Division for Engineering Sciences, Physics and Mathematics

Department of Environmental and Energy Systems

Karin Granström

Emissions of volatile organic

compounds from wood

Karlstad University Studies

2005:6
 Karin Granström

Emissions of volatile organic

compounds from wood

Karlstad University Studies

2005:6
Karin Granström. Emissions of volatile organic compounds from wood.

Dissertation

Karlstad University Studies 2005:6

ISSN 1403-8099
ISBN 91-85335-46-0

© The author

Distribution:
Karlstad University
Division for Engineering Sciences, Physics and Mathematics
Department of Environmental and Energy Systems
SE-651 88 KARLSTAD
SWEDEN
+46 54-700 10 00

www.kau.se

Printed at: Universitetstryckeriet, Karlstad 2005

The branches of my brain
are alive to sun and rain

my forest mind
is in tune with the wind

there is reason in my resin

Kenneth White, Mahamudra

3
Summary

The central aim of this thesis is to support the efforts to counteract certain
environmental problems caused by emissions of volatile organic compounds.

The purpose of this work was (1) to develop a method to establish the amount of
emitted substances from dryers, (2) to determine the effect of drying medium
temperature and end moisture content of the processed material on emissions of
monoterpenes and other hydrocarbons, (3) to examine the emissions of
monoterpenes during production of pellets, and (4) to examine the natural
emissions from forests with an eye to implications for modelling.

The measurement method (1) resolves the difficulties caused by diffuse

emissions, and also solves the problems associated with high moisture content of
the drying medium. The basic idea is to use water vapour to determine the
exhaust flow, and to use a dry ice trap both to preconcentrate emitted VOCs and
to determine the moisture content of the drying medium. The method, as used
in this paper, has an uncertainty of 13% using a 95% confidence interval.

Emissions from a spouted bed (2) in continuous operation drying Norway

Spruce sawdust at temperatures of 140°C, 170°C or 200°C were analysed with
FID and GC-MS. When the sawdust end moisture content was reduced below
10%wb, emissions of terpenes and of total VOC per oven dry weight increased
rapidly. The increased temperature of the drying medium entering the drying
tower also caused an increase in the amounts of emitted monoterpenes at
sawdust moisture contents below the fibre saturation point.

Examination of sawdust and wood pellets from different pellets producers (3)
revealed that most of the terpene emissions take place during the drying step,
with flue gas dryers causing higher emissions than steam dryers. Almost all of
the volatile terpenes remaining in wood after drying were released during
pelleting. Increased terpene emissions during the pelleting process were found
when sawdust with a higher moisture content was used.

Terpenes emitted naturally from vegetation can have adverse environmental

impacts. Factors affecting terpene emissions from tree species in Sweden were
reviewed (4). Models for prediction of terpene fluxes should include not only
temperature but also light intensity, seasonal variation, and a base level of
herbivory and insect predation. Prediction of high concentrations of ambient
terpenes demand sufficient resolution to capture emission peaks, e.g., those
caused by bud break.

5
Sammanfattning

Avhandlingens centrala mål är att bidra till att motverka de miljöproblem

som uppstår vid utsläpp av lättflyktiga organiska ämnen (VOC). Fokus har
legat på terpener, en typ av VOC som bildas av träd och finns i kåda.
Höga koncentrationer av terpener uppstår främst vid bearbetning av trä,
exempelvis vid torkning av sågspån och vid senare processteg som
tillverkning av träpellets.

Delmål var att (1) utveckla en metod att mäta utsläpp av VOC och
terpener från ångtorkar, (2) klarlägga hur mängden och koncentrationen av
VOC, samt mängden och sammansättningen av däri ingående terpener,
ändras med torktemperatur och materialets slutfukthalt, vid kontinuerlig
torkning av sågspån i fluidiserad bädd med recirkulerande torkmedium, (3)
undersöka avgången av terpener från olika typer av spåntorkar och vid
tillverkning av träpellets, och (4) sammanställa och analysera det
nuvarande kunskapsläget om naturliga emissioner av terpener för att se hur
underlaget för dagens atmosfärskemiska modeller kan förbättras.

Den mätmetod (1) som utvecklats och testats löser kända problem vid
mätning av kolväteutsläpp från torkar; t.ex. att det sker betydande läckage
av torkgas från torken och att det höga fuktinnehållet i torkgasen stör
mätutrustningen. Med ett konfidensintervall på 95% har metoden, som
den används här, en mätnoggrannhet på 13%.

Emissionerna vid torkning (2) av sågspån från gran till olika slutfukthalter
vid tre temperaturer (140°C, 170°C och 200°C) analyserades med FID och
GC-MS. Vid torkning till fukthalter under ca 10% (vatten/totalvikt) ökade
terpenavgången per torrsubstans snabbt. Med ökad temperatur på
torkgasen in till torktornet ökar emissionerna när spånens slutfukthalt är
under fibermättnadspunkten.

Analyser av sågspån och pellets från olika pelletsproducenter (3) visade att
större delen av monoterpenerna avgår vid torkningen. Trumtorkar ger
större emissioner än ångtorkar. De terpener som finns kvar i sågspånet
efter torkningen försvinner till stor del vid pelletstillverkningen. En högre
fukthalt på sågspånet i pelletspressen ger större emissioner.

Den naturliga avgången av terpener (4) blir ett problem om de kommer i

kontakt med förorenad luft. Atmosfärskemiska modeller kan förbättras
genom att ta hänsyn till faktorer som ljusmängd, variation över året, och
skador från betande djur och insekter. Upplösningen i tid ska fånga lokala
emissionstoppar, exempelvis vid lövsprickning.

7
Preface

When I studied to Master of Science in chemical engineering at Lund

Institute of Technology, I became interested in toxicology, which led to an
interest in environmental issues. Pursuing this interest, I combined my
graduation project with studies in Human Ecology at Lund University.
Finding this topic interesting but lacking in practical applications, I turned
to studies in Environmental and Energy Systems. This led to PhD studies
in Environmental and Energy Systems at Karlstad University.

I began my work as a PhD Student in 1999, and gyrated to the newly

established research group in Bioenergy. This group studied energy
efficiency in sawdust drying. I took up a related track by studying how the
drying of sawdust could be done with a minimum of hydrocarbon
emissions. We then worked together to investigate emissions from the
production of pellets. The Bioenergy group has grown steadily, and it has
been a pleasure to contribute in forming a strong research group.

Biofuels have an important role to play in the Scandinavian energy

market. By analysing a potential environmental problem with the
production of biofuels, and point to possible solutions, I seek to
contribute to this development.

8
List of publications

This thesis is based on the following Papers, referred to in the text by their
Roman numerals:

I. Granström KM. A method to measure emissions from dryers with

diffuse leakages, using evaporated water as a tracer. Drying Technology
21(7):1197-1214, 2003.

II. Granström KM. Emissions of monoterpenes and VOC during

drying of sawdust in a spouted bed. Forest Products Journal 53(10):48-
55, 2003.

III. Ståhl M, Granström KM, Berghel J, Renström R. Industrial

Processes for Biomass Drying and Their Effects on the Quality
Properties of Wood Pellets. Biomass and Bioenergy 27:621-628, 2004.

IV. Granström KM. A method to measure emissions from dryers with

diffuse leakages II. Sensitivity studies. To be published in Drying
Technology, issue 5, volume 23, 2005.

V. Biogenic emissions of monoterpenes in Sweden — a review with

implications for modelling. Submitted to Atmospheric Environment.

Results relating to this thesis are also presented in:

Granström KM. Utsläpp av lättflyktiga kolväten vid torkning av

biobränslen (eng: Emissions of volatile hydrocarbons (VOC) during
drying of sawdust). Värmeforskrapport 745, Stockholm, 2001.

Granström KM. Emissions of volatile organic compounds during

drying of wood. Karlstad University Studies 2002:14. Karlstad, 2002.

9
Results relating to this thesis have been reported at the following
conferences:

Granström, K.M. Emissions of Monoterpenes and VOC during

Drying of Sawdust in a Continuous spouted bed. Proceedings from
the 12th European Conference and Technology Exhibition on Biomass for
Energy, Industry and Climate Protection, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 17-
21 June, 2002.

Ståhl, M; Granström, K.M.; Berghel, J; Renström, R. Industrial

Processes for Biomass Drying and their Effects on the Quality
Properties of Wood Pellets. Proceedings of the first World Conference on
Pellets, Stockholm, Sweden, 2-4 September, 2002. pp 87-91.

Granström, K.M. Ny ångtorkningsteknik i mellanstor skala.

Documentation from Pellets 2003, Lundsbrunn, Sweden, 4-5 February,
2003. pp 25-26.

Granström, K.M. Steam Drying of Sawdust for Pellets Production.

Proceedings from the International Nordic Bioenergy Conference and
Exhibition, Jyvästylä, Finland, 2-5 September, 2003. pp 476-479.

Granström, K.M. A Method to Measure Emissions from Dryers

with Diffuse Leakages. Proceedings from PRES’03 - 6th Conference on
Process Integration, Modelling and Optimisation for Energy Saving and
Pollution Reduction, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, 26-29 October, 2003.

Results not included in this thesis have been reported at the following
conference:

Granström, K.M. Reduced VOC Emissions from Birch Sawdust

Dried in a Steam Dryer. Proceedings from CSChE 2003 - 53rd
Canadian Chemical Engineering Conference, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada,
26-29 October, 2003.

