Multiplexer: It selects the input from one of many inputlines and sends itsingle output line. The input line chosen from outputis based upon set of selection lines. For 2 input lines, there will be n select lines and 1 outputlines. No. of mux required to implementn x1 muxusingm x 1 muxis ceil(n-1 / m-1)A@B.No. of mux required to implement 16 x 1 mux using 4 x 1 muxis ceil(15/3)= Demuttiplexer: It selects the inputfrom one inputline and sendsitto one out of many outputlines. The outputline chosen is based upon set of selection lines. For 1 input lines, there will be n select lines and 2 outputlines No. of mux required to implement xn mux using 1x m muxis ceil(n-1 / m-1)A@B. No. of mux required to implement 1 x 16 mux using 1x4 muxis ceil(15/3)=5. Encoder: For 2" inputlines, it has n output. It can be used to convert octal or hexadecimal to binary data. Decoder: For n inputlines, ithas either 2" outputs or less then that. It can be used to convert binary data to other codes like octal or hexadecimal Code Converter: Code converters are used to convert one type of code to others. * BCD to Excess-3: It will add 001 1(value 3) to binary code. Function: 4-bit Input(ABCD) with A as MSB and 4 bit output(WXYZ) with W as MSB, O/P is D+c'D' yD +B’C +BC’D’ W=A+BC+BD + Binary to Gray Converter Function: 4 bit Input(B.8.8.8.) with B, as MSB and 4 bit output(G.G.GiG.) with G, as MSB, OM is G=B; a=B.® Bz 2 By + Bo + Gray to Binary Converter Function: 4-bit Input(G.G.G,G.) with G, as MSB and 4-bit output(B.B.8,B.) with B, as MSB, OP is B=G, 2=Bs@G. =B.OG, w=B®@G,Flip-Flops: Flip-Flop are sequential circuits where O/P depends on present input as well as previous output. S-R Flip-Flops: Clock 3 R Qe o x x Q 1 o o a 1 jo 1 0 1 1 ° 1 1 I 1 Invalid Characteristics equation: Q,= $ +R Q, J-K Flip-Flops: [Chock 7 K Qe fo x * Q 1 0 0 a. i ° 1 ° T 1 o as 1 1 1 A Characteristics equation: Q,=JQ,.+RQ, D Flip-Flops: Clock D Qa 0 x Qu 1 0 0 1 1 1 Characteristics equation: Q,.. =D T Flip-Flops: Clock D Quer 0 x Qu 1 0 Qn 1 1 z Characteristics equation: Q... =T Q.+TQ,Counters Counters is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of times a particular event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a clock signal. Asynchronous counter: In asynchronous counter we do not use universal clock, only first flip flop is driven by main clock and the clock input of rest of the following counters is driven by output of previous flip flops. Synchronous counter: Unlike the asynchronous counter, synchronous counter has one global clock which drives each flip flop so output changes in parallel. The one advantage of synchronous counter over asynchronous counter is, it can operate on higher frequency than asynchronous counter as it does not have cumulative delay because of same clock is givento each flip flop. Number of flip flops used in counter are always greater than equal to (log n) where n=number of states in counter. Bipolar Junction Transistor (also known as a BJT or BUT Transistor) is a three- terminal semiconductor device consisting of two p-n junctions which are able to amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and the emitter. A BJT is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and holes as charge carriers. NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor in an n-p-n bipolar transistor (or npn transistor) one p-type semiconductor resides between two n-type semiconductors the diagram below an n-p-n transistor is shown PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor Similarly for p-n-p bipolar junction transistor (or pnp transistor), an n-type semiconductoris sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors.Monostable Multivibrators or “One-Shot Multivibrators” as they are also called, are used to generate a single output pulse of a specified width, either “HIGH” or “LOW” when asuitable extemal trigger signal or pulse T is applied. Astable Multivibrators are the most commonly used type of multivibrator circuit. An astable multivibrator is a free running oscillator that have no permanent “meta” or “steady” state buts continually changing its outputfrom one state (LOW) to another state (HIGH) and then back again. This continual switching action from "HIGH" to “LOW” and "LOW’ to “HIGH’ produces a continuous and stable square wave output which switches abruptly between the two logic levels making it ideal for timing and clock pulse applications. Bistable multivibrator operates like a pulse detector. When an electronic pulse is input to the circuit, the outputwill switch between two possible states (a high and low output voltage). This switching behavior does not trigger a free-running oscillation, in contrast to an astable multivibrator.Digital Adder Digital Adder is a digital device capable of adding two digital n-bit binary numbers, wheren depends on the circuitimplementation. Digital adder adds two binary numbers AandB to produce a sum S anda carry C Half adder The Half Adder is a digital device used to add two binary bits 0 and 1 The half adder outputs a sum of the two inputs anda carry