907045

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ADHXXX10.1177/1523422320907045Advances in Developing Human ResourcesRiantoputra and Muis

Article
Advances in Developing Human

New Insights on Psychological

Resources
2020, Vol. 22(2) 150­–163
© The Author(s) 2020
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of Women Entrepreneurs DOI: 10.1177/1523422320907045
https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422320907045
journals.sagepub.com/home/adh
in Indonesia

Corina D. Riantoputra1 and Ismarli Muis2

Abstract
The Problem.
Despite efforts to develop women entrepreneurs in Indonesia, the majority of them
are unable to grow their businesses. The literature suggests that cultural factors (i.e.,
non-egalitarian sex roles) may limit the actualization of psychological factors that are
critical for their successes.
The Solution.
To investigate the motivation, challenges, and opportunities facing women
entrepreneurs in Indonesia, this article focused on (a) characteristics of women
entrepreneurs based on their motives: necessity- versus growth-oriented, and
(b) psychological factors that influence their success. Focusing on micro and small
enterprises, we collected data from 200 (87 necessity-oriented, and 113 growth-
oriented) women entrepreneurs in Indonesia. The study findings demonstrate that
the success of women entrepreneurs in Indonesia is associated with their identity
conflict (i.e., induced by non-egalitarian sex-role culture), passion, and future time
orientation, all of which interplay differently for necessity- and growth-oriented
women entrepreneurs.
The Stakeholders.
This article is important for scholars, practitioners, and government officers in a
non-egalitarian sex-role country like Indonesia. It informs involved stakeholders of
the specific aspects that need to be considered in coaching and leadership training for
women entrepreneurs who are managing micro and small enterprises.

1
Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
2
Universitas Negeri Makassar, Indonesia

Corresponding Author:
Corina D. Riantoputra, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus Baru UI-Depok, Jawa Barat 16424, Indonesia.
Email: corina.r@ui.ac.id
Riantoputra and Muis 151

Keywords
women entrepreneurs, psychological factors, necessity- and growth-oriented
motives, women leaders, identity conflict, Indonesia

Women entrepreneurs are key to the development of micro, small, and medium enter-
prises (MSMEs) in Indonesia because 60% of MSMEs are managed by women (The
World Bank, 2016). Although there are many developmental efforts directed to
improve their financial literacy and administrative skills, many of these women are
still unable to grow their businesses. Studies show that most women entrepreneurs in
MSMEs tend not to save for the future (The World Bank, 2016), direct capital intended
for their businesses to family members or community networks (Blattman et al., 2013;
Buvinić & Furst-Nichols, 2014), and lack proclivity to grow (Arsana & Alibhai, 2016).
Previous studies indicate that to empower women entrepreneurs, there is a need to
understand the reasons for their inability to take advantage of their skills for the growth
of their businesses. To that end, we argue for the need to pay more attention to the
psychological side of entrepreneurship (Frese et al., 2016) and to how its actualization
may depend on the culture.

Problem Statement
Research shows that one key reason for the lack of proclivity in the growth of women
entrepreneurs in Indonesia concerns their motives, which are categorized as growth-
oriented and necessity-oriented (Muis, 2017). In contrast to growth-oriented entrepre-
neurs, who demonstrate ability and willingness to expand their enterprises, necessity
women entrepreneurs are those who engage in entrepreneurial activities due to the
lack of alternatives and who are unlikely to change their business trajectory (Block &
Wagner, 2010). Arguably, necessity-oriented entrepreneurs are more prone to kin-tax
that directs their capital for their extended family and capital diversion, due to a lack
of motives to grow their business. Because of the importance of motives for the suc-
cess of women entrepreneurs in Indonesia, the purpose of this study was to portray and
discuss the characteristics of women entrepreneurs in Indonesia based on the two
motives. In this study, women entrepreneurs are defined as women who launch and
actively manage their businesses and have been doing it for a year or longer in MSMEs
in Indonesia. The success of women entrepreneurs refers to the extent of their entre-
preneurial behaviors (De Jong et al., 2013), which focus on the degree of their imple-
mentation of innovative ideas.
Another purpose of the study was to investigate the interplay of motives and psy-
chological factors in influencing the success of women entrepreneurs. This investiga-
tion will use the self-regulatory theory consisting of promotion and prevention
regulatory focus (Higgins, 1998). Focus on promotion is triggered by the desire to
achieve an ideal self and potential gains (Higgins & Cornwell, 2016). People behave
to achieve their aspirations, hopes, and ideas regarding whom they want to be or their
152 Advances in Developing Human Resources 22(2)

ideal selves. Prevention focus, on the contrary, can be explained as behaviors that are
triggered by the desire to avoid punishment, satisfy their obligations and duties, and
meet the ideas of what they should do (Higgins & Cornwell, 2016). Furthermore, these
authors explain that when individuals unable to achieve their aspirations and hope
(i.e., promotion focus is not achieved), individuals experience sadness and discourage-
ment. However, if prevention focus is not achieved (meaning that individuals fail to
achieve their obligations and duties), they may experience anxiety and tension, even
guilt.

