Corporate social

responsibility

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) or corporate social impact is a form of international

private business self-regulation[1] which aims to contribute to societal goals of a
philanthropic, activist, or charitable nature by engaging in, with, or supporting professional
service volunteering through pro bono programs, community development, administering
monetary grants to non-profit organizations for the public benefit, or to conduct ethically
oriented business and investment practices.[2][3] While once it was possible to describe CSR
as an internal organizational policy or a corporate ethic strategy[4] similar to what is now
known today as Environmental, Social, Governance (ESG); that time has passed as various
companies have pledged to go beyond that or have been mandated or incentivized by
governments to have a better impact on the surrounding community. In addition, national and
international standards, laws, and business models have been developed to facilitate and
incentivize this phenomenon. Various organizations have used their authority to push it
beyond individual or industry-wide initiatives. In contrast, it has been considered a form of
corporate self-regulation[5] for some time, over the last decade or so it has moved
considerably from voluntary decisions at the level of individual organizations to mandatory
schemes at regional, national, and international levels. Moreover, scholars and firms are
using the term "creating shared value", an extension of corporate social responsibility, to
explain ways of doing business in a socially responsible way while making profits (see the
detailed review article of Menghwar and Daood, 2021).[6]
 Employees of a leasing firm taking time off
their regular jobs to build a house for
Habitat for Humanity, a non-profit that
builds homes for needy families using
volunteers.

Considered at the organisational level, CSR is generally understood as a strategic initiative

that contributes to a brand's reputation.[7] As such, social responsibility initiatives must
coherently align with and be integrated into a business model to be successful. With some
models, a firm's implementation of CSR goes beyond compliance with regulatory
requirements and engages in "actions that appear to further some social good, beyond the
interests of the firm and that which is required by law".[8]

Furthermore, businesses may engage in CSR for strategic or ethical purposes. From a
strategic perspective, CSR can contribute to firm profits, particularly if brands voluntarily self-
report both the positive and negative outcomes of their endeavors.[9] In part, these benefits
accrue by increasing positive public relations and high ethical standards to reduce business
and legal risk by taking responsibility for corporate actions. CSR strategies encourage the
company to make a positive impact on the environment and stakeholders including
consumers, employees, investors, communities, and others.[10] From an ethical perspective,
some businesses will adopt CSR policies and practices because of the ethical beliefs of
senior management: for example, the CEO of outdoor-apparel company Patagonia, Inc.
argues that harming the environment is ethically objectionable.[11]

Proponents argue that corporations increase long-term profits by operating with a CSR
perspective, while critics argue that CSR distracts from businesses' economic role. A 2000
study compared existing econometric studies of the relationship between social and financial
performance, concluding that the contradictory results of previous studies reporting positive,
negative, and neutral financial impact were due to flawed empirical analysis and claimed
when the study is properly specified, CSR has a neutral impact on financial outcomes.[12]
Critics[13][14] have questioned the "lofty" and sometimes "unrealistic expectations" of CSR,[15]
or observed that CSR is merely window-dressing, or an attempt to pre-empt the role of
governments as a watchdog over powerful multinational corporations. In line with this critical
perspective, political and sociological institutionalists became interested in CSR in the
context of theories of globalization, neoliberalism, and late capitalism.

Definition

The pyramid of corporate social

responsibility

Since the 1960s,[16] corporate social responsibility has attracted attention from a range of
businesses and stakeholders and been referred to by a number of other terms, including
"corporate sustainability", "sustainable business", "corporate conscience", "corporate
citizenship",[17] "purpose", "social impact", "conscious capitalism", and "responsible
business".[18][19][20]

A wide variety of definitions have been developed, but with little consensus. Part of the
definition problem has arisen because of the different interests represented. A business
person may define CSR as a business strategy, an NGO activist may see it as 'greenwash'
while a government official may see it as voluntary regulation.[1] "In addition, disagreement
about the definition will arise from the disciplinary approach."[1] For example, while an
economist might consider the director's discretion necessary for CSR to be implemented a
risk of agency costs, a law academic may consider that discretion to be an appropriate
expression of what the law demands from directors. In the 1930s, two law professors, A. A.
Berle and Merrick Dodd, famously debated how directors should be made to uphold the
public interest: Berle believed there had to be legally enforceable rules in favor of labor,
customers and the public equal to or ahead of shareholders, while Dodd argued that powers
of directors were simply held on trust.[21][22]

Corporate social responsibility was defined by Sheehy as "international private business self-
regulation".[1] Sheehy examined a range of different disciplinary approaches to defining CSR.
The definitions reviewed included the economic definition of "sacrificing profits", a
management definition of "beyond compliance", institutionalist views of CSR as a "socio-
political movement," and the law's focus on directors' duties. Further, Sheehy considered
Archie B. Carroll's description of CSR as a pyramid of responsibilities, namely, economic,
legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities.[23] While Carroll was not defining CSR, but
simply arguing for the classification of activities, Sheehy developed a definition differently
following the philosophy of science—the branch of philosophy used for explaining
phenomena.

Carroll extended corporate social responsibility from the traditional economic and legal
responsibility to ethical and philanthropic responsibility in response to the rising concerns on
ethical issues in businesses.[23] This view is reflected in the Business Dictionary that defines
CSR as "a company's sense of responsibility towards the community and environment (both
ecological and social) in which it operates. Companies express this citizenship (1) through
their waste and pollution reduction processes, (2) by contributing educational and social
programs, and (3) by earning adequate returns on the employed resources."[24][25]

Consumer perspectives

Businesses have changed when the public came to expect and require different
behavior [...] I predict that in the future, just as in the past, changes in public
attitudes will be essential for changes in businesses' environmental practices.

— Jared Diamond, "Big

businesses and the
environment"[26]
Most consumers agree that while achieving business targets, companies should engage in
CSR efforts at the same time.[27] Most consumers believe companies doing charity work will
receive a positive response.[28] Somerville also found that consumers are loyal and willing to
spend more on retailers that support charity. Consumers also believe that retailers selling
local products will gain loyalty.[29] Smith (2013)[30] shares the belief that marketing local
products will gain consumer trust. However, environmental efforts are receiving negative
views, given the belief that this would affect customer service.[29] Oppewal et al. (2006) found
that not all CSR activities are attractive to consumers.[31] They recommended that retailers
focus on one activity.[32] Becker-Olsen (2006)[33] found that if the social initiative done by the
company is not aligned with other company goals it will have a negative impact. Mohr et al.
(2001)[34] and Groza et al. (2011)[35] also emphasise the importance of reaching the
consumer.

Approaches

CSR approaches

Some commentators have identified a difference between the Canadian (Montreal school of
CSR), the Continental European, and the Anglo-Saxon approaches to CSR.[36] It has been
described that for Chinese consumers a socially responsible company makes safe, high-
quality products;[37] for Germans it provides secure employment; in South Africa it makes a
positive contribution to social needs such as health care and education.[38] Even within
Europe, the discussion about CSR is very heterogeneous.[39]

A more common approach to CSR is corporate philanthropy. This includes monetary

donations and aid given to nonprofit organizations and communities. Donations are made in
areas such as the arts, education, housing, health, social welfare, and the environment,
among others, but excluding political contributions and commercial event sponsorship.[40]
Another approach to CSR is to incorporate the CSR strategy directly into operations, such as
procurement of Fair Trade tea and coffee.