value 0+0=Sum0Cany 0 0+1=Sum1Cany0 1+0=Sum 1 Camy 0 14+1=Sum0 Cary 1 re en ‘Truth table bs A 4 bit Ba half adder bee ‘Schematic Realization inputs Outputs] -X _, me ome) x a a a H++—4 opp ea a Toe et > ropa pee toa tt Cin [ Full adder is a logical circuit that performs an addition operation on three one-bit binary numbers. The full adder produces a sum of the three inputs and carry value. It can be combined with other full adders (see below) or work on its own. CouSerial In ~ Serial Out SISOSISO Shift Register The shift register, which allows serial inputand produces serial outputis known as Serial In - Serial Out SISOSISO shift register. The block diagram of 3-bit SISO shift register is shown in the following figure. This block diagram consists of three D flip-flops, which are cascaded, That means, output of one D flip-flop is connected as the input of next D flip-flop. All these flip-flops are synchronous with each other since, the same clock signal is applied to each one. In this shift register, we can send the bits serially from the inputof left most D flip-flop. Hence, this inputis also called as serial input. For every positive edge triggering of clock signal, the data shifts from one stage to the next. So, we can receive the bits serially from the output of right most D flip-flop. Hence, this outputis also called as serial output Serial In - Parallel Out SIPOSI/PO Shift Register The shiftregister, which allows serialinputand produces parallel outputis known as Serial In — Parallel Out SIPOSIPO shiftregister. The block diagram of 3-bit SIPO shiftregister is shown in the following figure. This circuit consists of three D flip-flops, which are cascaded. That means, outputof one D flip-flop is connected as the input of next D flip-flop. All these flip-flops are synchronous with each other since, the same clock signal is applied to each one. In this shift register, we can send the bits serially from the inputof left most D flip-flop. Hence, this inputis also called as serial input. For every positive edge triggering of clock signal, the data shifts from one stage to the next. In this case, we can access the outputs of each D flip-flop in parallel. So, we will get parallel outputs from this shiftregister.Half-Wave Rectifier The name half-wave rectifieritself states that the rectification is done only for half of the cycle. The AC signals given through an input transformer which steps up or down according to the usage, Mostly a step-down transformer is used in rectifier circuits, so as to reduce the inputvoltage. The input signal given to the transformer is passed through a PN junction diode which acts as a rectifier. This diode converts the AC voltage into pulsating defor only the positive half cycles of the input. A load resistor is connected at the end of the circuit. The figure below shows the circuit of a half wave rectifier. Working of a HWR The inputsignal is given to the transformer which reduces the voltage levels. The output from the transformer is given to the diode which acts as a rectifier. This diode gets ON conducts for positive half cycles of input signal. Hence a current flowsin the circuit and there will be a voltage drop across the load resistor. The diode gets OFF does not conduct for negative half cycles and hence the output for negative half cycles will be, iD=0/D=0 and Vo=0Vo=0. Hence the outputis present for positive half cycles of the inputvoltage only neglecting the reverse leakage current. This outputwill be pulsating which is taken across the load resistor. Center-tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Arectifier circuitwhose transformer secondary is tapped to get the desired outputvoltage, using two diodes alternatively, to rectify the complete cycle is calledas a Center-tapped Full wave rectifier circuit. The transformer is center tapped here unlike the other cases.The tapping is done by drawing a lead at the mid-point on the secondary winding. This winding is splitinto two equal halves by doing so the voltage at the tapped mid-point is zero. This forms a neutral point.The center tapping provides two separate output voltages which are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity to each other. A number of tapings can be drawn outto obtain various levels of voltages.Center-tapped full wave rectifier. Working of a CT- FWR The working of a center-tapped full wave rectifier can be understood by the above figure, When the positive half cycle of the input voltage is applied, the point M at the transformer secondary becomes positive with respect to the point N. This makes the diode D1D forward biased. Hence current i1/1 flows through the load resistor from A to B. We now have the positive half cycles in the output When the negative half cycle of the input voltage is applied, the point Matthe transformer secondary becomes negative with respect to the point N. This makes the diode D2D2 forward biased. Hence current i2/2 flows through the load resistor from A to B. We now have the positive half cycles in the output, even during the negative half cycles of the input.