10
Table of Contents

SUMMARY............................................................................................................................................... 5

SAMMANFATTNING............................................................................................................................ 7

PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................. 8

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS .................................................................................................................... 9

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................... 11

1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................. 13
1.1. BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................................. 13
1.2. OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY ......................................................................................................... 14
1.3. FOCUS ........................................................................................................................................... 15
2. EXTRACTIVES IN WOOD AND RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ........................ 16
2.1. EXTRACTIVES IN WOOD ............................................................................................................... 16
2.2. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF EMISSIONS OF MONOTERPENES................................................... 18
2.3. ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY OF MONOTERPENES .......................................................................... 19
2.4. ANTHROPOGENIC EMISSIONS OF MONOTERPENES ....................................................................... 21
2.4.1. Anthropogenic emissions from logging.............................................................................. 21
2.4.2. Anthropogenic emissions from storing of wood chips....................................................... 21
2.4.3. Anthropogenic emissions from industrial barking............................................................. 22
2.4.4. Anthropogenic emissions from sawing............................................................................... 22
2.4.5. Anthropogenic emissions from pulp and paper production .............................................. 23
2.4.6. Anthropogenic emissions from drying and pelleting ......................................................... 23
2.5. BIOGENIC PRODUCTION AND EMISSION OF MONOTERPENES ....................................................... 23
2.6. TOXICOLOGY OF MONOTERPENES ............................................................................................... 25
2.7. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS FROM TERPENES.................................................................................. 26
3. DRYING OF WOOD......................................................................................................................... 27
3.1. METHODS OF INDUSTRIAL DRYING .............................................................................................. 27
3.2. VOC EMITTED DURING DRYING .................................................................................................. 28
3.3. WOOD CHARACTERISTICS IMPORTANT FOR EMISSIONS DURING DRYING ................................... 29
3.3.1. Temperature in the wood during drying ............................................................................ 30
3.3.2. Mechanisms of terpene release during drying of sawdust ................................................ 30
3.4. RELATED WORK ON EMISSIONS DURING DRYING ........................................................................ 31
3.5. RELATED WORK ON EMISSIONS DURING PELLETS PRODUCTION ................................................. 33
4. EXPERIMENTS ................................................................................................................................ 34
4.1. MATERIAL .................................................................................................................................... 34
4.2. DRYER .......................................................................................................................................... 34
4.3. ANALYTICAL EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................................ 36
4.4. CALCULATIONS ............................................................................................................................ 38
4.4.1. Concentration of monoterpenes ......................................................................................... 39
4.4.2. Concentration of volatile organic compounds................................................................... 39
4.5. VALIDATION AND SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS................................................................................... 39
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION........................................................................................................ 40
5.1. MEASUREMENT METHOD [PAPER I AND IV]................................................................................ 40
5.2. EMISSIONS DURING DRYING OF SAWDUST [PAPER II] ................................................................. 41
5.3. EMISSIONS OF MONOTERPENES FROM PELLETS PRODUCTION [PAPER III] .................................. 42
5.4. BIOGENIC EMISSIONS OF TERPENES [PAPER V]........................................................................... 43

11
6. CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................ 44

7. FURTHER RESEARCH NEEDS.................................................................................................... 45

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................. 46

APPENDIX I. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL DATA OF MONOTERPENES ......................... 47

APPENDIX II. SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS..................................................................... 48

REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................... 49

12
1. Introduction

1.1. Background

The use of biofuels has increased considerably over the last years in
Sweden. Environmental taxes on CO2 and NOx have made biofuels cost-
competitive to other energy sources. Biofuels have further advantages over
fossil hydrocarbons: (1) they do not emit net CO2 to the atmosphere, (2)
they are a renewable resource and (3) they create local job opportunities.

The drying of wood-based biofuels is important since the moisture content

is one of the most important criteria of quality (Berghel and Renström,
2004). During storage of wet wood, fungal particles that have been shown
to cause health problems will increase. Wet wood also results in low
combustion temperatures, which lead to low energy efficiency and high
emissions of hydrocarbons and particles. If biofuels are dried and
compressed to pellets or briquettes, the fuel will have controlled moisture
content and higher energy density, and it will be easier to transport and
take up less room during storage.

Extractives in wood are emitted during drying and pelleting. This is a

cause of environmental problems. The emitted wood extractives, volatile
organic compounds (VOC), contribute in the presence of nitrogen oxides
and sunlight to the formation of photo-oxidants. The photo-oxidants are
harmful to humans, as they cause irritation in the respiratory tract and in
sensitive parts of the lungs. They also disturb photosynthesis, causing
damage to forests and crops. The major part of the VOCs emitted to air
during drying are monoterpenes (Johansson and Rasmuson, 1998).

Anthropogenic emissions of biogenic VOCs primarily come from wood

processing in forestry and the forest industry. Anthropogenic emissions
occur due to machining, logging, chipping, drying, debarking, sawing and
pulping. Such point emissions can create high concentrations of photo-
oxidants locally. However, there are also large natural emissions of
biogenic VOCs from trees and other plants. These emissions are
dominated by monoterpenes, isoprene and volatile carbonyl compounds.

Antropogenic and biogenic monoterpene emissions are interconnected.

Increased biogenic production will increase the monoterpene content in
wood, which will translate into increased emissions during the logging,
barking and processing of wood.

13
1.2. Objectives of this study

This study was made to improve the environmental performance and the
resource use efficiency of biofuel systems. Specifically, the purpose was to
investigate emissions of volatile hydrocarbons during drying and pelleting
in order to decrease environmental and health hazards. In addition, the
natural emissions of monoterpenes have been examined.

The aim of the first paper was to establish a method to measure diffuse
emissions from dryers with recirculating drying medium [Paper I]. This
was followed by a thorough sensitivity analysis [Paper IV].

The experiments described in the second paper investigate the

monoterpene and VOC emissions from the drying of Norway Spruce
sawdust in a continuous spouted bed [Paper II]. The main objective of
this paper was to determine how the temperature of the drying medium
and the final moisture content of the processed material affect the total
amount, composition, and drying medium concentration of VOC emitted
during drying.

In a related study, the emissions of monoterpenes and VOC during drying

of Scots Pine sawdust were investigated. In addition, the energy use during
drying to different moisture contents at different temperatures was
examined. The results, together with the data in Paper II, were published
in a report (Granström, 2001).

The third paper broadens the view from the drying of sawdust to
encompass the production of pellets. The aim was to determine the fate
of the monoterpenes left in sawdust after drying, when the dried sawdust is
used for pellets production.

In paper V, the biogenic emissions of monoterpenes are investigated, and

implications for modelling studies are discussed.

14
1.3. Focus

In this study, the focus has been on emissions of monoterpenes.

Compounds I believe to be sesquiterpenes and diterpenes have been
detected in emissions from wood processing, but since monoterpenes were
clearly the dominant group, the non-monoterpene compounds were not
identified, nor quantified. The analysis method employed for
identification of compounds is not suitable for some of the highly volatile
compounds that have been found in emissions from several wood species.
These substances include formic acid, acetic acid, formaldehyde,
acetaldehyde and methanol. While these substances were not individually
identified, the total amount of emitted hydrocarbons was detected using
another method of analysis.

The material used in the drying experiments reported in Paper II was

sawdust of Norway Spruce. It should be noted that the amount and
composition of emissions are species specific.

15
2. Extractives in wood and related environmental issues

2.1. Extractives in wood

The amount and composition of extractive organic compounds in wood

depend on species of tree, time of year, tree genetics and age, and vary
within individual plants.

The extractive organic compounds in wood can be classified into three

groups based on their role in plant physiology:

1. nutrient reserve;
2. plant hormones;
3. protective and wood conserving substances.

The nutrient reserve is made up of fatty acids and fats. The most
abundant fatty acids are linoleic acid, oleic acid and linolenic acid. Fatty
acids are usually esterised with glycerol to fat, which is found in cells in
marrow streaks. The amount of fat is highest in autumn and lowest in
spring. Plant hormones are sterols, a group of compounds closely related
to triterpenes. Substances with protective and wood conserving properties
are terpenes, resin acids, phenols and tannic acids.

The terpenes are found in resin. In sapwood of both conifers and

hardwoods, resin is located in parenchyma cells or resin canals.
Parenchyma resin consists of terpenes, esters, fats and waxes. The resin in
resin canals is composed of resin acids dissolved in volatile terpenes. In
conifer heartwood, resin is distributed throughout the tissue (Back, 2002b).

In conifers, the terpene group consists mostly of mono- sesqui- and

diterpenes, whereas triterpenes and sterols dominate in deciduous trees
(Fengel and Wegener, 1984; Sjöström, 1981).

The extractive organic compounds can also be classified into groups

according to their chemical structure: terpenes and terpenoids, aliphatic
compounds (fat, fatty acids, fatty alcohols and alkanes), and phenols
(tannic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes).

16
Terpenes are defined as hydrocarbons built from isoprene units. Isoprene
has the molecular structure CH2=C(CH3)-CH=CH2, and its formal name
is 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene. Terpenes have the chemical formula (C5H8)n,
where n≥2. They are classified according to the number of isoprene units
per molecule, see table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Types of terpenes.