Creating shared value, or CSV, is based on the idea that corporate success and social welfare
are interdependent. A business needs a healthy, educated workforce, sustainable resources,
and an adept government to compete effectively. For society to thrive, profitable and
competitive businesses must be developed and supported to create income, wealth, tax
revenues, and philanthropy. The Harvard Business Review article "Strategy & Society: The Link
between Competitive Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility" provided examples of
companies that have developed deep linkages between their business strategies and CSR.[41]
CSV acknowledges trade-offs between short-term profitability and social or environmental
goals, but emphasizes the opportunities for competitive advantage from building a social
value proposition into corporate strategy. CSV gives the impression that only two
stakeholders are essential – shareholders and consumers.

Many companies employ benchmarking to assess their CSR policy, implementation, and
effectiveness. Benchmarking involves reviewing competitor initiatives, measuring and
evaluating the impact those policies have on society and the environment, and how others
perceive competitor CSR strategy.[42]

An approach described by Tóth Gergely and published by the Hungarian Association for
Environmentally Aware Management (KÖVET) refers to "Deep CSR" and the role of a "Truly
Responsible Enterprise". Gergely's definition of "Deep CSR" is the behaviour displayed by a
"Truly Responsible Enterprise" (TRE), which:

sees itself as a part of the system, not

a completely individual economic actor
concerned only about maximizing its
profit,
recognises unsustainability (the
destruction of the natural environment
 and the increase of social injustice) as
the greatest challenge of our age,
accepts that businesses and
enterprises have to work on solutions
according to their economic weight,
honestly evaluates its weight and part
in causing the problems (it is best to
concentrate on 2–3 main problems),
takes essential steps – systematically,
progressively, and focused – towards a
more sustainable world.
The five principles of the TRE are:

1. minimal transport
2. maximal fairness
3. zero economism
 4. maximum middle size (deep CSR is
more readily embedded in small and
medium-sized enterprises)
5. product or service falling to the
most sustainable 30%.[43]

Cost-benefit analysis
In competitive markets, the cost-benefit analysis of CSR initiatives can be examined using a
resource-based view (RBV). According to Barney (1990), "formulation of the RBV, sustainable
competitive advantage requires that resources be valuable (V), rare (R), inimitable (I) and non-
substitutable (S)."[44][45] A firm introducing a CSR-based strategy might only sustain high
returns on their investment if their CSR-based strategy could not be copied (I). However,
should competitors imitate such a strategy that might increase overall social benefits? Firms
that choose CSR for strategic financial gain are also acting responsibly.

RBV presumes that firms are bundles of heterogeneous resources and capabilities that are
imperfectly mobile across firms. This imperfect mobility can produce competitive advantages
for firms that acquire immobile resources. McWilliams and Siegel (2001) examined CSR
activities and attributes as a differentiation strategy. They concluded that managers could
determine the appropriate level of investment in CSR by conducting a cost-benefit analysis in
the same way they analyze other investments. Reinhardt (1998) found that a firm engaging in
a CSR-based strategy could only sustain an abnormal return if it could prevent competitors
from imitating it.[46]

Moreover, regarding cost-benefit

analysis, one should look at Waddock
and Graves (1997), who showed that
corporate social performance was
positively linked to financial
performance, meaning that the
benefits of being socially responsible
outweigh the costs. McWilliams and
Siegel (2000) noted that Waddock and
Graves had not considered innovation,
that companies that incorporated CSR
were also very innovative, and that the
innovation drove financial
performance, not CSR. Hull and
Rothenberg (2007) then found that
when companies are not innovative, a
history of CSR does help financial
performance.[47]
CSR and Corporate Financial
Performance
The relationship between corporate social responsibility and a firm's corporate financial
performance is a phenomenon that is being explored in a variety of research studies that are
being conducted across the world. Based on these research studies, including those
undertaken by Sang Jun Cho, Chune Young Chung, and Jason Young, a positive relationship
exists between a firm's corporate social responsibility policies and corporate financial
performance. To investigate this relationship, the researchers conducted a regression
analysis and preceded the analysis with the provision of several measures that they utilized
to serve as proxies for key financial performance indicators (i.e. return on assets serves as a
proxy for profitability).[48]

Scope
Initially, CSR emphasized the official behaviour of individual firms. Later, it expanded to
include supplier behaviour, the uses to which products were put, and how articles were
disposed of after they lost value. Malcolm McIntosh notes also that focussing on the
identifiable behaviour of individual businesses risks not including what he calls
"unincorporated market behaviour" within the scope of CSR - actions attributable to market
processes, and also calls for other factors including "brand citizenship" and "illegitimate,
informal or illegal activity" to be considered as part of a more complete picture.[49]

The term "brand citizenship" has been put forward because the public perception of an
organisation may be associated with its branding rather than its corporate identity: McIntosh
uses Virgin as an example.[49] Similarly, Anne Bahr Thompson uses the same term and
observes that companies adopting socially responsible behaviours are primarily investing in
their reputations.[50]
Supply chain
In the 21st century, corporate social responsibility in the supply chain has attracted attention
from businesses and stakeholders. A corporation's supply chain is the process by which
several organizations, including suppliers, customers, and logistics providers, work together
to provide a value package of products and services to the end-user, who is the customer.[51]

Corporate social irresponsibility in the supply chain has greatly affected the reputation of
companies, leading to many costs to solve the problems. For instance, incidents like the 2013
Savar building collapse, which killed over 1000 people, pushed companies to consider the
impacts of their operations on society and the environment. On the other hand, the
horsemeat scandal of 2013 in Europe affected many food retailers, including Tesco, the
largest retailer in the United Kingdom,[52] leading to the dismissal of the supplier. Corporate
social irresponsibility from suppliers and retailers has greatly affected the stakeholders who
lost trust in the affected business entities. Although sometimes it is not directly undertaken
by the companies, they become accountable to the stakeholders. These surrounding issues
have prompted supply chain management to consider the corporate social responsibility
context. Wieland and Handfield (2013) suggested that companies must include social
responsibility in their reviews of component quality. They highlighted the use of technology to
improve visibility across the supply chain.[53]

Corporate social initiatives

Corporate social responsibility includes six types of corporate social initiatives:[2]

Corporate philanthropy: company

donations to charity, including cash,
goods, and services, sometimes via a
corporate foundation
 Community volunteering: company-
organized volunteer activities,
sometimes while an employee receives
pay for pro-bono work on behalf of a
non-profit organization
Socially-responsible business
practices: ethically produced products
that appeal to a customer segment
Cause promotions and activism:
company-funded advocacy campaigns
Cause-related marketing: donations to
charity based on product sales
Corporate social marketing: company-
funded behavior-change campaigns
All six of the corporate initiatives are forms of corporate citizenship. However, only some of
these CSR activities rise to the level of cause marketing, defined as "a type of corporate
social responsibility (CSR) in which a company's promotional campaign has the dual purpose
of increasing profitability while bettering society."[54]
Companies generally do not have a profit motive when participating in corporate philanthropy
and community volunteering. On the other hand, the remaining corporate social initiatives
can be examples of cause marketing, in which there is both a societal interest and a profit
motive.

