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Design of a Solid Rocket Propulsion System

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 Design of a Solid Rocket Propulsion System

João Pedro S. Vale1, Henrique D. Alves2, Alexandre M.

Reis3, Sérgio Brito3, Pedro Gouveia3, André Oliveira3, Nuno
Quitério3

Abstract

Within the scope of participation in the EuRoc competition, this paper presents the design and
optimization process of a KNSB solid rocket motor aimed to be used as a prototype and
benchmark for this year´s edition. Therefore, a comprehensive approach regarding the rocket
motor subsystems and the decision-making process about its design is presented herein.

One of the main constraints on the design of a solid rocket motor is the unavailability of an
open-source software capable of providing specific design parameters that fit the mission
requirements. As such, a crucial part of the design process is to develop an algorithm capable
of determining those parameters, particularly the grain and nozzle dimensions, for a desired
thrust and pressure inside the combustion chamber. The equations and methods used were
mainly based on mass flow relations with the basic principle of mass conservation. Furthermore,
burning rate correlations with pressure and area-Mach ratios for isentropic flow were also used
to plot the main performance figures and expected ISP.

The propellant and grain geometry choice is justified, comparing their advantages and
disadvantages and considering their feasibility in production. The production process of the
propellant is also explained, as well as the testing setup.

Finally, to validate the motor design, it has been machined and fired, and the results are
presented. The main differences between the theoretical model and the experiment are
discussed, and conclusions are pointed out.

Keywords

Thrust, Rocket motor, Solid propellant, Design, Static Test, KNSB

1
Corresponding Author: University of Beira Interior – UBI, Portugal,
joao.pedro.simoes.vale@gmail.com
1
Corresponding Author: University of Beira Interior – UBI, Portugal,
henriquedalveswork@gmail.com
3
University of Beira Interior – UBI, Portugal

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 1. Introduction
Solid Rocket Motors (SRM's) use the combustion process to break the oxidizer's and fuel's
chemical energy bond, releasing thermal energy, which is then converted into kinetic energy,
thus producing thrust. Compared to other types of chemical propulsion, these are easier to
manufacture, more economical, have a simpler design, and the propellant has a longer storage
time. SRM's current main applications are airborne missiles, model rockets, and boosters for
satellite launchers. Many aerospace engineering institutes worldwide are becoming more
interested in solid rocket motors' theoretical and experimental study as they help students
experience, develop, and apply their knowledge of rocket propulsion. In 2018, Suksila et al. [1]
presented a university study for the design and testing of a solid rocket motor that can be used
in a small-sounding rocket. During this study, a solid rocket motor was successfully tested and
characterized. Furthermore, it showed the importance of such a project as a learning tool.
As a part of the Fenix Rocket Team, a multidisciplinary team aiming to compete in the European
Rocketry Challenge (EuRoC) 2022, the propulsion segment decided to design and build a Student
Researched and Developed (SRAD) solid rocket motor capable of achieving the mission and
design requirements. To do so, the team developed a tool capable of providing the optimal
motor and grain size to achieve the desired total impulse and chamber pressure. A smaller
prototype was then constructed for a comparison of experimental and predicted results, as well
as tool validation.
This paper first presents the development of the numerical model for the motor sizing, followed
by the reasons for propellant and grain cross-section choices, alongside the casting process.
Afterwards, the algorithm outcome is shown, and the motor design is explained, ensuring its
safety with a structural analysis. Lastly, the results of a static test are compared with the
numerical model and discussed.

2. Numerical Model
One of the main challenges when designing a solid rocket motor is accurately predicting its
thrust and pressure curves during operation. Therefore, this chapter presents a numerical
model [2] for sizing the rocket motor and propellant grains accordingly to the desired total
impulse and chamber pressure.
During operation, a solid rocket motor grain has a variable internal geometry due to
transforming the solid propellant into combustion products. Since the grains have a variable
burning area, a change in pressure and thrust across the motor's operational regime will be
measured. Therefore, this burning area must be kept as close to constant as possible to obtain
a neutral burning curve.
The sizing of a SRM requires the choice of an initial grain dimension followed by an iteration
methodology of the grain dimensions until the desired thrust is achieved.
Firstly, the burning area and rate of the propellant across the motor operation must be
determined. Equation 1 represents the burning area of a grain with a tubular cross section
(BATES grain) as a function of the transverse and longitudinal displacement of the combustion
surface, given by 𝒙.