Number of 2 3 4 6 8 >8
isoprene units:
Classification mono- sesqui- di- tri- tetra- poly-
terpene terpene terpene terpene terpene terpene

Monoterpenes (C10H16) are the most volatile group of the components

present in wood. They are therefore of particular interest in studies of
emissions from wood and from trees. The boiling points of monoterpenes
are in the range of 150°C to 180°C. The chemical properties of
monoterpenes are to a large degree dependent on the number of olefinic
double bonds in the molecular structure. Monoterpenes can be acyclic,
monocyclic or bicyclic, with three, two or one double bond, respectively.
The molecular structures of some common monoterpenes are depicted in
figure 2.1. The boiling points of sesquiterpenes are about 100°C higher
than for monoterpenes.

α-pinene β-pinene myrcene 3-carene limonene

Figure 2.1. Molecular structure of some common monoterpenes.

The most abundant Swedish conifers, Norway Spruce and Scots Pine, have
resin consisting to 25-30% of monoterpenes. Sesquiterpenes make up a
few percent of the resin (Strömvall and Petersson, 1999). A rough estimate
of the monoterpene content in wood is 0.1-0.15% of the tree’s dry
substance for Norway Spruce and 0.2-0.6% for Scots Pine (Nussbaum and
Englund, 1997). The terpene content in Norway Spruce is dominated by
α-pinene, followed by β-pinene and 3-carene (often in an approximate
relation of 3:2:1). In Scots pine, α-pinene and 3-carene dominate,
followed by β-pinene.

17
2.2. Environmental effects of emissions of monoterpenes
The most important environmental effects of monoterpene emissions are
due to the formation of photo-oxidants. The photo-oxidants created due
to monoterpene emissions cause forest and crop damage, and they are
harmful to humans as they cause irritation in the respiratory tract and in
sensitive parts of the lungs. For the general public, the smell around
wood-processing units is likely to be the most noticeable environmental
effect.

The concentration of monoterpenes in emission plumes caused by

anthropogenic activities is typically 10-1000 times higher than the
background level in conifer forests. Due to the short atmospheric lifespan
of monoterpenes, the highest photo-oxidant concentrations can be
expected within 5 hours after the emission takes place, and within a
distance of 50 km (Strömvall and Petersson, 1999).

The rate-limiting initial reaction step during the daylight formation of

photo-oxidants from monoterpenes generally involves reaction with a
hydroxyl radical (OH-radical, HO•) (Atkinson et al., 1986) or with ozone
(O3) (Atkinson and Carter, 1984). Monocyclic and noncyclic
monoterpenes normally react more rapidly with ozone than with hydroxyl
radicals. For the bicyclic monoterpenes, the two reactions compete; they
generally react with OH-radical during the day, while at night the
OH-radical concentration in ambient air is low and reactions with ozone
and NO3-radical take over (Corchnoy and Atkinson, 1990).

The reactions between monoterpenes and ozone initially lower the ozone
levels. However, in the presence of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sunlight,
net formation of ozone will follow. Emissions of nitrogen oxides in
combination with terpenes increase ozone levels considerably. The
ozonolysis of monoterpenes also gives rise to immediate formation of
radicals, aldehydes, peroxides and other potentially harmful photo-
oxidants (Hatakeyama et al., 1989; Hooker et al., 1985; Yokouchi and
Ambe, 1985). Monoterpenes react more rapidly with both the OH-radical
and O3 than most other hydrocarbons. This means that monoterpenes
cause elevated concentrations of photo-oxidants faster and within shorter
distances from the source than do most other hydrocarbons. During
spring and summer days, when the formation of photo-oxidants is at its
highest, the average atmospheric residence time of bicyclic monoterpenes
may be less than one hour, and that of myrcene less than 10 minutes
(table 2.2).

18
Table 2.2. Lifetimes of monoterpene molecules in ambient air (Altshuller, 1983). Southern
Sweden is 55°N.
July Midday July Average Jan Midday Summer
25-45°N 55°N 55°N at night
Daylight Daylight Daylight Night
Lifetime Lifetime Lifetime Lifetime
(min) (h) (h) (h)
α-pinene 36 1.4 3.8 1.5
β-pinene 66 4.6 14.0 6.3
3-carene 36 1.6 4.4 1.8
limonene 12 0.3 0.8 0.3
β-phellandrene 24 1.1 3.0 1.2
myrcene 6 0.2 0.4 0.2

Interactions with other emissions are important for the environmental

impact of monoterpene emissions. If co-emitted with nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) and ozone (O3), the reaction rates of monoterpenes increase and
organic nitrates may form (Kotzias et al., 1990). Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is
oxidised more quickly in the presence of ozone and monoterpenes (Stangl
et al., 1988). Terpenes are thus contributing to acid deposition and soil
acidification, when co-emitted with NO2 and SO2.

Anthropogenic terpene emissions are usually emitted to air close to other

process emissions. In the kraft and pulp industries, the terpene emissions
are mixed with large emissions of both sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides (Strömvall and Petersson, 1992). The mechanical pulp industries
co-emit considerable amounts of nitrogen oxides. Harvesters and other
diesel machines used in forestry, as well as traffic on nearby roads, emit
nitrogen oxides.

2.3. Atmospheric chemistry of monoterpenes

The relation between volatile organic compounds, NOx and ozone
represents one of the major scientific challenges associated with urban air
pollution (Sillman, 1999). A highly simplified set of reaction paths is
included here as background. For a thorough review of gas-phase terpene
oxidation products, see (Calogirou et al., 1999).

19
In the atmosphere, NO2 can absorb light and break up into a nitric oxide
(NO) and a free excited (*) oxygen atom (reaction I). The free oxygen
atom is very reactive and immediately combines with an oxygen molecule
(O2) to form ozone (reaction II). Ozone is also very reactive, and
decomposes when it encounters nitric oxide (reaction III). The net
reaction is no net change.

NO2 + light ¡ NO + O* I
O* + O2 ¡ O3 II
O3 + NO ↔ NO2 + O2 III
no net reaction

When terpenes and other hydrocarbons (R-H) react with OH-radical or

ozone, the reaction products can react further and form many different
radicals (•) and oxidised radicals. An example is reaction IV and V
(Petersson, 1997), where OH-radical reacts with VOC to form alkyl radical
(R•) (IV), and the alkyl radical reacts with molecular oxygen to form alkyl
peroxy radical (R-OO•) (V). Peroxy radicals can convert NO to NO2
(reaction VI).

R-H + HO• ¡ R• + H2O IV

R• + O2 ¡ R-OO• V
R-OO• + NO ¡ NO2 + RO• VI
R-H + HO• + O2 + NO ¡ H2O + NO2 + R-O•

When nitric oxide reacts with peroxy radicals (HOO• and ROO•) instead
of with ozone, the result is a net formation of ozone. The reactions above
can be summarised as a sequence of two reactions:

NO2 + O2 ↔ O3 + NO I , II
R-H + HO• + O2 + NO ¡ H2O + NO2 + R-O• IV, V, VI
R-H + HO• + 2O2 ¡ H2O + R-O• + O3

The excess ozone reacts with a NO radical during night-time, when the
lack of UV-light hinders further decomposition of NO2.

20
2.4. Anthropogenic emissions of monoterpenes
All machining, tooling and shaping of biomass is likely to cause
monoterpene emissions. Drying is an important source of anthropogenic
emissions of monoterpenes. Other activities that cause anthropogenic
emissions include logging, chipping, debarking, sawing, pulping, and
board production. It is important to know the magnitude of
anthropogenic emissions in order to model effects on local atmospheric
chemistry, assess the suitability of different process procedures, and see
where efforts should be focused in order to decrease emissions.

2.4.1. Anthropogenic emissions from logging

Forestry has a considerable impact on monoterpene emissions.
Concentration levels in air for monoterpenes emitted during forestry
operations in Southwest Sweden have been measured to 1.0-1.5 mg/m3
near the harvester during logging of both Scots Pine and Norway Spruce
(Strömvall and Petersson, 1991). Above fresh branch wood, the
corresponding levels were 100-500 µg/m3. Four weeks after thinning, the
vegetation still emitted increased amounts of terpenes, the concentration
in air being 50 µg/m3. This should be compared with the background
level of 1 µg/m3.
A pre-commercial thinning in a Ponderosa Pine plantation in the Sierra
Nevada mountains, removing half of the biomass, gave a tenfold increase
in monoterpene fluxes (Schade and Goldstein, 2003).
A factor 2 increase in monoterpene emissions is sufficient to raise local
tropospheric ozone production and suppress local hydroxyl radical
concentrations (Litvak et al., 1999). Logging operations can therefore be
suspected of altering regional atmospheric chemistry for a considerable
time.

2.4.2. Anthropogenic emissions from storing of wood chips

Wood chips in heaps outdoors in a temperature of 12 °C have been shown

to emit hydrocarbons, with stirring of the heaps having a noticeable effect
(table 2.3) (Axelsson et al., 1992). A fan blowing at the heaps had an
evaporative effect even after three weeks.

21
 3
Table 2.3. Emissions from outdoor heaps of wood chips (mg C/m ) (Axelsson et al., 1992)
Immediate Ten Minutes Twenty Minutes
Effect after Stirring after Stirring
Freshly cut Spruce 100 30 15
Spruce twelve hours after cutting 20 8
50% Norway Spruce, 50% Scots Pine 7 2
three weeks after cutting

A German study found an initially rapid decrease in terpene content in

wood cut to chips, with the terpene content decreasing by 4% in a week,
and a subsequently slower decrease (Marutzky, 1979) (table 2.4).