Implementation
CSR may be based within the human resources, business development or public relations
departments of an organisation,[55] or may be a separate unit reporting to the CEO or the
board of directors.

Engagement plan
An engagement plan can assist in reaching the desired audience. A corporate social
responsibility individual or team plans the goals and objectives of the organization. As with
any corporate activity, a defined budget demonstrates commitment and scales the program's
relative importance.

Accounting, auditing, and reporting

Social accounting is the communication of social and environmental effects of a company's
economic actions to particular interest groups within society and to society at large.[56]

Social accounting emphasizes the notion of corporate accountability. Crowther defines social
accounting as "an approach to reporting a firm's activities which stresses the need for the
identification of socially relevant behavior, the determination of those to whom the company
is accountable for its social performance and the development of appropriate measures and
reporting techniques."[57]
Reporting guidelines and standards serve as frameworks for social accounting, auditing, and
reporting:

AccountAbility's AA1000 standard,

based on John Elkington's triple
bottom line (3BL) reporting
The Prince's Accounting for
Sustainability Project's Connected
Reporting Framework[58]
The Fair Labor Association conducts
audits based on its Workplace Code of
Conduct and posts audit results on the
FLA website.
The Fair Wear Foundation verifies
labour conditions in companies' supply
chains using interdisciplinary auditing
teams.
Global Reporting Initiative's
Sustainability Reporting Guidelines
Economy for the Common Good's
Common Good Balance Sheet[59]
GoodCorporation's standard[60]
developed in association with the
Institute of Business Ethics
Synergy Codethic 26000[61] Social
Responsibility and Sustainability
Commitment Management System
(SRSCMS) Requirements—Ethical
Business Best Practices of
Organizations—the necessary
management system elements to
obtain a certifiable ethical
commitment management system.
The standard scheme has been built
around ISO 26000 and UNCTAD
Guidance on Good Practices in
Corporate Governance. The standard
applies to any organization.
Earthcheck Certification / Standard
Social Accountability International's
SA8000 standard
Standard Ethics Aei guidelines
The ISO 14000 environmental
management standard
The United Nations Global Compact
requires companies to communicate
their progress[62] (or to produce a
Communication on Progress, COP),
and to describe the company's
implementation of the Compact's ten
universal principles.[63]
The United Nations Intergovernmental
Working Group of Experts on
International Standards of Accounting
and Reporting (ISAR) provides
voluntary technical guidance on eco-
efficiency indicators,[64] corporate
responsibility reporting,[65] and
corporate governance disclosure.[66]
The FTSE Group publishes the
FTSE4Good Index, an evaluation of
CSR performance of companies.
EthicalQuote (CEQ) tracks the
reputation of the world's largest
companies on Environmental, Social,
 Governance (ESG), Corporate Social
Responsibility, ethics, and
sustainability.
The Islamic Reporting Initiative (IRI) is
a not-for-profit organization that leads
the creation of the IRI framework; the
guiding integrated CSR reporting
framework based on Islamic principles
and values.[67]
Legal requirements for social accounting, auditing, and reporting exist in nations like France.
However, international or national agreement on meaningful social and environmental
performance measurements has not been achieved. Many companies produce externally
audited annual reports that cover Sustainable Development and CSR issues ("Triple Bottom
Line Reports"), but the reports vary widely in format, style, and evaluation methodology (even
within the same industry). Critics dismiss these reports as lip service, citing examples such
as Enron's yearly "Corporate Responsibility Annual Report" and tobacco companies' social
reports.

In South Africa, as of June 2010, all companies listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange
(JSE) were required to produce an integrated report in place of an annual financial report and
sustainability report.[68] An integrated report reviews environmental, social, and economic
performance alongside financial performance. This requirement was implemented in the
absence of formal or legal standards. An Integrated Reporting Committee (IRC) was
established to issue guidelines for good practice.

One of the reputable institutions that capital markets turn to for credible sustainability reports
is the Carbon Disclosure Project, or CDP.
Verification
Consumers of goods and services should verify corporate social responsibility and the
results of reports and efforts.[69] The accounting, auditing, and reporting resources provide a
foundation for consumers to verify that their products are socially sustainable. Due to an
increased awareness of the need for CSR, many industries have their verification
resources.[70] They include organizations such as the Forest Stewardship Council (paper and
forest products), International Cocoa Initiative,[71] and Kimberly Process (diamonds). The
United Nations Global Compact provides frameworks not only for verification, but also for
reporting human rights violations in corporate supply chains.[72]

Ethics training
The rise of ethics training inside corporations, some of which are required by government
regulation, has helped CSR to spread. Such training aims to help employees make ethical
decisions when the answers are unclear.[73] The most direct benefit is reducing the likelihood
of "dirty hands",[74] fines, and damaged reputations for breaching laws or moral norms.
Organizations see increased employee loyalty and pride in the organization.[75]

Common actions
Common CSR actions include:[76]

Environmental sustainability: recycling,

waste management, water
management, renewable energy,
reusable materials, 'greener' supply
chains, reducing paper use, and
adopting Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design (LEED) building
standards.[77][78][79]
Human capital enhancement:
Companies provide additional
resources for capacity building of local
employees, including technical and
professional training, adult basic
education, and language classes.[80]
Community involvement: This can
include raising money for local
charities, providing volunteers,
sponsoring local events, employing
local workers, supporting local
 economic growth, engaging in fair
trade practices, etc.[81][82]
Ethical marketing: Companies that
ethically market to consumers are
placing a higher value on their
customers and respecting them as
people who are ends in themselves.
They do not try to manipulate or falsely
advertise to potential consumers. This
is important for companies that want
to be viewed as ethical.

Social license to operate

The term "social license" was introduced in 1997 and has since been applied in multiple
resource extraction industries to describe changes in company-community interactions.[83]
This use of social license has included an understanding of how acceptance levels impact
resource development operations within these industries.[83] Gunningham et al.[84] state
corporations comply with their social license by operating within societal expectations and
avoiding activities (or influential elements within them) considered unacceptable, and define
social license it as "the demands on and expectations for a business enterprise that emerge
from neighborhoods, environmental groups, local stakeholders, and other elements of the
surrounding civil society".[84]
Social License to Operate can be determined as contractual grounds for the legitimacy of
activities and projects a company is involved in.[85] It refers to the level of support and
approval of a company's activities by its stakeholders.[86] Displaying commitment to CSR is
one way to achieve a social license, by enhancing a company's reputation.[87]

As stated in Enduring value: the Australian minerals industry framework for sustainable
development the concept of the 'social license to operate', then defined simply as obtaining
and maintaining broad community support and acceptance. Unless a company earns and
maintains that license, social license holders may intend to block project developments;
employees may leave the company for a company that is a better corporate citizen: and
companies may be under ongoing legal challenge.[88] Issues related to the government's
measurement of corporations' social license include its role in licensure processes, the
penalties for non-compliance, or the community's ability to halt a project if a corporation is
not responsive to their concerns, are still subject to global concern.[89][90] Regardless of
government involvement, social license is achieved within and given by communities, which
is defined as "a social unit of any size that shares common values, or that is situated in a
given geographical area".[91] Lacey[92] suggested that social license can take a long time for a
corporation or industry to achieve, but social license can be lost very quickly for a variety of
factors, including changes in stakeholder expectations, technology, or other disturbances.
Gunningham et al.[84] stated that meeting and exceeding regulations to build reputational
capital is economically vital, saying: "in certain circumstances, [natural resource-based
industries] cannot afford to do otherwise". In communities with a diverse economy, achieving
social license is often much more complex than in local communities, which depend
economically on the natural resource industry.[84]