Literature Review
Research on entrepreneurship highlights the importance of two traits: entrepreneurial
passion and future time orientation. Given the context of this study, women-entrepre-
neur identity conflict (WEIC) is also taken into consideration.

Passion
While passion refers to “a strong inclination toward an activity that people like, that
they find important, and in which they invest time and energy” (Vallerand et al., 2003,
p. 756), entrepreneurial passion is related to a strong preference to entrepreneurial
activities. Based on the promotion and prevention of self-regulatory focus theory, indi-
viduals with entrepreneurial passion define their goal in terms of entrepreneurial
achievements and direct their activities accordingly. Cardon et al. (2009) argued that
passion is a critical element for entrepreneurial behaviors as it activates cognitive pro-
cessing, mobilizes energy, and strengthens commitment during difficult times.
Research also shows a positive relationship between passion and entrepreneurial suc-
cess (Bao et al., 2017; Murnieks et al., 2012; Thorgen & Wincent, 2015). Thus, we
hypothesize (see Figure 1) the following:

Hypothesis 1: Entrepreneurial passion is positively related to entrepreneurial

success.

Identity Conflict
Research shows that passion does not work alone. Its influence on performance is the
result of its interaction with identity (Lin & Chen, 2016). In their analysis of the life
story of 45 entrepreneurs, Yitshaki and Kropp (2016) demonstrated how high-tech
entrepreneurs and sociopreneurs who operate in different contexts attribute different
meanings for their passion. They conclude that passion is subjectively intertwined
with identities and differs across categories of entrepreneurs.
Depart from the previous studies that investigated the interaction between passion
and entrepreneurial identity (Murnieks et al., 2012), the current study focuses on the
conflict of identity—between identity as women and entrepreneurs—which is called
women-entrepreneur identity conflict. WEIC refers to a sense a discrepancy in their
Riantoputra and Muis 153

Figure 1. Research model.

identity as women and as entrepreneurs (Karelaia & Guillen, 2014), and thus, we
argue that this conflict may buffer the actualization of women entrepreneurial passion,
especially in a non-egalitarian culture. Although in Indonesia traditional culture coex-
ists with achievements of some women as senior managers (Riantoputra & Gatari,
2017), we argue that most women entrepreneurs who manage micro and small busi-
nesses function in a non-egalitarian sex-role culture. In a study of 163 women leaders,
Primagita and Riantoputra (2019) demonstrated that in a culture that emphasizes men
as the ultimate authoritative figures, women tend to feel inferior and suffer from iden-
tity conflict.
In light of the self-regulatory focus theory (Higgins & Cornwell, 2016), this culture
shapes the obligation and duties of women primarily in the domestic area. It structures
the expectations for women to prioritize their families at the expense of their careers
or businesses, making them more susceptible to divert their capital for families or
other people’s needs. Applying regulatory focus theory, it suggests that women entre-
preneurs tend to apply prevention focus. Their tendency to divert their capital for fami-
lies or other people’s needs may be an expression of their way to achieving their ought
self, that is, their obligation as induced by non-egalitarian sex-role culture, and to
avoid disapproval and punishment from their extended family. Research shows that
poorer women entrepreneurs are more likely to be subjected to a kin-tax where they
direct capital intended for their businesses to family members or community networks
(Buvinić & Furst-Nichols, 2014).
Thus, we hypothesize (Figure 1) the following:

Hypothesis 2: WEIC buffers the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and

entrepreneurial success in that higher conflict reduces the strength of the relation-
ship between passion and entrepreneurial success.
154 Advances in Developing Human Resources 22(2)

Future Time Orientation

Besides passion, long-term orientation is critical for entrepreneurial success (Lumpkin
& Brigham, 2011). Time orientation represents an individual’s relation to time as “a
non-conscious process whereby individuals parcel their personal and social experi-
ences into temporal categories” (Zhang et al., 2013, p. 3), which consist of past, pres-
ent, and future orientation. In this study, we will focus on future time orientation,
because future orientation is substantial in entrepreneurial activities, as it assists exec-
utives to counteract myopia and focus on value-enhancing activities (Flammer &
Bansal, 2017). Empirical research shows that future orientation is related to innova-
tiveness and proactiveness (Lumpkin et al., 2010), and to the increase of firm values
(Flammer & Bansal, 2017).
Thus, we hypothesize (Figure 1) the following:

Hypothesis 3: Future orientation is positively associated with entrepreneurial

success.