Table 2.4. Decreasing terpene content in wet and dry wood chips during storage
(Marutzky, 1979).
Storage Time Wet Wood Chips Dried Wood Chips
(months) Terpenes in wood Terpenes left Terpenes in wood Terpenes left
(g/kg odw) (%) (g/kg odw) (%)
0 4.8 100 0.7 100
4 1.3 27 0.47 67
8 0.67 14 0.3 43
12 0.49 10 0.26 37

If logging residues are stored uncomminuted, in covered windrows or in

bundles, the risks of self-ignition and allergic reactions are eliminated and
dry matter losses minimal (Jirjis, 1995). If logging residues are forwarded
into a windrow directly after felling, and immediately covered with
impregnated paper, the substance losses are less than 1% of the dry matter
per month (Jirjis and Theander, 1990). The moisture content in bundles of
newly harvested logging residues stored 9 months in windrows decreased
from 43%wb to 26%wb when covered and to 30% when stored uncovered.

2.4.3. Anthropogenic emissions from industrial barking

The concentration of monoterpenes in air during single-log barking of
timber have been measured to 5-20 mg/m3, and during drum barking of
pulpwood to 50-100 mg/m3 (Strömvall and Petersson, 1993a).
Measurement of VOC in a drum barker during debarking of Spruce gave
the average emission of 53 g per m3 of produced chips (Svedberg and
Paulsson, 1995).

2.4.4. Anthropogenic emissions from sawing

Measurements in Swedish sawmills have shown terpene concentrations of
50-550 mg/m3 in air (Lundberg, 1987). The higher concentrations were
found in older studies before working conditions had received much
attention.

22
In the production hall of a sawmill, the average emission of terpenes
during sawing has been measured to 153 g/m3 of board for Pine and 25
g/m3 of board for Spruce (Svedberg and Paulsson, 1995).

Measurements of the monoterpene concentration in air at sawmills have

shown large seasonal variability, at least when reasonably fresh wood is
sawn (Conners et al., 2001). This has been attributed to seasonal
variations in the monoterpene content in wood.

2.4.5. Anthropogenic emissions from pulp and paper production

The sulphate pulp process gives turpentine as a by-product. Turpentine
that was recovered from digester relief gases amounted to 2.5 kg per tonne
sulphate pulp in 1991 (Strömvall and Petersson, 1993b). Sulphate pulp is
mostly produced from Scots Pine. Depending on the wood used and the
extent of turpentine recovery, Strömvall and Petersson estimated terpene
emissions to be 0.6-5 kg/tonne sulphate pulp (Strömvall and Petersson,
1993b).

In the stone groundwood process, using Norway Spruce wood,

monoterpene concentrations of more than 0.5 mg/m3 have been measured
at ground level (Strömvall and Petersson, 1990). Released monoterpenes
are often vented to air without recovery, despite that approximately 0.9 kg
turpentine per tonne dry pulp can be recovered from process emissions
(Strömvall and Petersson, 1999).

Efforts to recover turpentine have increased in recent years, but there is

still more to be done.

2.4.6. Anthropogenic emissions from drying and pelleting

This is discussed in chapter 3.

2.5. Biogenic production and emission of monoterpenes

Terpenes have several protective functions in plants (Kesselmeier and

Staudt, 1999). They neutralise ozone that would disturb photosynthesis.
They repel many insects and herbivores. They also lower the viscosity of
resin, making it possible for resin to flow to a damaged part of the plant.
There the volatile terpenes are emitted to air and non-volatile components
of the resin are left as a hydrophobic cover, protecting the tree from
further damage.

23
Monoterpenes are produced by the melalon acid pathway, starting with
Acetyl-CoA. They are made from two C5-units, isopenthyl-pyrophosphate
and dimethylallyl-pyrophosphat, giving the C10-unit geranyl-
pyrophosphat, which enzymes from the class monoterpene-cyclases
transform in several steps to monoterpene hydrocarbons C10H16
(Gershenzon and Croteau, 1992; Goodwin and Mercer, 1983).

The content of monoterpenes in conifers of different species varies.

Within the same species, the content varies between different tree stands
and within individual trees. The terpene concentration in trees is known
to vary seasonally. This seasonal cycle can be explained with plants
adjusting their investment of resources in terpene- and terpenoid
production to obtain sufficient protection against insects and herbivores
without too great a drain on the plants’ resources (Lerdau et al., 1994).

Monoterpenes provide both constitutive and inducible defences.

Constitutive defences are always present in a level dependent on genotype
and resource availability. Terpene production has been shown to be
affected by the availability of resources (e.g. biologically available nitrogen
and water) and the plants’ growth stadium (Lerdau et al., 1995). Seasonal
variation is also characterised by changes in terpene composition (Janson,
1993; Staudt et al., 2000). Monoterpene production is induced when the
plant is attacked, for example, by herbivores, fungi, or insects (Gershenzon
and Croteau, 1991; Raffa, 1991). When the plant is damaged, it produces
substances that increase monoterpene syntase activity and thus terpene
concentration. The terpenes that are normally present in small amounts
increase the most. Therefore, the composition of monoterpenes change in
response to external elicitors such as herbivore or pathogen attacks (Raffa,
1991). This implies that the terpenes that are normally present only in
small amounts are those that most efficiently deter from attacks.

Terpenes and terpenoids are more expensive to synthesise per gram than
most other primary and secondary metabolites. This is due to several
factors: (1) their production necessitates extensive chemical reduction, (2)
the enzyme costs of making terpenoids are high since terpenoid
biosynthetic enzymes are apparently not shared with other metabolic
pathways (plant cells may even have more than one set of enzymes for
catalysing the steps of terpenoid production), and (3) the energy expended
for storage is likely to be substantial since terpenoids are harmful for non-
specialised plant cells and usually stored in complex multicellular
specialised storage and secretory structures within the plant (Gershenzon,
1994).

24
2.6. Toxicology of monoterpenes

Exposure limits set by Swedish authorities for monoterpenes and

turpentine are 25 ppm (150 mg/m3) on average over an eight-hour
workday, and 50 ppm (300 mg/m3) over a fifteen minute period (AFS,
2000).

The toxic effects on humans of monoterpenes described in the scientific

literature are primarily a result of simultaneous exposure to several
different monoterpenes. This is the case, for example, in sawmills or
during contact with turpentine. During experiments with exposure to
terpenes in exposure chambers no acute toxicological effects have been
demonstrated (Falk et al., 1991; Falk et al., 1990). However, it has long
been known that exposure to wood dust during the processing of wood
causes respiratory difficulties and irritation to mucous membranes (Ruppe,
1929). This has been confirmed in several later studies (Dahlqvist et al.,
1992; Dahlqvist et al., 1996; Eriksson et al., 1997; Eriksson et al., 1996;
Halpin et al., 1994a; Hedenstierna et al., 1983; Malmberg et al., 1996).
Work related exposure to terpenes in air has been reported to cause
problems in the respiratory tract at concentrations of 100-200 mg/m3
(Levin, 1994). Sawmill workers have an increased number of cells in the
nasal mucous membrane and an increased reactivity in the respiratory tract
(Eriksson et al., 1996; Halpin et al., 1994b), which indicates an acute
toxicological effect. Exposure to sawmill fumes has also been shown to
cause an acute decrease in carbon monoxide lung diffusing capacity
(Eriksson et al., 1996). It was assumed that these problems were caused by
terpenes or micro-organisms (Dahlqvist and Ulfvarson, 1994). However,
as wood dust causes irritative effects not observed during exposure to
terpenes, it has been suggested that the problems could be caused by
oxygenated terpenes formed during the processing of wood or by terpenes
reaching the lungs through adsorption to particles of wood dust
(Malmberg et al., 1996). It could also be the dust particles themselves that
cause the problems (Dahlqvist et al., 1996). Terpene oxidation products
have been found to cause an increase in the sensitivity of the respiratory
tract and a decrease in the lungs’ gas exchange ability (Malmberg et al.,
1996).

Turpentine can cause allergic and non-allergic contact dermatitis (Cronin,

1979). Terpenes can form alkyl hydroperoxides (R-OOH), which are
known to cause allergies and give a delayed oversensibility of the skin
(Matura et al., 2003). Monoterpenes’ potential to cause irritative
symptoms in mice depends on the molecules’ stereochemistry: (+)-pinenes

25
and (+)-carene have a similar irritative effect, while (−)-β-pinene is one
quarter as irritating and (−)-α-pinene hardly irritating at all (Kasanen et al.,
1999). Turpentine consists of a mixture of monoterpenes and has an
irritative effect similar to that of (+)-pinene, why it can be concluded that
turpentine’s irritative effects originate from its content of
(+)-monoterpenes (Kasanen et al., 1999).

Monoterpenes do not differ regarding uptake, distribution or elimination.

Inhalation causes a body uptake of 60-70% of the monoterpenes.
Terpenes are stored in fatty tissue, which means that they have a long
half-life. However, they are quickly metabolised by the enzyme system
Cytochrome P-450. A few percent exits the body unchanged (Falk-
Filipsson, 1995).

Terpenes are detectable by smell at low concentrations, the threshold for

α-pinene is 16 µg/m3.

2.7. Commercial products from terpenes

Conifer terpenes are sold as turpentine and pine oil. Turpentine is a

by-product from pulp production and is used as solvent in paints. The
composition of terpenes in turpentine varies with tree species and type of
pulp process. α-pinene and β-pinene are used as components of camphor,
perfume and insect deterrent. Limonene-based solvents for cleaning and
degreasing have been introduced as replacements for chlorinated solvents
like trichloroethene and CFCs.