In research undertaken by Ketola et al., the writers believed that the forest products industry
in rural Michigan in the United States may have received a social license through the
channels that mining corporations initially established and the long history of logging and
copper mining in the area continued to shape the attitudes and identities of industry
participants to present day.[93] They found that local stakeholders and local industry
operators have shared history and experience as having limited power to control the larger
economic forces acting upon them. Local actors are more likely to have values similar to
those of stakeholders, have established some history in the area, and have had the time to
develop meaningful relationships within the community. This shared experience shaped the
process of acquiring a social license. Nonlocal actors are likely to experience a much lesser
degree of social license than local actors. Furthermore, many of the resources affected by
forest management are held in the public trust,[94] so it is essential for both industry actors
and community stakeholders to feel engaged and involved in decisions regarding local
natural resource management. Baines and Edwards shared similar findings in New Zealand's
aquaculture sector regarding the importance of relationships and communication between
industry and local stakeholders.[95] They find that social license depends on relationships and
building trust. Smaller, local companies tend towards relationships that are relational as
opposed to transactional, possibly due to their ongoing community presences and
communication abilities, which are better for fostering these relationships and trust building.

In research of Requisite Organization, Elliott Jaques defines Social License to Operate for the
company as the social contract the company has with the social license holders (employees,
trade unions, communities, government) for them to manifest positive intention to support
the business short- and long-term objectives by "providing managerial leadership that
nurtures the social good and also gives the foundation for sustainable growth in
organizational results."[96]

The primary objective for the companies is to obtain and maintain the Social License to
Operate. Based on the Requisite Organization, to achieve this goal, a company needs to:

Identify the business strategy and

business objectives
Identify the social license holders
(employees of a company, labour
unions, local and national
governments, communities, activist
groups, etc.) for every business
objectives
Identify the support that the company
desires to achieve from the social
license holders by specifying for every
business objective social license
element (target of support, context of
support, time of support, action of
support)
Quantitatively measure the intention
(positive or negative) of the social
license holders to support the
business objectives
Identify the factors that negatively
impact the intention of the social
license holders to support the
business objectives (strength of their
belief in support, their evaluation of
support outcomes, the pressure to
 provide support, enablers/disablers of
support, etc.)
Develop the Social License
Development Strategy to remove the
negative factors and ensure the
positive intention of all the social
license holders to support all the
company's business objectives.
Perform ongoing monitoring and
quantitative measurement of changes
in the Social License to Operate of the
company

Emerging markets vs. developed

economies
A positive relationship has been shown to exist between CSR and a firm's corporate financial
performance. However, results from these analyses may need to be examined under different
lenses for emerging and developed economies, especially since firms based in emerging
economies oftentimes have weak firm-level governance.[48]
For companies operating in emerging markets, engaging in CSR practices enables
widespread reach into a variety of outside markets, an improved reputation, and stakeholder
relationships.[97] In all cases (emerging markets vs. developed economies), implementing
CSR policies into the daily activities and framework of a company has been shown to allow
for a competitive advantage versus other companies, including the creation of a positive
image for the company, improved stakeholder relationships, increased employee morale, and
attraction of new consumers who are committed to social responsibility.[97] Despite all of the
benefits, it is important to note that several drawbacks exist, including possible accusations
of hypocrisy, the difficulty of measuring the social impact of CSR policies, and oftentimes
placing companies at a disadvantage against competitors when prioritizing CSR ahead of
advancing a company's R&D.[97]

Potential business benefits

A large body of literature urges businesses to adopt non-financial measures of success (e.g.,
Deming's Fourteen Points, balanced scorecards). While CSR benefits are hard to quantify,
Orlitzky, Schmidt and Rynes[98] found a correlation between social/environmental
performance and financial performance.

The business case for CSR[99] within a company employs one or more of these arguments:

Triple bottom line

"People, planet, and profit", also known as the triple bottom line, form one way to evaluate
CSR. "People" refers to fair labour practices, the community, and the region where the
business operates. "Planet" refers to sustainable environmental practices. Profit is the
economic value created by the organization after deducting the cost of all inputs, including
the cost of the capital (unlike accounting definitions of profit).[100][101]

Balancing economic, ecological, and social goals is at the heart of the triple bottom line.[102]

This measure was claimed to help some companies be more conscious of their social and
moral responsibilities.[103] However, critics claim that it is selective and substitutes a
company's perspective for that of the community. Another criticism is about the absence of a
standard auditing procedure.[104]

The term was coined by John Elkington in 1994[101] who re-evaluated it in 2018 and called for
more urgent action toward sustainability [105]

Human resources
A CSR program can be an aid to recruitment and retention,[106][107] particularly within the
competitive graduate student market. Potential recruits often consider a firm's CSR policy.
CSR can also help improve the perception of a company among its staff, particularly when
staff can become involved through payroll giving, fundraising activities, or community
volunteering. CSR has been credited with encouraging customer orientation among
customer-facing employees.[108]

CSR is known for impacting employee turnover. Several executives suggest that employees
are their most valuable asset and that the ability to retain them leads to organizational
success. Socially responsible activities promote fairness, which in turn generates lower
employee turnover. On the other hand, if a firm demonstrates irresponsible behavior,
employees may view this behavior as negative. Proponents argue that treating employees
well with competitive pay and good benefits is seen as socially responsible behavior and,
therefore, reduces employee turnover.[109] Executives have a strong desire for building a
positive work context that benefits CSR and the company as a whole. This interest is driven
particularly by the realization that a positive work environment can result in desirable
outcomes such as more favorable job attitudes and increased work performance.[110]

The IBM Institute for Business Value surveyed 250 business leaders worldwide in 2008.[111]
The survey showed that businesses have assimilated a much more strategic view with 68%
of companies utilizing CSR as an opportunity and part of a sustainable growth strategy.[111]
Developing and implementing a CSR strategy represents a unique opportunity to benefit the
company. However, only 31% of businesses surveyed engaged their employees on the
company's CSR objectives and initiatives.[111] Employee engagement on CSR initiatives can
be a powerful recruitment and retention tool. Moreover, employees tend to avoid employers
with a bad reputation.[111]
Risk management
Managing risk is an important executive responsibility. Reputations that take decades to build
up can be ruined in hours through corruption scandals or environmental accidents.[112] These
situations draw unwanted attention from regulators, courts, governments, and the media.
CSR can limit these risks.[113]

Sustainability is key to resilience across value chains. As companies prefer working with
long-lasting partners, those that have implemented CSR practices will be preferred over ones
that have not in order to minimize reputational as well as other damages.[114] High levels of
CSR compliance within supply chains (including Tier 1 and beyond) will also help reduce
vulnerabilities and eliminate environmental, social, and economic risks through implementing
a sustainability-focused procurement strategy.

