Energy and Environment

(ESE 820)

Instructor: Dr. Muhammad Hassan

Contact: hassan@uspcase.nust.edu.pk

1
 Energy Related Air Pollution (Causes)
Factories and buildings  Factories, office buildings, homes and power-generating stations
burn fossil fuels, which are the major sources/causes of air pollution

Petroleum Refineries Petroleum refineries release hydrocarbons and various particulates

that pollute the air.

Power Lines Some power lines are not insulated and are high voltage. This creates air
pollution. This is more common in Third World countries and also contributes to global warming.
Un-insulated high-voltage power lines ionize the adjacent air, forming ozone and other hazardous
pollutants.

Pesticides  Pesticides are often used at home to kill insects and other pests these all cause air
pollution.

Fertilizers Non-organic fertilizers virtually have the same effect that chemical pesticides have
on plants. farming individuals, communities, and companies must be made to realize the
numerous disadvantages to using chemical fertilizers as this would improve not only the quality of
their produce but the air everyone breathes in as well.
 Air Pollutants  Conventional Air Pollutants
Air pollution control strategies have traditionally been focused on “conventional” air pollutants, or those that
are harmful to breathe or were thought to directly damage the environment

As climate change science has advanced, it has become clear that conventional air pollution and climate
change are becoming increasingly interlinked – with respect to sources, atmospheric processes and
environmental effects

For example, fossil fuel combustion emits a number

of conventional air pollutants, including carbon
monoxide, mercury, carbonaceous aerosols (“soot”),
nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide. Some of these
compounds react in the atmosphere to form
secondary pollutants such as ozone, particulate
sulphate, nitrate and organic matter, which impacts
on ecosystems and human health

However, the combustion of fossil fuel also results in the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs),
like carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. GHGs accumulate in the atmosphere, warming
the atmosphere and affecting climate.
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources
Many conventional air pollutants, like ozone and particulate matter, can have an important
influence on climate
 For example, particulate matter makes up a significant part of atmospheric brown
clouds.
 These clouds can have the effects of conventional air pollutants -- significantly
impairing visibility and posing serious health problems to sensitive groups that
breathe the air.
 However, the clouds can also affect climate by causing a significant reduction in solar
heating of the lower atmosphere and suppressing rainfall.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1532857/atmospheric-brown-cloud
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources
Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are responsible
for the releasing of pollutants into the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two
major categories which are
1: Anthropogenic sources
Anthropogenic effects, processes, objects, or materials are those that are derived from
human activities, as opposed to those occurring in natural environments without human
influences
i.Transportation sources:
This category includes most emissions produced from transportation sources
during the combustion process. The internal combustion engines fueled by
gasoline and diesel are the biggest sources in this category. The other sources
include trains, ships, lawnmowers, farm tractors, planes, and construction
machinery.

ii. Stationary Combustion Sources

In this category the sources only produce energy and the emission is a result
of fuel combustion. The sources include power plants as well as home heating
furnaces.
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources
iii. Industrial Processes:
The sources which emit pollutants during manufacturing of products are
included in this category. Petrochemical plants, petrochemical refining, food
and agriculture industries, chemical processing, metallurgical and mineral
product factories and wood processing industries are the major sources of air
emissions. The smaller sources include dry- cleaning, painting and degreasing
operations

iv. Solid Waste Disposal:

This category includes facilities that dispose off unwanted trash. Refuse
incineration and open burning are important sources

http://environment.alberta.ca/02237.html
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources
2: Natural Sources
 Windblown dust contributes to the concentration of fine particulate matter in the air.

 Forest fires and wildfires release carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
ammonia, and particulate matter. Any burning of vegetation (biomass) will release these
substances to the atmosphere, with amounts of each depending on the biomass.

 Volcanic activity releases large quantities of carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and particulate
matter into the atmosphere.

 Vegetation and microbial activity affect air quality (biogenic emissions). Plants produce a
organic compounds (for growth and development) but (hydrogen sulphide and volatile
organic compounds including isoprene, toluene and beta-pinene) can affect air quality. Soil
microbial activity releases carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere.