26
3. Drying of wood

3.1. Methods of industrial drying

There are many different types of dryers. A common ground for

classification is the manner in which the heat is supplied to the material.
This can be done in three different ways:

1. Convection: here the drying medium flows across the surface of the
processed material and carries away the moisture. Convection dryers
are also called direct dryers. In a rotary dryer, the processed material
moves with or against the gas flow through a rotating pipe. In a belt
dryer, the drying medium flows through the material that rests on a
moving conveyor belt. In a fluidised bed dryer, the drying medium has
high enough velocity to cause the processed material to float and the
gas-solid mixture to behave like a fluid. In a flash dryer, the velocity of
the drying medium is so high that the processed material is taken along,
and transported through a series of pipe lengths and bends before being
separated from the drying medium. A grinding dryer is a flash dryer
with a mill grinder in the gas duct. The mill grinder serves to reduce
the size of the processed material.

2. Conduction: here heat is supplied through heated surfaces and the

moisture is carried away by a vacuum operation or by a flow of gas
whose main function is to remove moisture. Conduction dryers are
also called indirect dryers. In a paddle dryer and a screw dryer the
processed material is transported through a tunnel with heated surfaces.
Rotary dryers and flash dryers can be designed for indirect heating.
(The heat transfer is partly due to convection also in conduction
dryers).

3. Radiation: here heat is supplied by electromagnetic radiation with

wavelengths ranging from microwave to the solar spectrum. Dryers
using IR-radiation from electric elements are the most common kind.

Traditional drying media are flue gas and air. Superheated steam is an
alternative that has attracted increased interest due to its larger potential
for energy recovery. When the drying medium is flue gas or air, the
evaporated moisture is mixed with combustion gases and air.

27
Condensation then occurs at relatively low temperatures, typically at
45-55°C. If the steam is not diluted, steam drying results in a condensate
of higher and more useful temperatures.

During drying in direct dryers, terpenes follow the used drying medium
out of the dryer. The drying medium is often led to an incinerator, where
the terpenes are combusted. Flue gas recycling is favourable both in terms
of emission control and in terms of energy efficiency. In an indirect dryer,
terpenes will be found in the inert gases and can easily be combusted. If
the drying medium is condensed, significant amounts of monoterpenes
can be found as a separate phase on the condensate and may thus be
recovered (Strömvall and Petersson, 1999). In the absence of solubility
enhancing surfactants, terpenes are unlikely to be found in the condensate
due to their low water solubility (appendix I).

3.2. VOC emitted during drying

During drying of wood, both volatile and less volatile compounds can be
emitted to air, the latter by steam distillation. The volatile compounds
emitted are primarily monoterpenes. The less volatile compounds include
fatty acids, resin acids, diterpenes and triterpenes. The less volatile
compounds emitted during drying have high boiling points, but
sufficiently high vapour pressure to leave wood at 180-220°C. Less volatile
compounds can be found as vapours in the drying medium, as aerosols or
at the surface of particles (Bridgwater et al., 1995). When gaseous less
volatile compounds leave the dryer, they cool in the surrounding air and
condense to form small droplets called sub-micron aerosols. If the water
vapour does not condense, the aerosols are visible as a blue haze. This
mostly happens during drying at high temperatures.

During high temperature drying, thermal degradation of wood gives rise to

formic acid, acetic acid, alcohols, aldehydes, furfurals and carbon dioxide
(Bridgwater et al., 1995; Fengel and Wegener, 1984; Münter et al., 1999).
It has not been established how high the temperature has to be before
thermal degradation products are formed. Broege et al. gives 130°C as an
estimate (Broege et al., 1996), whereas Bridgwater et al. report 200°C
(Bridgwater et al., 1995). The temperature necessary to cause thermal
degradation is likely to be somewhat dependent on the species of tree that
is being dried. Degradation of emitted hydrocarbons in recirculating
drying medium is probably dominated by gas phase reactions close to
heating surfaces.

28
3.3. Wood characteristics important for emissions during drying

In general outline, the drying of hygroscopic materials, such as wood,

proceeds in three stages (Fyhr and Rasmuson, 1996; Mujumdar and
Menon, 1995). During the first stage, the wood contains free moisture and
has a wet surface maintained by rapid capillary fluid transport. The drying
rate is characterised by the evaporation of free water, and it is constant
over time (when the bulk vapour pressure in the drying medium and the
turbulent conditions are constant). The second stage occurs when dry
spots appear on the surface of the drying material, at the critical moisture
content. The movement of water is here characterised by mass diffusion,
and the drying rate falls. The third stage begins when the surface film of
moisture is completely evaporated. Moisture bound by absorption is
removed and the drying rate is controlled by the net diffusion of water
from the bulk of the processed material to its surface.

Moisture in wood occurs as free water in the cell lumen and as bound
water in the cell walls. When the wood moisture content is above the
fibre saturation point, the cell walls are saturated and excess water is found
in the lumen.

Trees have two distinct types of wood, sapwood and heartwood. Sapwood
of both softwoods and hardwoods is porous with continuous channels for
water, nutrients and resin. These different channels are in softwoods, but
not in hardwoods, connected through pores. Pines have a developed resin
canal system. Norway Spruce has regular resin channels only in the bark,
although traumatic resin channels and resin pockets develop as a response
to wounding and mechanical stress (Back, 2002a). In the heartwood of
softwoods, large amounts of adhesives seal the apertures and break off
water transport (Bengtsson and Sanati, 2004b). Also, the lumen is filled
with extractives and resin is found throughout the tissue (Back, 2002a).

During drying of conifers, the pits in sapwood aspirate successively, to be

mostly sealed when the moisture content falls below the fibre saturation
point. In conifer heartwood, moisture is bound within the cell walls,
causing a reduced drying rate. This means that the transport of water is
very different in sapwood and heartwood above the fibre saturation point,
whereas, below the fibre saturation point, heartwood and sapwood are
similar where water transport is concerned (Bengtsson and Sanati, 2004b).

29
3.3.1. Temperature in the wood during drying

During drying, the temperature in wood chips first increases to the boiling
point of water at the applied pressure. Then, at about 10%wb wood
moisture content, the wood temperature rapidly increases to match the
drying medium temperature (Johansson and Rasmuson, 1998).

Differences in the wood structure, e.g., permeability, cause the temperature

in the middle of the chip to remain at the boiling point for a longer period
of time in Pine than in Spruce. In addition, the increase in temperature
from the boiling point to the temperature of the drying medium is faster
in Pine than in Spruce (Danielsson and Rasmuson, 2002).

3.3.2. Mechanisms of terpene release during drying of sawdust

Studies of VOC emissions over time during batch drying of softwoods

have shown a high initial peak, followed by linear decrease, and then a
broad peak that begins when the wood is almost dry (Banerjee et al., 1995;
Ingram et al., 2000; Karlsson, 2001). The intensity of the second signal
increases with increasing dryer temperature, with a sharp increase above
the boiling point of α-pinene. This indicates that the emissions from dry
wood is driven by vapour pressure (Banerjee et al., 1998).

At least three mechanisms are operative for the movement and release of
α-pinene and other terpenes from wood particles (Banerjee, 2001). An
initial burst of α-pinene very early in the drying process is mainly
attributed to the loss of α-pinene dissolved in surface water. Then, α-
pinene and water are released in a near-constant ratio. The similar
emission profiles indicate a common mechanism, probably that water
mobilises α-pinene from the interior of the sawdust particle, as surfactants
present in wood solubilise α-pinene into water. Finally, α-pinene is
emitted through evaporation when the wood is almost dry.

This mechanism of terpene release have been shown to apply also to

commercial drying of lumber (Conners et al., 2002). The first emission
burst was independent of temperature, suggesting that it originated from
surface material when the wood heated. Then α-pinene and water were
released in a ratio of approximately 1:1000. Finally, in the falling rate
phase, monoterpene emissions increased as the water emissions tapered
off.

30
3.4. Related work on emissions during drying

There are several published studies dealing with the problem of emissions
of monoterpenes and other VOC from wood during drying, see examples
in table 3.1. In some more recent work, e.g., (Danielsson and Rasmuson,
2002), (Johansson, 2002), (McDonald et al., 2002), (NCASI, 2002),
(Bengtsson and Sanati, 2004a), either only one monoterpene is measured
or the units used are incompatible with the ones in table 3.1.

Reports of monoterpene emissions from the drying of wood sawdust,

chips and lumber range from (<10)-740 mg/kg odw for Norway Spruce,
210-2020 mg/kg odw for Scots pine, 120-200 mg/kg odw for Radiata pine,
210-315 mg/kg odw for Douglas-fir, to 817-1590 mg/kg odw for Ponderosa
Pine (table 3.1).

In the studies referred to, the focus of interest has generally been on
presenting information about the total emission of VOC during drying of
boards. This is because much research has been motivated by
environmental regulations (USA) on VOC emission from dryers, and
boards are the most common form of wood to be dried. However, there
are also studies on the effects of different drying parameters of VOC
emissions from sawdust.

Important parameters mentioned for emissions released are the species of

tree, drying temperature, drying time, initial moisture content and the size
of the processed material.

It is evident that tree species differ in the amount of monoterpenes

emitted during drying, cf. table 3.1. In a Swedish context, it is especially
interesting that Scots Pine emits considerably more monoterpenes during
drying than does Norway Spruce (Broege et al., 1996; Englund and
Nussbaum, 2000; Granström, 2003).