With effective CSR policies, a company can better mitigate legislative and legal risks by
complying with emerging CSR-related laws and regulations, preempting costly lawsuits and
non-compliance actions, and addressing sources of non-compliance by fostering corporate
alignment around the relevant issues.[115]

Brand differentiation
CSR can enhance a brand's reputation by "inducing a desire to support and help the company
that has acted to benefit consumers".[7] In this way, CSR serves to enhance brand
perceptions, which can lead to positive product evaluations,[116] though this effect is
dependent upon a variety of factors, including the degree to which consumers value close
relationships or believe that the CSR initiative is self-serving,[7] whether the CSR program may
be perceived to affect product quality negatively,[117] consumers' consumption-related goals
(i.e., whether their consumption is socially versus product-motivated),[118] or consumers'
attributions toward the motives of the CSR endeavor.[119]

Some companies use their commitment to CSR as their primary positioning tool, e.g., The Co-
operative Group, The Body Shop, and American Apparel.[120] Others use CSR methodologies
as a strategic tactic to gain public support for their presence in global markets, helping them
sustain a competitive advantage by using their social contributions as another form of
advertising.[121]

Companies that operate strong CSR activities tend to drive customers' attention to buy
products or services regardless of the price. As a result, this increases competition among
firms since customers are aware of the company's CSR practices. These initiatives serve as a
potential differentiator because they not only add value to the company, but also to the
products or services. Furthermore, firms under intense competition can leverage CSR to
increase the impact of their distribution on the firm's performance. Lowering the carbon
footprint of a firm's distribution network or engaging in fair trade are potential differentiators
to lower costs and increase profits. In this scenario, customers can observe the company's
commitment to CSR while increasing company sales.[122]

Whole Foods' marketing and promotion of organic foods have had a positive effect on the
supermarket industry. Proponents assert that Whole Foods has been able to work with its
suppliers to improve animal treatment and the quality of meat offered in their stores. They
also promote local agriculture in over 2,400 independent farms to maintain their line of
sustainable organic produce. As a result, Whole Foods' high prices do not turn customers
away from shopping. They are pleased to buy organic products that come from sustainable
practices.[123]

A Harvard Business Review article proposes three stages of practice in which CSR can be
divided. Stage one focuses on philanthropy, including donations of money or equipment to
non-profit organizations, engagement with community initiatives, and employee volunteering.
This is characterized as the "soul" of a company, expressing the social and environmental
priorities of the founders. The authors assert that companies engage in CSR because they
are an integral part of society. The Coca-Cola Company contributes $88.1 million annually to
various environmental, educational, and humanitarian organizations. Another example is PNC
Financial Services' "Grow Up Great" childhood education program. This program provides
critical school readiness resources to underserved communities where PNC operates.[124]

On the other hand, stage two focuses on improving operational effectiveness in the
workplace. The researchers assert that programs in this stage strive to deliver social or
environmental benefits to support a company's operation across the value chain by improving
efficiency. Some examples include sustainability initiatives to reduce resource use, waste,
and emissions that could reduce costs. It also calls for investing in employee work conditions
such as health care and education, which may enhance productivity and retention. Unlike
philanthropic giving, which is evaluated by its social and environmental return, initiatives in
the second stage are predicted to improve the corporate bottom line with social value. Bimbo,
the largest bakery in Mexico, is an excellent example of this. The company strives to meet
social welfare needs. It offers free educational services to help employees complete high
school. Bimbo also provides supplementary medical care and financial assistance to close
government health coverage gaps.[124]

Moreover, the third stage of the program aims to transform the business model. Companies
create new forms of business to address social or environmental challenges that will lead to
financial returns in the long run. One example can be seen in Unilever's Project Shakti in India.
The authors describe that the company hires women in villages and provides them with
micro-finance loans to sell soaps, oils, detergents, and other products door-to-door. This
research indicates that more than 65,000 women entrepreneurs are doubling their incomes
while increasing rural access and hygiene in Indian villages. Another example is IKEA's
"People and Planet" initiative, which is to be 100% sustainable by 2020. Consequently, the
company wants to introduce a new model to collect and recycle old furniture.[124]

Reduced scrutiny
Corporations are keen to avoid interference in their business through taxation or regulations.
A CSR program can persuade governments and the public that a company takes health and
safety, diversity, and the environment seriously, reducing the likelihood that company
practices will be closely monitored.

Supplier relations
Appropriate CSR programs can increase the attractiveness of supplier firms to potential
customer corporations. For example, a fashion merchandiser may find value in an overseas
manufacturer that uses CSR to establish a positive image and to reduce the risks of bad
publicity from uncovered misbehavior.

A price-focused procurement strategy has limitations for companies with high CSR
expectations. According to Boston Consulting Group, “businesses that are considered
leaders in environmental, social and governance criteria have an 11% valuation premium over
their competitors.”[125] Such companies look for suppliers who share their social,
environmental, and business ethics values, which in turn would trigger common innovations
that would attract more customers and generate further value for the whole supply chain for
a win-win business relationship through a series of interconnected activities implemented
holistically. Furthermore, supplier relations are crucial for a company's CSR profile as 70% of
businesses’ social and environmental impacts occur in their supply chain.[126] Through the
spillover effect, CSR programs encourage sustainable practices within different industries.
Additionally, a CSR-focused supplier relations management improves collaboration with
suppliers, increases the satisfaction of customers’ expectations and requirements, expands
market opportunities, enhances investor relations, and promotes the development of more
sustainable products.[127] Furthermore, CSR supply chain imperatives can leverage their
responsible commitment to forge robust and lasting relationships with important
stakeholders and positively influence the decision-making of consumers, partners, investors,
and talent. By constructing this reputational capital, companies can earn consumer loyalty,
attract top talent, and strengthen employee morale and commitment.[128]

Crisis management
CSR strategies or behaviors related to CSR were discussed by many scholars in terms of
crisis management, such as responses to boycotts in an international context.[129] Ang found
that relationship building through providing additional services rather than price-cutting is
what businesses in Asia feel more comfortable with as a strategy during an economic
crisis.[130] Regarding direct research about strategies in cross-cultural crisis management,
scholars found that CSR strategies could make effects through empirical case studies
involving multinational businesses in China.[131] They found that meeting local stakeholders'
social expectations can mitigate the risk of crises. The strategy utilized by Arla Foods works
and has helped the company regain most of its lost market share among many countries in
the Middle East. Arla Foods founded funding for children with cancer, and they donated
ambulances to refugees in Lebanon. As Arla Foods did, they tried to contribute to solving
social problems of children's access to health care, which were local priorities. Other
researchers analyzed the case of multinational enterprise strategies during the conflict
between Lebanon and Israel. During the conflict, many companies stressed seeking to help
the local community.[132] In the post-conflict stage, managers highlighted their philanthropic
programs and contributions, in terms of monetary in-kind donations to the refugees or
businesses that were directly affected. For example, Citibank has provided monetary
assistance to some local businesses affected by the war. Another activity done by a
Lebanese company was a fund-raising campaign.

Criticisms and concerns

CSR concerns include its relationship to the purpose of business and the motives for
engaging in it.