Method
We chose to survey to collect data from women entrepreneurs who launched and are
managing their businesses.

Participants
Using convenience sampling from three provinces in Indonesia (i.e., West Java,
Middle Java, and South Sulawesi), we collected data from 202 women entrepreneurs
who are founders, owners, and managers of their businesses. However two partici-
pants did not answer the questions related to their motive. Thus only 200 participants
categorized as growth- and necessity entrepreneurs. The questionnaires were adminis-
tered as a face-to-face paper survey. Enumerator assistance was utilized for low-edu-
cated participants who needed assistance in understanding the questionnaires. The
participants were appreciated by souvenirs. The average age was 38.2 years old, most
of them had no university education (62.4%), and most had never experienced any
training to empower them as entrepreneurs (71.78%).

Categorization of Women Entrepreneurs’ Motives

The necessity and growth entrepreneurs were identified based on the categoriza-
tion by Block and Wagner (2010). In this study, participants were asked, “What is
(are) the reason(s) for your decision to become an entrepreneur?” Necessity entre-
preneurs were those who chose one of these reasons: (a) no other job choice, (b)
job losses, (c) my workplace is closed, and (d) to increase the existing income. The
growth-oriented entrepreneurs were those who chose (a) to take advantage of busi-
ness opportunities and (b) to have full freedom. Data show that 87 (43%)
Riantoputra and Muis 155

participants were necessity entrepreneurs, and 113 (55.94%) participants were

growth entrepreneurs.

Measurement Variables
Entrepreneurial success, entrepreneurial passion, WEIC, and future time orientation
were measured on a 6-point Likert-type scale (rated 1 = “strongly disagree” to 6 =
“strongly agree”). We translated the scales to Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian language)
and did the back-to-back translation to make sure that the meaning of each item is
identical with their original item.
Drawing on De Jong et al. (2013), entrepreneurial success was assessed with five
items (improved current products/services, introduced entirely new products/services,
improved current work practices, introduced entirely new work practices, and realized
organizational change) with Cronbach’s alpha .79. Entrepreneurial passion was mea-
sured on five items by Vallerand et al. (2003), including “I spend much time doing this
activity” with Cronbach’s alpha .85. WEIC was assessed based on Karelaia and
Guillen (2014), including “I think that I am not influential enough because I am a
woman” with Cronbach’s alpha .74. Future time orientation was measured based on
Zhang et al. (2013), including “Meeting tomorrow’s deadlines and doing other neces-
sary work comes before tonight’s play” with Cronbach’s alpha .79.

Findings
Table 1 presents the results of a descriptive statistical analysis of total participants,
necessity-oriented, and growth-oriented entrepreneurs. It shows that the education of
most necessity-oriented entrepreneurs was a non-university level (64 participants or
74%), whereas the education level of growth-oriented women entrepreneurs was univer-
sity level (60 participants or 53.9%). The differences in education level indicate the dif-
ferences in their ability to analyze and problem-solving of these two categories of women
entrepreneurs. Their ability to understand business challenges may be worsening because
most women entrepreneurs never get any coaching to improve their businesses.
Because of non-egalitarian sex roles in Indonesia, we analyzed to what extent
women entrepreneurs receive support from their husbands. Table 1 shows that,
although the majority of respondents reported their husbands as supportive or very
supportive (157 participants or 75%–80%), only approximately 25% of respondents
(50 participants) reported that their husbands were willing to care for their children.
The current data also indicate that only approximately 60% of respondents (120 par-
ticipants) reported gaining permission from their husbands to be entrepreneurs.
Table 1 shows that participants had a similar psychological profile in terms of pas-
sion, future time orientation, and entrepreneurial success. The only significant differ-
ence was the reported WEIC: Necessity-oriented entrepreneur reported a significantly
higher level of WEIC (tvalue = 2.32, p < .05). Furthermore, there is no difference in the
level of entrepreneurial success of both groups, which most likely occurred due to the
subjective measure of entrepreneurial success.
156 Advances in Developing Human Resources 22(2)

Table 1. Results of Descriptive Statistical Analysis.