Drying of wood fragments and sawdust often gives higher emission values
than drying of boards, cf. table 3.1. The generally higher emissions from
the drying of sawdust are likely due to shorter diffusion paths and use of
different types of dryers using higher temperatures.

If the difference between initial and final moisture content is large, more
drying is required and more emissions of VOC can be expected (Wu and
Milota, 1999).

31
Table 3.1. Emissions of VOC during drying of wood as measured in the exhaust gas.
– indicates no information. Tmax=maximum temperature of the drying medium.
MCend=end moisture content of the dried wood.
References Tree Dimension Tmax (°C) Mono- Other VOC
of Wood terpenes (mg/kg odw)
th; w; l (mm) (mg/kg odw)
sawdust and chips
(Ek et al., 2000) – sawdust 450-500 440
(Englund and Norway fragments 60 740
Nussbaum, 2000) Spruce
(Englund and Scots pine, fragments 60 500-860
Nussbaum, 2000) heartwood
(Englund and Scots pine, fragments 60 840-2020
Nussbaum, 2000) sapwood
(Granström, 2003) Norway sawdust 140 10-50
(end MC ≈10%) Spruce
" " " 170 20-90
" " " 200 70-140
(Karlsson, 2001) Scots pine sawdust 160 3500-5000
(Münter et al., – sawdust 550-600 505-865 356-768
1999)
Boards and timber
(Broege et al., Norway 24;–;– 60 50 10
1996) Spruce
" " 60;–;– 66 <10 <10
(Broege et al., Scots pine 30; –;– 65 380 50
1996)
" " 50; –;– 66 210 10
(Ingram et al., Southern 50;150;610 115 10-1500
1995) pine
(Ingram et al., Southern timber 82 2700
1996) pine
" " " 118 2600
(Lavery and Milota, Douglas-fir 41;165; – 210 790
2000) (lab scale) 1120
(Lavery and Milota, " 41;165;– – 315 870
2000) (commercial
drier)
(Lavery and Milota, Ponderosa 40;120-300 – 817 1490
2001) (lab scale) pine ;1120
(Lavery and Milota, " 40;120-300 – 1590 2210
2001) (commercial ;4900
drier)
(McDonald and Radiata pine 35;205;600 120 120 110
Wastney, 1995)
" " " 140 200 180
(Shmulsky, 2000) Southern lumber 150 600-2300
pine
(Wu and Milota, Douglas-fir 42;147; 93 790
1999) 1245

32
The results of earlier studies differ regarding the effect of the drying
temperature on the amount of VOC emitted per oven dry weight (odw).
For example, McDonald and Wastney (1995) report 60-70% larger VOC
emissions when drying with air at 140°C than at 120°C, whereas Ingram et
al. (1996) noticed no difference in VOC emissions when drying at 82°C
and 118°C, although emissions per unit of time were larger at the higher
temperature. Banerjee (2001) found the total amount of α-pinene to
increase with increasing temperature, in the examined temperature interval
105-200°C, and suggests there may be occluded regions in the wood from
which α-pinene can not be removed by water but are emitted as terpene
vapour.

During drying of hardwood chips, a sharp rise in VOC concentration has

been observed when the wood moisture content falls below 10%. This has
been attributed to thermal wood degradation causing emissions of
methanol and aldehydes. Increasing the final flake moisture by a few
percent reduces the period of exposure of the dry wood to high
temperature, and leads to a decrease in VOC emissions. Removal of fines
also reduces VOCs, since the fines tend to over-dry (Su et al., 1999).

3.5. Related work on emissions during pellets production

No studies quantifying terpene emissions during the production of pellets

have been found. The available research has a working environment
perspective, focusing on the concentration in the pellet plants.

In a terpene exposure study of six Swedish pellet producers, the workers’

personal exposure to monoterpenes ranged from 0.64 to 28 mg/m3
(Edman et al., 2003).

In another study, two pellet plants that use dried raw material had a peak
terpene concentration in air of 23 mg/m3 and 15 mg/m3, respectively, and
one pellet plant using non-dried sawdust in the pellet press had as much as
119 mg/m3 in one spot (Davila, 2002).

These studies of terpene concentrations in pellet plants show the

concentration in air and the workers’ personal exposure to be below the
exposure limits of 150 mg/m3 set by the Swedish authorities. However,
the plant in the Davila study, using sawdust with high moisture content,
came rather close to the exposure limits. This suggests that changes in the
process towards using drier sawdust may be advantageous.

33
4. Experiments

4.1. Material

Norway Spruce (Picea abies) was used in the experiments described in paper
I and II, since it is a very common wood processed in the sawmill industry
in Sweden. In addition, sawdust from Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) was used
in experiments published in a report (Granström, 2001).

The sawdust was taken fresh from a sawmill located 5 km from the dryer,
transported and stored in sacks of woven polypropylene at room
temperature, and used for tests within a week. The sawmill processes
timber grown in the region, in central Sweden. Sawdust was taken with a
shovel from a large outdoor heap formed under the operating saw blade.
Both Norway Spruce and Scots Pine are sawn at the mill. To avoid
collecting mixtures of sawdust from different tree species, sawdust was
collected after at least two hours of sawing of the same tree species.

The materials used for the experiments described in paper III were samples
from five pellets producers, and sawdust before and after drying in the
KaU dryer. All pellets producers used dried material in the pellet press.
Three pellet producers supplied samples of wet and dry sawdust as well as
pellets. Dried wood, dried material and pellets were examined from the
pellets producers that use raw material from lumber. All the pellet
assortments had a diameter of 8 mm. Three of the pellets producers use
sawdust as raw material, two also use cutter shavings. The sawdust and
cutter shavings used for pellet production originate from Norway Spruce,
Scots Pine or both.

After the publication of paper III, materials from a sixth pellet producer
were obtained, i.e., wet and dry sawdust and pellets. The sawdust had
been dried in a rotary drum dryer with flue gas; the outlet temperature was
130°C.

4.2. Dryer

A continuous spouted bed dryer with recirculating drying medium was

used. The dryer works under atmospheric pressure.

34
The spouted bed dryer consisted of six key components: fan, heater,
drying tower, cyclone, feeding screw, and vent (figure 4.1). The sawdust
was transported from a container to the drying tower with the feeding
screw and fed down the top of the drying tower where it met a stream of
superheated steam. The processed material stayed circulating in the drying
tower and was in this way dried until it was pneumatically transported into
the cyclone. There, the sawdust was separated from the gas flow and
collected in a sack of woven polypropylene. The drying medium was led
to the fan, heated by the heater and then returned to the drying tower.
The sawdust continuously gave off water vapour. To offset an increase in
pressure in the system, drying medium was released through the vent when
the overpressure exceeded 100 Pascal.

Cold trap

Temperature T2
FID

Temperature T3
Material inlet

Cyclone Vent
Drying
tower

Fan

Pressure
Pressure drop 2
drop 1

Material
outlet

Temperature T1
Flow meter Heater

Figure 4.1. Schematic illustration of the spouted bed dryer used in the drying experiments.
The picture is modified from (Berghel and Renström, 2002). The positions of temperature
sensors 1-3 and the differential pressure sensors 1-2 are indicated, as well as the
equipment for VOC measurements. The drying tower was 2 meters high, had a diameter
of 0.3 meter, and a cone angle of 20° measured from the median. The diameter of the
inlet duct was 0.10 meter.

35
At the time of the experiments reported in paper II, the moisture content
of the dried sawdust was controlled by three parameters: the temperature
of the drying medium that enters the drying tower (T1), the amount of
material in the spouted bed, and the flow of drying medium.

The drying medium was heated to 140°C, 170°C or 200°C. The amount
of material in the spouted bed was measured as pressure drop over the
drying tower and set to values between 250 and 750 Pa. The flow of
drying medium was measured as the pressure drop over a restriction and
generally set to 180 to 220 Pa (0.131 to 0.145 m3/s).

When the sawdust used for paper III was dried, the control system had
been rebuilt to let the moisture content of the dried sawdust be controlled
by the temperature after the drying tower. For details on the new control
system, see (Berghel and Renström, 2004).

4.3. Analytical equipment

The concentration of VOC in the drying medium was measured

continuously with a Total Hydrocarbon Analyser with a Flame Ionisation
Detector (FID). The FID was used to confirm steady-state conditions and
to observe the variation of the total amount of volatile hydrocarbons in
the drying medium with various drying parameters.

Identification and quantification of emitted substances were accomplished

using a Gas Chromatograph with a Mass Spectrometric detector (GC-MS).
A dry ice trap was used both to preconcentrate emitted VOCs and to
determine the moisture content of the drying medium.

Soxhlet extraction was used for the validation of the cold trap method as
well as for the analysis of terpene content in pellets and samples of
sawdust described in paper III.

The FID used was a J.U.M VE7. It was calibrated with a test gas of 900
ppm methane, and thus it measured the concentration of hydrocarbons in
the drying medium as methane equivalents. These data have subsequently
been transformed to monoterpene equivalents to facilitate comparisons
with GC-MS data.