Purpose of business
Milton Friedman and others argued that a corporation's purpose is to maximize returns to its
shareholders and that obeying the laws of the jurisdictions within which it operates
constitutes socially responsible behavior.[133] Friedman argued each person should be free to
spend their own money on social causes if they wished, but that business owners should
avoid putting a "tax" on consumers as "unwitting puppets" of socialism by raising prices to
support business practices with social goals unrelated to profit.[134][135]

While some CSR supporters claim that companies practicing CSR, especially in developing
countries, are less likely to exploit workers and communities, critics claim that CSR itself
imposes outside values on local communities with unpredictable outcomes.[136]

Rather than voluntary measures, better governmental regulation and enforcement are an
alternative to CSR that moves decision-making and resource allocation from public to private
bodies.[137] However, critics claim that effective CSR must be voluntary as mandatory social
responsibility programs regulated by the government interferes with people's plans and
preferences, distorts the allocation of resources, and increases the likelihood of irresponsible
decisions.[138]
Motives

A story of CSR promoted by Azim

Premji Foundation in India[139]

Some critics believe that companies undertake CSR programs to distract the public from
ethical questions posed by their core operations. They argue that the reputational benefits
that CSR companies receive (cited above as a benefit to the corporation) demonstrate the
hypocrisy of the approach.[140] Moreover, some studies find that CSR programs are motivated
by corporate managers' interests at the cost of the shareholders so they are a type of an
agency problem in corporations.[141][142]

Others have argued that the primary purpose of CSR is to provide legitimacy to the power of
businesses.[143] As wealth inequality is perceived to be increasing[144] it has become
increasingly necessary for businesses to justify their position of power.

Joel Bakan is one of the prominent critics of the conflict of interest between private profit and
a public good, characterizing corporate officials of publicly listed corporations as constrained
by law to maximize the wealth of their shareholders.[145] This argument is summarised by
Haynes that "a corporate calculus exists in which costs are pushed onto both workers,
consumers and the environment".[146] CSR spending may be seen in these financial terms,
whereby the higher costs of socially undesirable behaviour are offset by a CSR spending of a
lower amount. Indeed, it has been argued that there is a "halo effect" in terms of CSR
spending. Research has found that firms that had been convicted of bribery in the US under
the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) received more lenient fines if they had been seen to
be actively engaging in comprehensive CSR practices. It was found that typically either a 20%
increase in corporate giving or a commitment to eradicating a significant labour issue, such
as child labour, was equated to a 40% lower fine in the case of bribing foreign officials.[147]

Aguinis and Glavas conducted a comprehensive review of CSR literature, covering 700
academic sources from numerous fields, including organizational behavior, corporate
strategy, marketing, and HRM. It was found that the primary reason for firms to engage in
CSR was the expected financial benefits associated with CSR, rather than being motivated by
a desire to be responsible to society.[148] Consistent with this analysis, consumers respond
less favorably to CSR initiatives that they believe are tainted with self-serving motives".[7]

Ethical ideologies
CEOs' political ideologies are evident manifestations of their different personal views. Each
CEO may exercise different powers according to their organizational outcomes. Their political
ideologies are expected to influence their preferences for CSR outcomes. Proponents argue
that politically liberal CEOs will envision the practice of CSR as beneficial and desirable to
increase a firm's reputation. They tend to focus more on how the firm can meet the needs of
society. Consequently, they will advance with the practice of CSR while adding value to the
firm. On the other hand, property rights may be more relevant to conservative CEOs. Since
conservatives tend to value free markets, individualism, and the call for respect of authority,
they will not likely envision this practice as often as those identifying as liberals might.[149]

The company's financials and the CSR practice also have a positive relationship. Moreover, a
company's performance tends to influence conservatives more likely than liberals. While not
seeing it from the financial performance point of view, liberals tend to believe that CSR adds
to the business's triple bottom line. For example, when the company performs well, it will
promote CSR. If the company is not performing as expected, they will rather tend to
emphasize this practice because it will potentially envision it as a way to add value to the
business. In contrast, politically conservative CEOs will tend to support the practice of CSR if
they believe that it will provide a good return to the company's financials. In other words,
these types of executives tend to not see the outcome of CSR as a value to the company if it
does not provide anything in exchange.[149]

Misdirection
There have been unsubstantiated social efforts, ethical claims, and outright greenwashing by
some companies that have resulted in increasing consumer cynicism and mistrust.[150]
Sometimes companies use CSR to direct public attention away from other, harmful business
practices. For example, McDonald's Corporation positioned its association with Ronald
McDonald House and other children's charities as CSR[151] while its meals have been accused
of promoting poor eating habits.

Acts that may initially appear to be altruistic CSR may have ulterior motives. The funding of
scientific research projects has been used as a source of misdirection by firms. Stanley B.
Prusiner, who discovered the protein responsible for Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) and
won the 1997 Nobel Prize in Medicine, thanked the tobacco company RJ Reynolds for their
crucial support. RJ Reynolds funded the research into CJD. Proctor states that "the tobacco
industry was the leading funder of research into genetics, viruses, immunology, air
pollution",[152] anything which formed a distraction from the well-established research linking
smoking and cancer.

Research has also found that corporate social marketing, a form of CSR promoting societal
good, is being used to direct criticism away from the damaging practices of the alcohol
industry.[153] It has been shown that advertisements that supposedly encourage responsible
drinking simultaneously aim to promote drinking as a social norm. In this case, companies
may engage in CSR and social marketing to prevent more stringent government legislation on
alcohol marketing.

Controversial industries
Industries such as tobacco, alcohol, or munitions firms make products that damage their
consumers or the environment. Such firms may engage in the same philanthropic activities
as other industries. This duality complicates assessments of such firms concerning CSR.[154]

Case studies
To fully observe the impact of corporate social responsibility practices on a firm's corporate
financial performance, it is crucial to delve into a concrete example, such as the study
conducted by researchers from the Global Conference on Business, Economics,
Management, and Tourism. In this study, Mocan, Draghici, Ivascu, and Turi examined the
correlation between CSR policies and value creation/financial performance in the banking
industry specifically and found that various benefits include greater economic efficiency,
improved company reputation, and employee loyalty, better communication streamline
between the industry and individuals, and the opportunity to attract new opportunities (i.e.
attract new investments, or remain competitive) and improve organizational commitment.[155]
However, before discussing these effects, the researchers preceded the analysis by stating
that typically implementing CSR and other ethical principles within the framework of a
financial institution such as banks make it seem as if these are marketing tools for attracting
and communicating with stakeholders rather than serving as tools that allow banks and other
financial institutions to benefit the individuals that they serve. Another interesting case study
is provided by Hein Schreuder (2022), who discusses the evolution of CSR at the Dutch
multinational corporation DSM.[102]

Stakeholder influence
One motivation for corporations to adopt CSR is to satisfy stakeholders beyond those of a
corporation's shareholders.

Branco and Rodrigues (2007) describe the stakeholder perspective of CSR as the set of views
of corporate responsibility held by all groups or constituents with a relationship to the
firm.[156] In their normative model, the company accepts these views as long as they do not
hinder the organization. The stakeholder perspective fails to acknowledge the complexity of
network interactions in cross-sector partnerships. It relegates communication to a
maintenance function, similar to the exchange perspective.[157]

Ethical consumerism
The rise in popularity of ethical consumerism over the last two decades can be linked to the
rise of CSR.[158] Consumers are becoming more aware of the environmental and social
implications of their day-to-day consumption decisions and in some cases make purchasing
decisions related to their environmental and ethical concerns.[159]

One issue with the consumer's relationship with CSR is that it is much more complex than it
first appears. This phenomenon could be described as the "CSR-Consumer Paradox" or
mismatch, where consumers report that they would only buy from companies with good
social responsibility. Many consumers want to buy from responsible companies, but surveys
indicate that "ethical purchases" are a small percentage of household expenditures. The
discrepancy between consumer beliefs and intentions, and actual consumer behaviour,
means CSR has a much lesser impact than consumers initially say.

