 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
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32.89698
170588. 3300.00 7955.56 4323.68 0.00 70.00 7955.56 4323.68 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
170588. 3300.00 8117.92 4625.60 0.00 200.00 8117.92 4625.60 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
38002. 3300.00 8117.92 4625.60 0.00 200.00 8117.92 4625.60 1.00000 LID-TOP
38002. 2953.18 6917.11 3961.38 0.00 600.00 6917.11 3961.38 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
24331. 2953.18 6917.11 3961.38 0.00 600.00 6917.11 3961.38 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
24331. 2843.30 6490.30 3747.97 0.00 600.00 6490.30 3747.97 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
10326. 2843.30 6490.30 3747.97 0.00 600.00 6490.30 3747.97 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
10326. 2782.01 6245.15 3625.40 0.00 600.00 6245.15 3625.40 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
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-916. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
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181693. 3300.00 7922.64 4305.78 0.00 70.00 7922.64 4305.78 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
181693. 3300.00 8084.32 4606.45 0.00 200.00 8084.32 4606.45 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
36365. 3300.00 8084.32 4606.45 0.00 200.00 8084.32 4606.45 1.00000 LID-TOP
36365. 2893.16 6760.65 3877.43 0.00 600.00 6760.65 3877.43 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
22891. 2893.16 6760.65 3877.43 0.00 600.00 6760.65 3877.43 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
22891. 2793.74 6362.96 3678.59 0.00 600.00 6362.96 3678.59 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
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9419. 2744.03 6164.12 3579.17 0.00 600.00 6164.12 3579.17 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
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13119. 2983.69 6882.58 3961.80 0.00 600.00 6882.58 3961.80 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
13119. 2851.78 6365.06 3684.45 0.00 600.00 6365.06 3684.45 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
6640. 2851.78 6365.06 3684.45 0.00 600.00 6365.06 3684.45 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
6640. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-BOTTOM
4513. 2540.00 5000.00 2880.00 0.00 600.00 5000.00 2880.00 1.00000 SEDS3-TOP
4513. 2343.54 3801.55 1997.70 0.00 600.00 3801.55 1997.70 1.00000 SEDS2-BOTTOM
1771. 2343.54 3801.55 1997.70 0.00 600.00 3801.55 1997.70 1.00000 SEDS2-TOP
1771. 1990.93 2169.24 726.01 0.00 600.00 2169.24 726.01 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
152. 1990.93 2169.24 726.01 0.00 600.00 2169.24 726.01 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
152. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-BOTTOM
-125. 1020.00 1500.00 0.00 0.00 600.00 1500.00 0.00 1.00000 WATER-TOP
161651. 3300.00 7865.24 4274.58 0.00 70.00 7865.24 4274.58 1.00000 ASTHENO-TOP
161651. 3300.00 8025.75 4573.08 0.00 200.00 8025.75 4573.08 1.00000 LID-BOTTOM
40318. 3300.00 8025.75 4573.08 0.00 200.00 8025.75 4573.08 1.00000 LID-TOP 40318. 3041.00
7183.92 4101.06 0.00 600.00 7183.92 4101.06 1.00000 CRUST3-BOTTOM
26178. 3041.00 7183.92 4101.06 0.00 600.00 7183.92 4101.06 1.00000 CRUST3-TOP
66
26178. 2893.64 6646.53 3832.36 0.00 600.00 6646.53 3832.36 1.00000 CRUST2-BOTTOM
12298. 2893.64 6646.53 3832.36 0.00 600.00 6646.53 3832.36 1.00000 CRUST2-TOP
12298. 2784.18 6182.67 3600.43 0.00 600.00 6182.67 3600.43 1.00000 CRUST1-BOTTOM
-1184. 2784.18 6182.67 3600.43 0.00 600.00 6182.67 3600.43 1.00000 CRUST1-TOP
-1184. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-BOTTOM
-1413. 2110.00 2500.00 1070.00 0.00 600.00 2500.00 1070.00 1.00000 SEDS1-TOP
sanga@fadhili-Latitude-E6420:~/Desktop/litho1.0/LITHO1.0$
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Normal Orthometric Heights To Actual Orthometric Heights For Tplndissertation 2021

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Normal Orthometric Heights To Actual Orthometric Heights For Tplndissertation 2021

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CERTIFICATION

Dr. P. E. ULOTU Mr. HUMPHREY BUSEGA

(Supervisor) (Assistant Supervisor)

Date: ………………………. Date: ………………………........

SANGA FADHILI, ALEX

CHAMP Challenging Minisatellite Payload

d.ddd Decimal degree

DGST Department of Geospatial Science and Technology

d/o Degree and Order

FBMs Fundamental Bench Marks

GGM Global Gravitational Model

GNSS Global Navigation Satellite Systems

GPS Global Positioning System

GMT Generic Mapping Tool

GOCE Gravity field and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer

GGA Gravity and Geoid for Africa

GRACE Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment

HOH Helmert Orthometric Height

HOHs Helmert Orthometric Heights

IBMs Intermediate bench marks

ICGEM International Center of Global Earth Models

IAG International Association of Geodesy

IGF International Gravity Formula

IGSN International Gravity Standardization Network

LITHO1.0 An updated crust and lithospheric model of the Earth at 1˚×1˚resolution

MSL Mean Sea Level

MATLAB Matrix Laboratory

NOH Normal Orthometric Height

NOHs Normal Orthometric Heights

NGA USA National Geospatial Agency

RMS Root Mean Square

S/N Serial Number

SRTM Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission

TPLN Tanzania Primary Levelling Network

TGDB Tanzania Gravity Database

TZG Tanzania Gravimetric Geoid Model

TZQ Tanzania Quasi Geoid Model

XGM Experimental Gravity Model

1.4 Research Objectives

1.4.2 Specific Objective

iii) Computation of Helmert Orthometric heights (HOHs) of TPLN BMs.

iv) Computation of surface gravity of TPLN BMs.

1.7 Scope and Limitations

1.8 Study Area

Figure 1-2: Available TPLN BMs to be used in this research

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.1 TPLN Benchmarks

2.2 Physical Height Systems

2.2.1 Geopotential Number (C)

C is Geopotential number, Wo is Potential on the Geoid, w is Potential of a point on the surface of

2.2.2 Orthometric Height

Figure 2-2: Definition of Orthometric height (Featherstone & Kuhn, 2006)

Where H N−O is Normal orthometric height,C , is Spheropotential number, 𝜸 is Normal gravity.

where gs is Observed Gravity at the topographic Surface, F is Free-air gravity gradient, G is

2.2.3 Normal Height

2.2.4 Dynamic Height

2.3 Overview of Gravity in Tanzania

2.3.1 Terrestrial Gravity

2.3.2 Marine Gravity

2.3.3 Aerial Gravity

2.4 Gravity Reduction

2.4.1 Free Air Gravity Reduction

2.4.3 Poincare-Prey Gravity Reduction