36
In a gas chromatograph, a sample’s components are separated into pure
compounds. The separated compounds are then transferred to the mass
spectrometer, where each compound fragments in a unique pattern, shown
as a mass spectrum. The separation of the monoterpenes is shown in
figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2. Gas chromatographic separation of substances detected in emissions from the
drying of Spruce.
Scan compound
77 α-pinene

87 camphene

106 β-pinene

116 myrcene

136 3-carene

150 p-cymene

155 limonene

231 γ-terpinene

Identification of the monoterpenes was made both from their retention

time (their time in the capillary column), and from their mass spectrum.

Drying medium was led through a heated pipe to the cold trap, a flask
placed in dry ice at -78°C, where water and hydrocarbons formed a solid.
The trapping system is shown in figure 4.3. Dichloromethane was added
when a test-run was complete. The dichloromethane phase was then
analysed with GC-MS.

The concentration of monoterpenes in the drying medium was calculated

from the amount of monoterpenes in the dry ice trap and the flow of dry
air through the pump.

37
4.4. Calculations

The amount of emitted terpenes and total VOC during the run was
calculated as the volume of the drying medium emitted times the
concentration of terpenes and total VOC in the drying medium,
respectively.

Since the drying medium re-circulates, the exhaust gas flow volume flow
could not be determined using the set flow rate. Instead, it was calculated
from the weight of water evaporated from the processed sawdust, and the
concentration of water vapour in the drying medium. With knowledge of
the total amount of water added to a volume of gas, and the resulting
concentration of water in the gas, the amount of gas could be calculated.

For the unit operation of drying, water was added to the dryer in the form
of moisture in the processed material. This moisture either left the dryer
in the outgoing processed material, or was vaporised during drying. Water
vapour was thus added to the drying medium. The weight of vaporised
water was calculated from the weight loss of the processed material during
drying, the drying time, and the amount of sawdust dried. The volume of
water vapour dried off from sawdust during a run was then calculated
using the ideal gas law.

Sample flow; drying gas

T T
Dry air

Pump

Flask

Sublimate

Dry ice
Figure 4.3. The cold trap system.

The moisture content of the drying medium was calculated using data
from the dry ice trap (fig 4.3). When the sample flow of drying gas
reached the trap, the water and VOCs in the gas were retained in the flask.
The air in the drying gas continued to the pump. The weight of the

38
condensate in the dry ice trap was used to calculate the volume of water
vapour that had entered the flask, using the ideal gas law. The volume of
dry air that had entered the flask was measured after the dry ice trap. Then
the volume percentage of water vapour in the drying medium could be
determined.

The total gaseous volume of kiln emissions was calculated as the volume
of water vapour emitted to the drying medium divided by the volume
percentage of water vapour in the drying medium.

4.4.1. Concentration of monoterpenes

The weight concentration of terpenes in the drying medium was calculated

as the weight of terpenes in the cold trap, divided by the volume of drying
gas that had been pumped through the trap. The amount of terpenes
emitted was determined as drying medium concentration of terpenes times
volume of drying medium used. This was then related to the amount of
dry substance that was processed.

4.4.2. Concentration of volatile organic compounds

The concentration of VOC in the drying medium in terms of mg

monoterpenes per cubic meter gas was calculated using the proportion of
VOC in the drying medium as ppm and the ideal gas law. The total
amount of VOC emitted was then calculated as mg per kg oven dry
weight.

4.5. Validation and sensitivity analysis

Two kinds of tests were made to establish the reliability of the

measurement method in paper I.

A series of experiments were made in which known amounts of one of the

detected substances, β-pinene, were mixed with a small amount of sawdust
and added to the dryer. The extra amounts of β-pinene were detected to
91-98%.

In addition, the monoterpene content of sawdust before and after drying

was analysed with Soxhlet extraction. The emissions, as determined with
Soxhlet extraction, were close to those determined with the method in
paper I. Individual compounds registered to 65-104%, with the exception
of p-cymene, which was not at all detected with Soxhlet.

39
5. Results and Discussion

5.1. Measurement method [paper I and IV]

A novel method to measure emissions from dryers with diffuse emissions

has been developed and tested [paper I]. The method resolves the known
difficulties caused by diffuse emissions and solves the problems associated
with the high moisture content of the drying medium. The basic idea is to
use water vapour to determine the exhaust flow, while a dry ice trap is used
both to preconcentrate emitted VOCs and to determine the moisture
content of the drying medium. To estimate the experimental
uncertainties, four runs were made using the same drying parameters.
Those experiments had a standard deviation of 36 mg/kg.

For one of these experiments, a sensitivity analysis was made, as described

in paper IV. It showed that the terpene emission per oven dry weight
(terpodw) was 254±47 mg/kg using a 99% confidence interval. With a 95%
confidence interval, terpodw was 254±33 mg/kg. The uncertainty was
therefore almost 19% using a 99% confidence interval; and 13% with a
95% confidence interval.

It is a common rule of thumb that the maximum theoretical error equals

three times the standard deviation of actual experiments (as approximately
99.7% of the values lie within ±3 standard deviations of the mean).
Assuming a 99% confidence interval as the maximum theoretical error,
this would give the terpodw in the experiment in paper IV a standard
deviation of 16 mg/kg.

As the standard deviation from uncertainties of the measurement method

(16 mg/kg) is smaller than the standard deviation from a series of
experiments (36 mg/kg), conclusions can be drawn about the difficulties in
reproducing an experiment. The uncertainty in the measurement method
does not overshadow the variations underlying other experimental factors.
Known sources of variation are the facts that different sawdust are dried at
each experiment (even if the same batch is used, there is internal variation
and a time differential), and that MCout has to be estimated (e.g., using the
measured drying tower temperature) since it cannot be measured during
drying. The sensitivity analysis described in paper IV can be used to
increase the robustness of the results by increasing the precision, or to
decrease costs for analysis by avoiding measuring with unnecessary
exactness.

40
5.2. Emissions during drying of sawdust [paper II]

The final moisture content of the processed material is a very important

factor for emissions of VOC from the drying process. Emissions are also
influenced by the temperature of the drying medium entering the drying
tower (T1) at the temperature intervals used in this study.

Emissions per oven dry weight (odw) of terpenes and VOC increased
rapidly when the sawdust moisture content was reduced below 10%
(water/total weight). This was shown for monoterpenes using GC-MS and
for VOC using FID.

The total VOC concentration in the recirculating drying medium,

however, was not affected by the sawdust’s final moisture content. Nor
was the composition of different monoterpenes in the drying medium
influenced in a consistent way by the final moisture content of the
sawdust.

An increase in the temperature of the drying medium entering the drying

tower caused a larger emission of monoterpenes at moisture contents
below the fibre saturation point. In addition, the relative amount of less
volatile monoterpenes increased, as did the total VOC concentration in
the drying medium.

The total monoterpene content, as well as the composition of

monoterpenes, varied between different processed materials. The steam
condensate did not contain any detectable amounts of monoterpenes at
the drying parameters used.

41
5.3. Emissions of monoterpenes from pellets production [paper III]

Most of the terpenes were emitted during the drying step. The materials
dried in the rotary dryers both lost about 80% of the terpene content
during drying. Sawdust dried in steam dryers lost 48 and 71% respectively
of the initial terpene content.

During the production of pellets, 68-95% of the terpene content

remaining in the dried sawdust was released. There was a correlation
between the dried sawdust moisture content and terpene loss during
pelleting: higher moisture content caused higher percentage losses. Since
the moisture content of the dried sawdust varied considerably more than
the moisture content of pellets, it is believed that high moisture sawdust
have a longer residence time in the pelleting machine.

The amount of terpenes in wood dried to a moisture content suitable for

production of pellets varied between 250 and 1110 mg/kg odw. The raw
material with sawdust and cutter shavings from lumber dry boards did not
differ from the other samples. The amount of terpenes in pellets was 14-
123 mg/kg odw, with five of the six samples clustering around 100 mg/kg
odw1.

After the sawdust has been both dried and pelleted, almost all the volatile
terpenes have been emitted. Consequently, sawdust with higher terpene
content caused higher emissions during pelleting (figure 5.1).

terpenes 1,2
emitted during
1,0
pelleting
(mg/kg) 0,8
0,6
A
0,4
C
0,2
D
E 0,0
G 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2
terpenes in dried sawdust (mg/kg)
Figure 5.1. Terpenes emitted from dried sawdust during pelleting related to the terpenes
left in sawdust after drying. This diagram was not included in paper III. Materials from
producer G became available after the publication of paper III.

1
Values from producer G in mg/kg odw: before drying 2400, after drying 590, and pellets 90.

42
5.4. Biogenic emissions of terpenes [paper V]

Estimates of biogenic VOC emissions are important input for models of

atmospheric chemistry and for carbon budgets (Geron et al., 1994), and
for photochemical oxidant modelling (Simpson et al., 1999).

According to a frequently used model by Guenther et al., the emission

flux is given by the equation

F = Dεγ

where F is emission flux (µgC/m2h), D is foliar density (gdw/m2), ε is an

ecosystem dependent emission factor (µgC/gdw h), and γ is an activity
factor dependent on temperature (Guenther et al., 1995).

The review of factors affecting emissions [paper V] shows that light

intensity and seasonal variation deserve to be included in models on
biogenic terpene emissions. In addition, as tissue damage increases
emissions, a base level of herbivory and insect predation should be
assumed and included.

I also argue that the use of monthly estimates of biomass and temperature
are insufficient for zones with a variable climate, like the boreal zone with
strong seasonal variability of temperature and light as well as highly
variable deciduous foliage density over the year.

To obtain predictive powers, the model should have sufficient time

resolution to capture brief high concentrations that can be expected for
example during bud break.