Total Necessity Growth

entrepreneurs entrepreneurs entrepreneurs
Characteristics M (frequency) (frequency) (frequency)
Category
Necessity 87
Growth 113
Missing data 2
Formal education
Non-university 126 64 60
University 76 23 53
Has attended training/coaching
Yes 55 24 31
No 145 63 82
Supported by husband
Very not supportive 1 0 1
Not supportive 2 2 0
Neutral 9 5 4
Supportive 44 20 23
Very supportive 113 51 62
Not relevanta 3
Missing data 30
Type of husband’s support
Provide permission 120 57 63
Helping the business 121 55 65
Taking care of their children 50 22 28
Mean passion 5.09 5.08 5.10
Mean future time orientation 3.84 3.87 3.81
Mean WEIC 2.14 2.26 2.04
Mean entrepreneurial success 4.13 4.04 4.21

Note. WEIC = women-entrepreneur identity conflict.

a
Data were not relevant due to the absence of husbands.

Furthermore, we ran Pearson’s correlation analysis to investigate which variable

had a zero-order correlation with entrepreneurial success. Table 2 demonstrates that
education and participation in coaching and training significantly influenced entrepre-
neurial success. Thus, we controlled these variables, as well as motives, in the regres-
sion analysis (see Table 3).
Table 3 shows that the model can explain 30% variance in entrepreneurial success
for the necessity entrepreneurs and 34% variance in entrepreneurial success for the
growth entrepreneurs. After controlling the effect of education, motives, as well as par-
ticipation in coaching and training, Table 3 demonstrates that passion significantly
influenced entrepreneurial success; therefore, Hypothesis 1 was supported. It suggests
Riantoputra and Muis 157

Table 2. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations.

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Motive — — 1
2. Education — — .30** 1
3. Age 38.2 10.4 −.17* −.36** 1
4. Participation in training/ — — −.01 .25** −.06 1
coaching
5. Husband’s support 4.57 0.70 .05 −.03 .03 −.08 1
6. WEIC 2.14 0.67 −.16* −.23** −.11 .07 −.32** 1
7. Passion 5.09 0.68 .01 .02 −.02 −.15* .22** −.34** 1
8. Future time orientation 3.84 0.77 −.04 .14* −.08 .06 −.02 −.07 .23** 1
9. Entrepreneurial success 4.13 0.91 .09 .35** −.13 .15* .13 −.21** .31** .37**

Note. WEIC = women-entrepreneur identity conflict.

*p < .05. **p < .01.

that the higher the passion, the more likely women entrepreneurs achieve success.
Future time orientation also significantly influenced entrepreneurial success; therefore,
Hypothesis 3 was supported. This result indicates that those who can plan for the future
tend to be more successful.
It should be noted, however, that the positive relationship between passion and
future orientation with entrepreneurial success is not evidenced in necessity-orientated
entrepreneurs. For them, the only significant factors are education and the interaction
between passion and WEIC. This result indicates that factors influencing entrepre-
neurial success for growth-oriented entrepreneurs are different from that for necessity-
oriented entrepreneurs. For necessity-oriented entrepreneurs, the significant effect of
passion and future time orientation is hidden after WEIC is entered into the analysis
(Table 3: Models 2 and 3 for necessity entrepreneurs). For growth-oriented entrepre-
neurs, the influence of passion and future time orientation are still evident in the final
model (Table 3: Models 2 and 3 for growth entrepreneurs).
Table 3 also shows that WEIC moderates the impact of passion on entrepreneurial
success. However, the direction is not as expected. Slope analysis demonstrates that
WEIC suppresses the strength of the relationship between passion and entrepreneurs’
success, especially for women with low WEIC (Figure 2). Thus, for women with low
WEIC, higher passion does not relate to higher success. On the contrary, for women
with a high level of identity conflict, identity conflict strengthens the role of passion
for success. It seems that women with high WEIC tend to overcompensate the conflict
that they experience by working harder to achieve higher success.