One theory for explaining this discrepancy is the "bystander apathy" or the bystander effect.
This theory stems from social psychology and states that the likelihood of an individual
acting in a given situation is significantly reduced if other bystanders do nothing, even if that
individual strongly believes in a specific course of action. It would suggest an "If they do not
care then why should I?" mentality. Even if consumers are against the use of sweatshops or
want to support green causes, they may continue to make purchases from companies that
are socially irresponsible just because other consumers seem apathetic towards the issue.

Another explanation is that of reciprocal altruism. In the evolutionary psychology of human

behaviour: people only do something if they can get something back in return. In the case of
CSR and ethical consumerism, however, consumers get very little in return for their
investment. Ethically sourced or manufactured products are typically higher in price due to
greater costs. However, the reward for consumers is not much different from that of a non-
ethical counterpart. Therefore, evolutionary speaking, making an ethical purchase is not
worth the higher cost to the individual, even if they believe in supporting ethical,
environmental, and socially beneficial causes.

Socially responsible investing

Shareholders and investors, through socially responsible investing (SRI), are using their
capital to encourage behavior they consider responsible. However, definitions of what
constitutes ethical behavior vary. For example, some religious investors in the United States
have withdrawn investments from companies that violate their religious views. In contrast,
secular investors divest from companies that they see as imposing religious views on
workers or customers.[160]
Public policies
Some national governments promote socially and environmentally responsible corporate
practices. The heightened role of government in CSR has facilitated the development of
numerous CSR programs and policies.[161] Various European governments have pushed
companies to develop sustainable corporate practices.[162] CSR critics such as Robert Reich
argued that governments should set the agenda for social responsibility with laws and
regulations that describe how to conduct business responsibly.

Collective bargaining is a way nations promote CSR. In Germany, CSR is kept at the industry
level instead of the workplace; this has been viewed as one of the strengths of the German
government's push for CPR.[163] Germany also established the German Trade Union
Confederation in 1949 to further advance CSR; the confederation represents the interests of
45 million workers in Germany.[164] Job security, wage increases with industry growth are key
aspects of collective bargaining in the German labor system.

There is a higher percentage of workers in unions in countries like Sweden and Iceland which
have more Social-Democratic elements in their Nordic Model than the U.S. and the U.K.[165]

The U.S. and the U.K. are Liberal Market Economies (LMEs), and the German economy falls
under Coordinated Market Economy (CMEs), which are Varieties of Capitalism. In
comparison with the U.S. that covers 25.5% of its blue and white-collar workforce under
collective bargaining[166] and the U.K. that covers 29% of its workforce,[167] Germany covers a
significantly higher 57% of its workforce under collective bargaining.[163]

Regulation
Fifteen European Union countries are actively engaged in CSR regulation and public policy
development.[162] CSR efforts and policies are different among countries, responding to the
complexity and diversity of governmental, corporate, and societal roles. Some studies have
claimed that the role and effectiveness of these actors were case-specific.[161] This variety
among company approaches to CSR can complicate regulatory processes.[168]

Canada adopted CSR in 2007. Prime Minister Harper encouraged Canadian mining
companies to meet Canada's newly developed CSR standards.[169]
The 'Heilbronn Declaration' is a voluntary agreement between enterprises and institutions in
Germany, especially in the Heilbronn-Franconia region, signed on 15 September 2012. The
approach of the Heilbronn Declaration targets the decisive factors of success or failure, the
achievements of the implementation, and best practices regarding CSR. A form of
responsible entrepreneurship shall be initiated to meet the requirements of stakeholders'
trust in the economy. It is an approach to make voluntary commitments more binding.[170]

In opposition to mandated CSR regulation, researchers Armstrong and Green suggest that all
regulation is "harmful", citing regulation as the cause of North Korea's low economic freedom
and per capita GDP. They further claim without source that "There is no form of market
failure, however egregious, which is not eventually made worse by the political interventions
intended to fix it", and conclude "there is no need for further research on regulation in the
name of social responsibility."[171]

Laws
In the 1800s, the US government could take away a firm's license if it acted irresponsibly.
Corporations were viewed as "creatures of the state" under the law. In 1819, the United States
Supreme Court in Dartmouth College vs. Woodward established a corporation as a legal
person in specific contexts. This ruling allowed corporations to be protected under the
Constitution and prevented states from regulating firms.[172] Countries have included CSR
policies in government agendas.[162]

On 16 December 2008, the Danish parliament adopted a bill that required the 1,100 largest
Danish companies, investors, and state-owned companies to include CSR information in their
financial reports. The reporting requirements became effective on 1 January 2009.[173] The
required information included:

CSR/SRI policies
How such policies are implemented in
practice
Results and management expectations
CSR/SRI is voluntary in Denmark, but if a company has no policy on this, it must state its
position on CSR in financial reports.[174]

In 1995, item S50K of the Income Tax Act of Mauritius mandated that companies registered
in Mauritius pay 2% of their annual book profit to contribute to the social and environmental
development of the country.[175] In 2014, India also enacted a mandatory minimum CSR
spending law. Under Companies Act, 2013, any company having a net worth of 500 crore or
more or a turnover of 1,000 crore or a net profit of 5 crore must spend 2% of their net profits
on CSR activities.[176] The rules came into effect on 1 April 2014.[177]

The only mandatory CSR Act in the world thus far was passed by the Indian parliament in
2013 as Section 135 of the Companies Act. According to that bill, all firms with a net worth
above 5 billion rupees (approx. $75 million), turnover over 10 billion rupees (approx. $150
million), or net profit over 50 million rupees (approx. $750,000) are required to spend at least
2% of their annual profits (averaged over three years). The Act requires that all businesses
affected establish a CSR committee to oversee the spending. Before this law was passed,
CSR laws were applied only to public sector companies.[178]

Unlike global definitions of CSR in the triple bottom line, corporate citizenship, sustainable
business, business responsibility, and closed-loop realm, in India, CSR is a philanthropic
activity. What has changed since formalizing it in 2014 is the shift in focus from institution
building (schools, hospitals, etc.) to focus on community development.[179]

Crises and their consequences

Crises have encouraged the adoption of CSR. The CERES principles were adopted following
the 1989 Exxon Valdez incident.[74] Other examples include the lead paint used by toymaker
Mattel, which required the recall of millions of toys and caused the company to initiate new
risk management and quality control processes. Magellan Metals was found responsible for
lead contamination, which killed thousands of birds in Australia. The company ceased
business immediately and had to work with independent regulatory bodies to execute a
cleanup. Odwalla experienced a crisis, with sales dropping 90% and its stock price dropping
34% due to cases of E. coli. The company recalled all apple or carrot juice products and
introduced a new process called "flash pasteurization", as well as maintaining lines of
communication constantly open with customers.
National and regional
approaches
Corporations that employ CSR behaviors do not always behave consistently in all parts of the
world.[180] Conversely, a single behavior may not be considered ethical in all jurisdictions, e.g.,
some jurisdictions forbid women from driving,[181] while others require women to be treated
equally in employment decisions.