 Carbon monoxide, methane and nitrogen oxides can undergo photochemical reactions to
produce ozone in the troposphere.
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources
Sources Typical Air Pollutants Released

Transportation sources Carbon monoxide ( CO ), lead ( Pb ), nitrogen oxides (

NOx ), ozone ( O3 )

Stationary sources Carbon monoxide ( CO ), lead ( Pb ), nitrogen oxides (

NOx), particulate matter, sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Industrial processes Carbon monoxide ( CO ), lead ( Pb ), nitrogen oxides (

NOx), particulate matter, sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Solid Waste Disposal Carbon monoxide ( CO )

Miscellaneous ( forest fires, Carbon monoxide ( CO ), nitrogen oxides ( NOx),

asphalt road paving, coal mining) particulate matter, sulfur dioxide (SO2)

http://www.eng.utoledo.edu/~akumar/IAP1/introduction.htm
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources
Carbon mono oxide (CO)
1: Carbon monoxide. A gas that comes from the burning of fossil fuels, mostly in cars and
from combustion process. It cannot be seen or smelled. It is a product by incomplete combustion
of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood

Source
 Carbon monoxide is released when engines burn fossil fuels. Emissions are higher when
engines are not tuned properly, and when fuel is not completely burned. Cars emit a lot of
the carbon monoxide found outdoors.
 Furnaces and heaters in the home can emit high concentrations of carbon monoxide, too,
if they are not properly maintained.
 As a consequence, emissions of carbon monoxide are primarily a function of combustion
conditions; inefficient combustion generally increases CO emissions.
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources
Carbon mono oxide (CO)
Environmental and Health Effects

 Carbon monoxide is a local air pollutant, with respiratory impacts, and contributes
indirectly to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere (as it
oxidizes to CO2)
 Carbon monoxide makes it hard for body parts to get the oxygen they need to run
correctly.
 Exposure to carbon monoxide makes people feel dizzy and tired and gives them
headaches.
 In high concentrations it is fatal. Elderly people with heart disease are hospitalized more
often when they are exposed to higher amounts of carbon monoxide.
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources  NOx
2: Nitrogen Oxides  (NOx) consist of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
and are formed when nitrogen (N2) combines with oxygen (O2. ).They are among the most
frequently reported atmospheric emissions, and the most commonly regulated.

 All combustion in air produces oxides of nitrogen (NOx), of which NO2 is a major
product

 Their life spans in the atmosphere range from one to seven days for nitric oxide and
nitrogen dioxide.

 Nitric oxide has no color, odour, or taste and is non-toxic. In the air it is rapidly
oxidized to nitrogen dioxide.

 Nitrogen dioxide is a reddish-brown gas with a pungent, irritating odour. It absorbs

light and leads to the yellow-brown haze sometimes seen hanging over cities. It is one
of the important components of smog.
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources  NOx
 They are produced from the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen gases in the air during
combustion, especially at high temperatures. Nitric oxide (NO) is generally produced
during high temperature combustion. It is photo-chemically oxidized to nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) in the atmosphere

 NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight, they form
photochemical smog, a significant form of air pollution, especially in the summer
Sources
 Nitrogen dioxide mostly comes from power plants and cars. Nitrogen dioxide is formed in
two ways—when nitrogen in the fuel is burned, or when nitrogen in the air reacts with
oxygen at very high temperatures.

 Nitrogen dioxide can also react in the atmosphere to form ozone, acid rain, and particles.
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources  NOx
Environmental Effects

 High levels of nitrogen dioxide exposure can give people coughs and can make them feel
short of breath. People who are exposed to nitrogen dioxide for a long time have a higher
chance of getting respiratory infections.

 Nitrogen dioxide reacts in the atmosphere to form acid rain, which can harm plants and
animals.

 Acid rain also causes buildings, statues, and

 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources SOx
3: Sulphur oxides (SOx)  SOx refers to all sulphur oxides, the two major ones being
sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3).

 Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas with a bitter, irritating odour and taste. It is highly
soluble in water forming weakly acidic sulphuric acid. SO2 is a very corrosive gas that
cannot be seen or smelled.

 When sulphur dioxide combines with the oxygen (O2) in the air some sulphur trioxide is
slowly formed. Sulphur trioxide rapidly combines with water to produce sulphuric acid one
of the major components of acid rain.

 The lifespan of sulphur oxides in the atmosphere is from 4 to 10 days.

 Energy related sulfur oxide emissions are generally proportional to the fraction of sulfur in
fuels such as coal and crude oil
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources SOx
Sources
 The main emission source of sulphur dioxide is the burning of fossil fuels. Power
stations, oil refineries and other large industrial plants contribute the majority of the
total mass released.

 Motor vehicles and domestic boilers, as well as natural sources such as active volcanoes
and forest fires, release sulphur dioxide

 Smaller sources of SO2 emissions include industrial processes such as extracting metal
from ore, and the burning of high sulfur containing fuels by locomotives, large ships, and
non-road equipment

Health and Environmental Effects

 High concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO2) can result in breathing problems with asthmatic
children and adults who are active outdoors. Short-term exposure has been linked to , chest
infections and shortness of breath.
Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources SOx
 Sulphur oxides combine with other substances in the air to produce a haze that
reduces visibility.

 Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are the major precursors of acid rain, which has
acidified soils, lakes and streams, accelerated corrosion of buildings and
monuments, and reduced visibility.

 Sulfur dioxide also is a major originator of fine particulate soot, which poses a
significant health threat.
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources  PM
4: Particulate Matter. Particle pollution (also called particulate matter or PM) is the term
for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air.

Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen with the
naked eye. Others are so small they can only be detected using an electron microscope resulting
from the burning of fuels by industry and diesel vehicles and from earth-moving activities such as
construction and mining.

o Primary PM is emitted at the emissions source in particle form, for example, the
smokestack of an electrical power plant

o Secondary PM formation results from a series of chemical and physical reactions

involving different gases, such as sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides, and ammonia
reacting to form sulphate, nitrate and ammonium particulate matter
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources  PM
The amount of particulate matter emitted during combustion is a function of the fuel type, the
amount of non-combustible fuel contaminants such as ash present in the fuel, the firing
conditions, and the level of pollution control equipment used.

Coarse Particles (PM10) Fine Particles (PM2.5)

What they are? Smoke, dirt and dust toxic organic compounds
from factories, farming, and
roads
Mold, spores, and pollen heavy metals

Sources Crushing and grinding rocks  Driving automobiles

and soil and then blown by  burning plants (brush fires and forest
wind fires or yard waste)
 smelting (purifying) and processing
metals
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources  PM
o The smaller particles are lighter and they stay in the air longer and travel farther. PM10
(big) particles can stay in the air for minutes or hours while PM2.5 (small) particles can
stay in the air for days or weeks

o PM10 particles can travel as little as a hundred yards or as much as 30 miles. PM2.5
particles go even farther; many hundreds of miles.

Sources
Particulate matter can be divided into two types coarse particles and fine particles.
 Fine" particles (less than 2.5 micrometers in diameter, known in the jargon of air pollution
as "PM 2.5") result from motor vehicles, coal-burning electric power plants, factories as
well as from residential fireplaces and wood stoves

 Larger "coarse" particles come largely from windblown dust, vehicles traveling on unpaved
roads, and crushing and grinding operations.

 In other cases, gases such as sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides interact with other
compounds in the air to form fine particles. These tiny bits of soot can travel hundreds of
miles downwind of the original pollution sources.
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources  PM
Effects
o The size of PM particles largely determines the extent of environmental and health
damage caused.

o Most of the developed countries is concerned about particles that are 10 micrometers in
diameter or smaller because those are the particles that generally pass through the throat
and nose and enter the lungs.

o Both PM10 (big) and PM2.5 (small) particles can cause health problems; specifically
respiratory health (that's the lungs and airway). Because the PM2.5 travels deeper into
the lungs AND because the PM2.5 is made up things that are more toxic (like heavy
metals and cancer causing organic compounds), PM2.5 can have worse health effects than
the bigger PM10

o Once inhaled, these particles can affect the heart and lungs and cause serious health
effects.

o Particulate soot is a major cause of reduced visibility in many parts of the world. It also
can cause damage to paints and building materials.
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources O3
5: Ozone.  A gas that can be found in two places. Near the ground (the troposphere), it is a
major part of smog. The harmful ozone in the lower atmosphere should not be confused with the
protective layer of ozone in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere), which screens out harmful
ultraviolet rays.

Ground level ozone is not emitted directly into the air, but is created by chemical reactions
between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the presence of
sunlight
Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources O3
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources O3
 Tropospheric ozone is formed most efficiently on hot, sunny days under stagnant and humid
air conditions. High humidity and high temperatures enhance the formation of ozone

 Many urban areas tend to have high levels of "bad" ozone, but other areas are also subject to
high ozone levels as winds carry NOx emissions and ozone hundreds of miles away from
their original sources

 High winds tend to dilute ozone concentrations locally but they also transport ozone to
other locations, often causing high ozone concentrations in areas Low wind speeds lead to
the buildup of high local pollutant concentrations.

 Strong ventilation with high wind speeds prevents the local build-up near the sources, but
contributes to long-range transport and regional ozone particularly during directionally
persistent wind conditions

 The distance of O3 transport between the originator emissions and O3 removal is in the
range of 150 to 500 miles
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources
Weather and Seasons: warm sunny days mean more ozone.
 Since sunlight and heat are the engines that drive ozone formation, warm sunny days
should have more ozone than cool or cloudy days.
 Wind can also play a role. On windy days the wind can disperse the ozone, causing
levels to drop.
 Ozone pollution can be especially bad during summer heat waves when the air does not
mix very well and air pollution doesn't disperse.

Time of Day: ozone levels build during the day

 On a clear day, ozone levels can continue to rise all day long, and then decrease rapidly
after sunset. Since heat, sunlight, the ingredient gasses each usually increase during the
day, ozone formation also increases.