Implications for Human Resource Development (HRD)

In this study, we investigated psychological factors critical for developing women
entrepreneurs in Indonesia. Based on the findings, we answered two research ques-
tions of this study and contributed to the advancement of theory and practice.
158 Advances in Developing Human Resources 22(2)

Table 3. Regression Analysis of Women Entrepreneurs’ Success.

Outcome variable: Entrepreneurs’ success

Necessity
Total entrepreneurs entrepreneurs Growth entrepreneurs
Model Model Model

Variable 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Education .33** .26** .28** .28* .30** .28** .35** .21* .23**
Participation in .05 .09 .10 −.01 −.04 .02 .10 .20* .20*
training/coaching
Motive −.01 .01 −.01
Passion .23** .21** .27* .15 .25** .26**
Future orientation .27** .24** .23* .16 .31** .30**
WEIC −.04 −.04 −.01 −.06 −.06 −.05
WEIC × Passion .18** .27* .13
R2 .11 .28 .31 .08 .25 .30 .15 .33 .34
ΔR .11 .16 .03 .08 .17 .04 .15 .18 .01
F 8.58 14.78 8.12 3.57 6.04 5.24 9.55 9.47 2.65
df1, df2 3, 190 3, 187 1, 186 2, 80 3, 77 1, 76 2, 108 3, 105 1, 104

Note. WEIC = women-entrepreneur identity conflict.

*p < .05. **p < .01.

Figure 2. Slope analysis with WEIC as a moderator between passion and entrepreneurs’
success.
Note. WEIC = women-entrepreneur identity conflict.
Riantoputra and Muis 159

Implications for Research

The current study has contributed to the literature on women entrepreneurs in at
least two aspects. First, although the characteristics of necessity- and growth-ori-
ented women entrepreneurs tend to be similar, this study revealed that the dynamic
interplay of variables affecting their success is different. Specifically, the signifi-
cant factors influencing the success of growth-oriented entrepreneurs were related
to psychological factors, which are passion and future time orientation. On the
contrary, the success of necessity-oriented entrepreneurs depends on structural fac-
tors, which are education and non-egalitarian sex-role culture resulting in WEIC. It
seems that non-egalitarian sex-role culture has put constraints on their freedom to
choose activities and heightened the guilt of committing to entrepreneurial activi-
ties. As empowerment strategies for entrepreneurs tend not to pay enough attention
to the psychological side (Frese et al., 2016), this new insight bears powerful
impacts on HRD strategies.
Second, this study advances self-regulatory theory (Higgins & Cornwell, 2016) by
showing that necessity entrepreneurs and growth entrepreneurs tend to apply different
regulatory focus. Data suggest that growth entrepreneurs applied promotion focus by
actualizing passion and future time orientation to achieve success. However, for neces-
sity entrepreneurs, a variable that is hypothesized to inhibit women entrepreneurs (i.e.,
women entrepreneurs’ conflict) may instead activate passion, energize, and mobilize
women to perform better. It shows that the higher the identity conflict, the higher their
performance, suggesting that necessity-oriented women entrepreneurs tend to apply
prevention focus and thus to overcompensate identity conflict by pushing themselves
to perform better. It could be that overcompensating is their coping strategy to deal
with the guilt feeling that is imposed on them by the non-egalitarian sex-role culture.
This finding advances the argument that a context attributes meaning for entrepreneur-
ial passion (Yitshaki & Kropp, 2016) by providing support for the argument that iden-
tity conflict may accelerate passion for necessity entrepreneurs. The current study
calls for future research to do a longitudinal study to investigate the long-term effect
of the tendency of necessity entrepreneurs to overcompensate their identity conflict
with increased effort to achieve higher performance.

Implications for Practice

The study findings significantly assist leadership training and coaching for women
entrepreneurs by informing that coaching and leadership training should be directed to
address different aspects of necessity- and growth-oriented entrepreneurs. The essen-
tial aspect of necessity entrepreneurs is their identity conflict as women and as entre-
preneurs. Thus, entrepreneurial coaching for women should go beyond assisting them
to do time management (i.e., managing different activities related to different roles) as
advised by work–family conflict literature. Although time management could be ben-
eficial, the most pressing need for necessity entrepreneurs is to find peace with their
multiple identities, such as identities as women, as entrepreneurs, as wives, and as
160 Advances in Developing Human Resources 22(2)

mothers. In a non-egalitarian sex-role culture, such as Indonesia, women tend to see