CSR in the European Union

The European Commission presented a green paper for the European Communities, as the
EU was then called, "promoting a European framework for Corporate Social Responsibility" in
2001.[182] In that document CSR was defined as

a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in

their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a
voluntary basis.

By 2011, the Commission recognised a "strategic approach" to CSR as "increasingly

important too the competitiveness of enterprises".[183] Believing that enterprises can
"significantly contribute to the European Union's treaty objectives of sustainable development
and a highly competitive social market economy", therefore presented a revised strategy in
October 2011, A renewed EU strategy 2011–14 for Corporate Social Responsibility. In this
document, CSR was defined more briefly as

the responsibility of enterprises for their impact on society.[183]: 6

In parallel with CSR, the alternative term "responsible business conduct" (RBC) introduced by
the OECD (see OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises) was also adopted.[184] No
longer treating CSR as a "voluntary" or is some sense "additional" aspect of managing an
enterprise, the commission now stated that

enterprises should have in place a process to integrate social, environmental,

ethical, human rights and consumer concerns into their business operations
and core strategy in close collaboration with their stakeholders.[183]: 6

Actions planned under the 2011–2014 agenda were aimed at:

Enhancing the visibility of CSR and

disseminating good practices
Improving and tracking levels of trust
in business
Improving self- and co-regulation
processes
Enhancing market reward for CSR
Improving company disclosure of
social and environmental information
Further integrating CSR into education,
training, and research
 Emphasising the importance of
national and sub-national CSR policies,
and
Better aligning European and global
approaches to CSR.[183]
Subsequently, the Commission published a staff working document in March 2019 that
examined the progress in implementing CSR/RBC as well as business and human rights.[185]

UK retail sector
A 2006 study found that the UK retail sector showed the greatest rate of CSR involvement.[31]
Many of the big retail companies in the UK joined the Ethical Trading Initiative,[186] an
association established to improve working conditions and worker health.

Tesco (2013)[187] reported that their 'essentials' are 'Trading responsibility', 'Reducing our
Impact on the Environment', 'Being a Great Employer' and 'Supporting Local Communities'. J
Sainsbury[188] employs the headings 'Best for food and health', 'Sourcing with integrity',
'Respect for our environment', 'Making a difference to our community', and 'A great place to
work', etc. The four main issues to which UK retail companies are committed: environment,
social welfare, ethical trading, and becoming an attractive workplace.[189][190]

Anselmsson and Johansson (2007)[191] assessed three areas of CSR performance: human
responsibility, product responsibility, and environmental responsibility. Martinuzzi et al.
described the terms, writing that human responsibility is "the company deals with suppliers
who adhere to principles of natural and good breeding and farming of animals, and also
maintains fair and positive working conditions and workplace environments for their
employees. Product responsibility means that all products come with a complete list of
content, that country of origin is stated, and that the company will uphold its declarations of
intent and assume liability for its products. Environmental responsibility means that a
company is perceived to produce environmental-friendly, ecological, and non-harmful
products".[192] Jones et al. (2005) found that environmental issues are the most commonly
reported CSR programs among top retailers.[193]

CSR and US corporations updates

An article published in Forbes.com in September 2017 mentioned the yearly study of Boston-
based reputation management consulting company Reputation Institute (RI)[194] which rates
the top 10 US corporations in terms of corporate social responsibility. RI monitors social
responsibility reputations by focusing on the perception of consumers regarding company
governance,[195] positive impact on the community and society, and treatment of the
workforce. It rates each criterion with the firm's proprietary RepTrak Pulse platform.[196]
Forbes identified companies like Lego, Microsoft, Google, Walt Disney Company, BMW Group,
Intel, Robert Bosch, Cisco Systems, Rolls-Royce Aerospace, and Colgate-Palmolive.[197]

According to the CSR Journal, the millennial generation worldwide helps propel brands
toward social responsibility. Many millennials want to conduct business with companies and
trademarks that employ pro-social themes,[198] sustainable manufacturing processes,[199] and
ethical business practices.[200] Nielsen Holdings published its Annual Global Corporate
Sustainability Report in 2017 concentrating on global responsibility as well as
sustainability.[201] Nielsen's 2015 report showed that 66 percent of consumers will spend
more on products that come from sustainable brands.[202] Another 81 percent expect their
preferred corporate institutions to reveal in public their statements about corporate
citizenship[203]

The National Association on the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), through its chief
executive officer Derrick Johnson, shared the organization's insights on how American
corporations can help in the realization of social justice.[204] According to the article from
Yahoo News, the NAACP has been engaged in a crusade for racial justice and economic
opportunities during the last 109 years. This organization believes all citizens in the United
States must be held liable in ensuring democracy works for all people.[205]
CSR and the Indian Perspective
From an Indian perspective, 'Corporate Social Responsibility' is not just about how an
organization distributes its profits, but is also about how an organization generates its
revenue. ‘Corporate Social Responsibility’ is defined as the ethos and practice of discovering,
invoking, infusing, evoking, and radiating the human values of 'Righteousness' (Dharma) and
'Love' (Prema) in an organisation’s interactions with its stakeholders.[206] Stakeholders, in this
definition, refers to the organisation’s customers, employees, shareholders, society, natural
environment, business associates, regulatory agencies, future generations, etc.[207]

International Field Policy experts like Edmond Fernandes have provided various ways in
which Indian Companies can increase their investment efficiency and investment sufficiency
by integrating social health in all policies. Non-government organizations like CHD Group and
SEEDS have demonstrated ways in which smart and efficient CSR is possible. [208]

Texts

United Nations Guiding Principles on

Business and Human Rights (2011)[209]

OECD Guidelines for Multinational

Enterprises (2011)[210]

See also

Beneficiation
Berle-Dodd debate
Business in the Community
Business philosophy
Carbon neutrality
Carbon offset
Chief green officer
Civil society
Conscious business
Corporate behaviour
Corporate governance
Corporate personhood
Corporate social entrepreneurship
Corporate sociopolitical activism
Corporate sustainability
Customer engagement
Development studies
Enterprise 2020
Environmentalism
Ethical banking
Ethical code
Ethical job
Ethical Positioning Index (EPI)
Ethics
Fair Stone standard
Green economy
Green job
Inclusive business
Integrity management
Interest of the company
International development
ISO 26000
Life cycle assessment
Matching gift
Noblesse oblige
OECD Guidelines for Multinational
Enterprises
Organizational ethics
Organizational justice
Psychopathy in the workplace
Responsible mining
Responsible Research and Innovation
Shareholder primacy
Social development
 Social work
Socially responsible investing
Socially responsible marketing
Stakeholder engagement
Stakeholder engagement software
Stakeholder management
Sustainable finance
Voluntary compliance
Volunteer grant

References

Notes

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External links

Library resources about

Corporate social responsibility

Resources in your library (https://ftl.toolfor

ge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Corporate+so
cial+responsibility)
Resources in other libraries (https://ftl.tool
forge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Corporate
+social+responsibility&library=0CHOOSE
0)
 Corporate Social Responsibility in India
Magazine (https://csrtimes.org/)

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