Most emission rate values are reported as normalised to 30°C using a

temperature dependence factor of 0.09°C-1. I show that it is important to
use a locally correct value of temperature dependence to recalculate
reported values before they are used for modelling.

43
6. Conclusions

Whether emissions are natural or anthropogenic, terpenes become a

problem when mixed with polluted air. Terpene emissions from dryers
and pellets production are primarily a work environment issue. Natural
emissions of monoterpenes from forests cause damage to vegetation, for
example economically important trees and crops.

Terpene emissions from dryers can be measured, with good accuracy,

despite problems with diffuse emissions and high moisture content of the
drying medium.

To minimise VOC emissions from dryers, the sawdust moisture content

should be kept above 10% and the drying medium temperature should not
exceed 170°C. Low VOC emissions would improve the sawdust’s energy
content and decrease air pollution around the drying facility.

An alternative approach is to increase emissions of VOC, by drying

sawdust to less than 10% moisture content, using a high temperature
drying medium. This would minimise emissions in subsequent processing,
such as compressing to pellets. Since almost all of the monoterpenes
remaining in sawdust after drying are released in the pelleting process, the
question is not if emissions will occur but when and where. From a work
environment perspective, the use of sawdust with low terpene content for
pellets production is preferable.

The VOC emitted during drying would have to be collected or destroyed.

The concentration of VOC in the drying medium was relatively constant
in a spouted bed dryer in continuous operation at a wide range of sawdust
moisture contents. Equipment for VOC separation or destruction would
thus have even loads of VOC, which facilitate efficient processes.

Models of terpene emissions and atmospheric chemistry are necessary to

assess the problems caused by natural terpene emissions. Models aiming
at predicting terpene fluxes from natural sources should include several
factors besides temperature. When identification of high concentrations
are important, models must have sufficient time resolution to capture
emission peaks. Furthermore, the temperature dependence varies
sufficiently to motivate using specific values for the ecosystems examined.

44
7. Further research needs

The focus of this study is on volatile organic compounds, especially

monoterpenes. For a more exhaustive knowledge of emissions of organic
compounds during drying, the emissions of less volatile compounds could
be further explored and the emitted sesquiterpenes and diterpenes
identified and quantified.

One area for future research is to develop a prediction model for emission
values based on known drying parameters. Such a model would benefit
the industry by reducing the need for time-consuming VOC sampling.
The construction of such a model for full-scale drying in a spouted bed in
continuous operation necessitates measurements of VOC emissions during
drying of other species of trees, as well as of bark and logging residues.
Should the model also include other types of dryers, their emissions for
different processed material should be studied.

The theoretical understanding of transport and emission processes at

particle level could be expanded by modelling emissions of water and
mono-, sesqui- and diterpenes. All these fractions have different vapour
pressure, solubility and mass diffusion resistance.

Another area for future research is to integrate the drying technique with
the energy systems of sawmills, or with municipal heating systems, so that
the total environmental load caused by the system is optimised.

There are several interesting research issues in the field of pellets

production techniques. One is if overdrying the sawdust compromises the
quality properties of the produced pellets, e.g., their structural integrity.
Sawdust with higher initial moisture content may have a longer residence
time in the pellets press, and Davila (2002) found that high moisture
content causes a higher temperature in the press.

Regarding natural terpene emissions from forests, some important areas of

research are (1) the sensitivity of northern boreal species to herbivory and
pest outbreaks - examination of the quantitative and qualitative differences
between emissions from healthy trees and trees with various levels of
damage, (2) are the observed latitudinal and longitudinal differences in
emission factors due to climate, soil, genetically different strands, or other
factors?, (3) seasonal variations - in particular monitoring of conifer
emissions after October, and of deciduous trees’ emissions during their
whole growth cycle.

45
8. Acknowledgements

Several persons have contributed to this work in various ways.

First of all, I wish to express my gratitude to my supervisor Professor Bengt

Månsson for his support, encouragement, and constructive comments. I
also appreciate our interesting discussions on various non-emission related
subjects.

My assistant supervisor, Senior Lecturer Inge Svedung, deserves thanks for

his inspiring ideas.

I wish to acknowledge Roger Renström, Jonas Berghel and Lars Pettersson,

who constructed the spouted bed dryer used in my experiments. Lars has
also provided assistance with the setting up of equipment for data
acquisition, frequently with short notice.

Thanks are due to Gunnar Håkansson and Mikael Andersén at the

Division for Chemistry, Karlstad University; to Gunnar for assistance with
trouble-shooting of the GC-MS, and to Mikael for his unremitting
willingness to lend laboratory ware.

My fellow PhD students and colleagues at the Department of

Environmental and Energy Systems for making this such an enjoyable
place to work.

Värmeforsk is gratefully acknowledged for financial support of the project

Z9-828 “Emissions of volatile hydrocarbons during drying of sawdust”.
Results from this project were published in Värmeforsk report 745,
Utsläpp av lättflyktiga kolväten vid torkning av biobränslen (in Swedish
with an English summary).

Svebio (the Swedish bioenergy association) deserves thanks for awarding

me the Jan Häckners Stipendium (grant), which facilitated my travelling to
distant conferences to make presentations of my research, gaining
invaluable experiences in the process.

46
Appendix I. Chemical and physical data of monoterpenes

Monoterpenes are practically insoluble in water, see table AI 3 and AI 4.

Terpenes with a higher boiling point are more soluble in water and less
volatile, cf. table AI 1, AI 2, AI 3, AI 4 and AI 5.

Table AI.1. Monoterpenes’ boiling point, melting point and density.

– indicates no available information.
Monoterpene Boiling Point (°C) Melting Point (°C) Density (kg/l)
α-pinene 156 -55 0.858
β-pinene 164 -61 0.865
myrcene 167 – 0.801
3-carene 167-168 – 0.844
p-cymene 176-178 – 0.860
limonene 177 -74 0.842
γ-terpinene 182 – 0.849
camphene 160 48-52 (crystals) 0.850

Table AI.2. Water Solubility of Monoterpenes (Li et al., 1998).

Monoterpene Water Solubility at 23.5 °C Water Solubility at 6 °C
(µmol terpene/liter H2O) (µmol terpene/liter H2O)
α-pinene 18.3 +- 0.5 16.7 +- 0.7
limonene 41.0 +- 0.7 31.8 +- 1.0
γ-terpinene 63.7 +- 0.5 44.7 +- 0.5
terpinolene 69.6 +- 2.0 56.7 +- 0.7

Table AI.3. Partition coefficients of monoterpenes at 37 °C, mean and (standard deviation)
of 20 samples (Falk-Filipsson, 1995).
Monoterpene Mwater/Mair Moil/Mair
α-pinene 0.12 (0.36) 2900 (460)
β-pinene 0.12 (0.27) 4300 (720)
3-carene 0.41 (0.58) 5000 (1200)
limonene 1.8 (1.5) 5700 (1400)

Table AI.4. Vapour pressure of monoterpenes (Li et al., 1998).

Monoterpene Vapour Pressure at 23.5 °C (Pa) Vapour Pressure at 6 °C (Pa)
α-pinene 544 59.7
limonene 202 18.4
γ-terpinene 103 13.4
terpinolene 99.0 5.97

Table AI.5. Antoine constants for monoterpenes (Fengel and Wegener, 1984).
Antoine equation: log P (mmHg) = A-B/(T+C); with T=temperature in °C
Monoterpene Antoine Constant Antoine Constant Antoine Constant
A B C
α-pinene 6.9517 1511.961 215.42
β-pinene 6.9431 1539.348 213.21
3-carene 6.8477 1499.8 206.1
limonene 6.8485 1513.1 205.4
camphene 6.8462 1486.4 208.6

47
Appendix II. Symbols and abbreviations
CoA Co-Enzyme A
FID Flame Ionisation Detector
GC-MS Gas Chromatograph with Mass Spectrometer detector
MCend end moisture content of the dried wood
odw oven dry weight
ppm part per million (volume)
T temperature
T1 temperature of the drying medium entering the drying tower
terpodw terpene emissions per oven dry weight
Tmax maximum temperature of the drying medium
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds

48
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54
 Emissions of volatile organic
compounds from wood

The central aim of this thesis is to support the efforts to counteract certain environ-
mental problems caused by emissions of volatile organic compounds.
The purpose of this work was (1) to develop a method to measure emissions from
dryers, (2) to determine the effect of drying medium temperature and end moisture
content of the processed material on emissions of monoterpenes and other hydrocar-
bons, (3) to examine the emissions of monoterpenes during production of pellets, and
(4) to examine the natural terpene emissions from forests with an eye to implications
for modelling.
The measurement method (1) resolves difficulties caused by diffuse emissions
and high moisture content of the drying medium. The method as used here has an
uncertainty of 13% using a 95% confidence interval.
Emissions from a continuous spouted bed (2) drying sawdust at 140°C, 170°C
or 200°C were analysed. When the sawdust end moisture content was reduced below
10%wb, emissions of terpenes and VOC per oven dry weight increased rapidly. Higher
drying medium temperature also increased emissions.
Examination of sawdust and wood pellets from different pellets producers (3) re-
vealed that most of the terpene emissions happened during the drying step. Using
sawdust with higher moisture content in the pellets press increased terpene emissions.
Factors affecting terpene emissions from tree species in Sweden were reviewed (4).
Implications for models of atmospheric chemistry and carbon budgets are discussed.

Karlstad University Studies

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