their multiple identities as separated and unrelated even in conflict one to another.
Coaching may be substantial in assisting women entrepreneurs in accepting and inte-
grating their multiple identities, as women entrepreneurs would perform better when
they understand and integrate their multiple identities (De Massis et al., 2018). Women
entrepreneurs should not do psychological separation (i.e., perceiving their multiple
identities as separated and unrelated), because it may lead to low well-being (Settles
et al., 2002). Instead, coaches can help women entrepreneurs to embrace their identities
as entrepreneurs and integrate these identities with their identities as mothers. For exam-
ple, women entrepreneurs need to see that being entrepreneurs may increase the value of
their identities as mothers, because women entrepreneurs can assist the financial needs
of their children and can become role models for creativity and resilience. The identities
as women and as entrepreneurs should not be in conflict. Instead, these identities should
be integrated, and each identity should reinforce the value of the other identity.
Furthermore, a critical part of the management of WEIC is empowering women
entrepreneurs with tools to renegotiate their identities with their husbands, as Primagita
and Riantoputra (2019) showed that patriarchal belief positively related to identity
conflict among women. The current data set demonstrates that although the majority
of women entrepreneurs reported that their husbands supported them, only a small
number of husbands were willing to care for the children when the wives were running
their businesses. It appears that the husbands’ supports tend to be limited to providing
permission for their wives to work or to do business. Although this kind of permission
is essential for women in a non-egalitarian sex-role culture, it is not enough. Women
entrepreneurs need to be equipped to renegotiate what kind of support that they need
to be able to actualize their identities as entrepreneurs and as women. Parallel to it,
HRD strategies may want to conduct workshops to change the patriarchal mind-set of
the husbands of women entrepreneurs so that these husbands are ready to embrace
different kinds of interactions, obligations, and expectancies between husbands and
wives, as discussed by Steiner et al. (2018).
Finally, the current data set shows the importance of education and participation in
coaching and training for all types of women entrepreneurs in Indonesia and other
similar cultures. To encourage entrepreneurial passion, HRD strategies may want to
provide role models for women entrepreneurs. Trainers, on the contrary, may want to
refer to action-based improvement training for the development of entrepreneurial
mind-set (Frese et al., 2016). It is a short intervention strategy (i.e., 36 hr of face-to-
face training) that is found to be effective in increasing the agentic nature of entrepre-
neurship, by changing the mind-sets of the entrepreneurs. This training involves
long-term orientation, puts passion and ideas into effect, and involves active feedback-
seeking (Frese et al., 2016).

Study Limitations
This study has several limitations. First, it used a subjective measure of entrepreneur-
ial success that could mask the objective success of women entrepreneurs and factors
Riantoputra and Muis 161

influencing it. Second, the cross-sectional nature of the research design limits the con-
clusion of causality. Despite its limitations, a large number of participants, the use of
enumerators to collect data, and the good scales provide convincing data useful to
progress knowledge and to enrich practices.

Conclusion
This article aims to understand the motivation, challenges, and opportunities in
Indonesia. Employing a survey with good reliability scores, this study advances
understanding of women entrepreneurship by showing that the two categories of
women entrepreneurs possess similar psychological attributes, but the interplay of
those variables generates different factors that are important for the success of dif-
ferent groups. In other words, the current study uncovers the interplay of the motiva-
tion and challenges of women entrepreneurs in a non-egalitarian sex role. These
findings are significant for HRD strategies in Indonesia and other countries facing
similar challenges. Developmental strategies, such as coaching and leadership train-
ing, should focus on different aspects of women entrepreneurs—necessity- or
growth-oriented entrepreneurs included.
Furthermore, the current study contributes to the literature on self-regulatory focus
theory by indicating that factors that perform as activators or inhibitors are subjective
for different contexts. In this study, WEIC that was hypothesized to act as inhibitors
turned out to be an accelerator of the relationship between passion and success for
necessity-oriented entrepreneurs. However, this acceleration suggests an overcompen-
sation of identity conflict, which may result in stress and burnout in the long term. This
finding suggests the complexity of factors influencing women entrepreneurs in non-
egalitarian sex-role countries, not limited to Indonesia.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/
or publication of this article: The author received financial support from Universitas Indonesia.

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Author Biographies
Corina D. Riantoputra holds a doctoral degree from the University of New South Wales,
Australia, and currently serves as an associate professor in Universitas Indonesia.
Ismarli Muis is an associate professor in Universitas Negeri Makassar (UNM), Indonesia. She
holds a doctorate in research on the entrepreneurial success of opportunity- and necessity-based
entrepreneur.