 When the sun goes down, there is no energy for ozone formation and fewer ingredient
gases - so ozone levels drop.

The highest ozone concentrations tend to occur in and around large urban areas that generate the
precursors necessary for ozone formation. However, rural areas can also experience high ozone
concentrations due to transport.
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources O3

Ozone concentrations vary over different scales of time. In urban areas where ozone is generated,
ozone concentrations tend to peak in the middle of the day and dip to their lowest concentrations
during the middle of the night. This type of cycle is called diurnal
Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources O3
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources O3
Sources
 Ozone is not created directly, but is formed when NOx and volatile organic compounds
mix in sunlight.That is why ozone is mostly found in the summer.

 Nitrogen oxides come from burning gasoline, coal, or other fossil fuels. There are many
types of volatile organic compounds, and they come from sources ranging from factories
to trees.

 Anthropogenic sources of VOCs include transportation, chemical plants, and refineries

Effects
 Ozone near the ground can cause a number of health problems. Ozone can lead to more
frequent asthma attacks in people who have asthma and can cause sore throats, coughs,
and breathing difficulty. It may even lead to premature death. Ozone can also hurt
plants and crops

 During the summer months high temperatures and bright sunshine lead to increased
ozone formation. Second, people may spend more time outside engaged in physical
activities.
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources Lead
6: Lead. A blue-gray metal that is very toxic and is found in a number of forms and locations. It
is a pollutant of major concern due to both the amount of lead emitted and to its effects on
human health.

 Lead is found in widely varying concentrations in solid and unrefined liquid fuels such as
coal and crude oil--as well as in the heavier refined oil products such as residual oil and is
emitted, often associated with particulate matter, when theses fuels are burned.

 The most important source of lead emissions from the energy sector, however, is the lead
that is used as an "anti-knock" additive in gasoline.

 Once emitted, lead may remain and be transported in the atmosphere in association with
fine particulate matter, or may settle fairly near where it was emitted (such as a roadway)
 Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources Lead
Sources
o In the past, motor vehicles were the biggest source of lead. But since leaded gasoline has been
phased out, lead emissions have decreased by about 98 percent.

o Today, metal processing is the biggest source of atmospheric lead. Paints, smelters, chemical
and pesticide industries, petrochemicals are the largest sources

 Outdoors, lead comes from cars in areas where unleaded gasoline is not used. Lead can
also come from power plants and other industrial sources.

 Indoors, lead paint is an important source of lead, especially in houses where paint is
peeling. Lead in old pipes can also be a source of lead in drinking water.
Effects
 High amounts of lead can be dangerous for small children and can lead to lower
IQs and kidney problems.
 For adults, exposure to lead can increase the chance of having heart attacks or
strokes.
 Lead can also be deposited on leaves of plants, presenting a hazard to grazing
animals.
Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources
 Air Quality Index (AQI)
 The AQI is an index for reporting daily air quality. It tells how clean or polluted the air is,
and what associated health effects might be a concern.

 The AQI focuses on health effects you may experience within a few hours or days after
breathing polluted air. Generally AQI is calculated for five major air pollutants regulated

o Ground-level ozone, particle pollution (also known as particulate matter),

carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide

 Ground-level ozone and airborne particles are the two pollutants that pose the greatest
threat to human health.

 Different countries have their own air quality indices which are not all consistent. Different
countries also use different names for their indices such as Air Quality Health Index, Air
Pollution Index and Pollutant Standards Index
 Air Quality Index (AQI)
Good" AQI is 0 - 50. Air quality is considered
satisfactory, and air pollution poses little or no
risk.

Moderate" AQI is 51 - 100. Air quality is

acceptable; however, for some pollutants there
may be a moderate health concern for a very
small number of people. For example, people
who are unusually sensitive to ozone may
experience respiratory symptoms.

Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups" AQI is 101 - 150. Although general public is not likely to be affected at this
AQI range, people with lung disease, older adults and children are at a greater risk from exposure to ozone,
whereas persons with heart and lung disease, older adults and children are at greater risk from the presence
of particles in the air
o To convert an air pollutant concentration to an AQI, EPA has developed a calculator
o If multiple pollutants are measured at a monitoring site, then the largest or "dominant" AQI
value is reported for the location.
 Air Quality Index (AQI)
"Unhealthy" AQI is 151 - 200. Everyone may begin to experience some adverse health
effects, and members of the sensitive groups may experience more serious effects.

Very Unhealthy" AQI is 201 - 300. This would trigger a health alert signifying that
everyone may experience more serious health effects.

“Dangerous" AQI greater than 300. This would trigger a health warnings of emergency
conditions.The entire population is more likely to be affected.
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