Ab = N[π(D2 − d2x )/2 + πdx Lx ] (1)

where 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑0 + 2𝑥 and 𝐿𝑥 = 𝐿0 − 2𝑥. Moreover, 𝑑0 and 𝐿0 are the initial inner diameter and
length of the grain respectively, 𝐷 is the outer diameter of the grain and 𝑁 the number of
grains.
Deriving Equation 1 in function of the displacement of the combustion surface, it is possible to
find the displacement at which the burning area is maximum during operation, given by
Equation 2.

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 𝑑𝐴𝑏 1
= 0 ↔ 𝑥 = (𝐿0 − 2𝑑0 ) (2)
𝑑𝑥 6

Therefore, the maximum burn area can be determined by replacing the above 𝑥 value in
Equation 1. Furthermore, the value of the burning area displacement varies with time and is
given by Equation 3.

𝑡
𝑥𝑡 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑡
0
(3)

where 𝑟 is the burning rate, which depends on the thermophysical properties of the propellant
as well as the pressure and temperature of the combustion chamber. The burning rate is given
by Equation 4 as a function of the chamber pressure.

𝐫 = 𝐚𝐩𝐧𝟏 (4)

being 𝑝1 the stagnation pressure, 𝑎 an empirical constant influenced by the surrounding

temperature, and 𝑛 the pressure exponent. As this constants values vary with pressure, a
database was built based on experimental tests from Nakka [3].
Once the maximum burning area has been determined, a crucial dimensionless motor
parameter 𝐾 must be used to size the nozzle and obtain the desired chamber pressure. This
parameter is given by Equation 5, which relates the ratio of the burning area to the nozzle
throat area. It can also be written as a function of the pressure inside the combustion chamber,
as presented in Equation 6.

𝑨𝒕 ≡ 𝑨𝒃 /𝑲 (5)

(𝟏−𝒏)
𝑲 = 𝒑𝟏 /(𝝆𝒃 𝒂𝒄∗ ) (6)

where 𝑐 ∗ is the characteristic velocity given by Equation 7:

√𝒌𝑹𝑻𝟏
𝒄∗ = (7)
𝒌√[𝟐/(𝒌 + 𝟏)](𝒌+𝟏)/(𝒌−𝟏)

As such, by determining 𝐾 for a chosen operating chamber pressure and determining the
maximum burning area through Equation 1, it is possible to size the throat area using Equation
5 for a maximum chamber pressure, which will be the nominal pressure in the case of a neutral
burning. After the throat sizing, the exit area can also be determined for an ideal expansion
ratio by Equation 8.

𝒌 + 𝟏 𝟏/(𝒌−𝟏) 𝒑𝒆 𝟏/𝒌 𝒌 + 𝟏 𝒑𝒆 (𝒌−𝟏)/𝒌

𝑨𝒆𝒙 = 𝑨𝒕 / [ ( ) ( ) √ [𝟏 − ( ) ]] (8)
𝟐 𝒑𝟏 𝒌−𝟏 𝒑𝟏

Once the nozzle has been sized and a grain geometry defined, the motor operation can be
established using the elementary global conservation laws. During motor operation, the law of
conservation of mass can be applied. By applying this law, it can be stated that the rate of
mass increment inside the combustion chamber is equal to the difference between the mass
production of gas due to combustion per unit of time and the mass flowing out through the
exhaust nozzle per unit of time. This statement can be expressed by Equation 9.

𝒅(𝝆𝒄 𝑽𝒄 ) 𝒑 𝟏 𝑨𝒕
= 𝑨𝒃 𝝆𝒃 𝒂𝒑𝒏𝟏 − ∗ (9)
𝒅𝒕 𝒄

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 The left-hand side represents the gas rate stored inside the combustion chamber. Moreover,
the first term on the right-hand side is the rate of gas generated in the combustion, and the
second one is the mass flow through the nozzle. During the nominal operation of the motor,
the mass released from the grains is the same as the mass flow passing through the nozzle.
Therefore, the term on the left is null. However, during the transient state, the increasing mass
inside the combustion chamber leads to higher pressures and higher burning rates until a steady
state is achieved. As such, Equation 9 can be used for both regimes, allowing the determination
of the pressure inside the combustion chamber during its operation. Besides, the second term
on the right-hand side allows determining the mass flow through the nozzle. Therefore, the
thrust can be determined by Equation 10.

𝑭 = 𝛈(𝝀𝒎̇𝒏𝒐𝒛𝒛 𝒗𝒆𝒙 + [𝒑𝒆𝒙 − 𝒑𝒂𝒎𝒃 ]𝑨𝒆𝒙 ) (10)

where 𝑣𝑒𝑥 and 𝑝𝑒𝑥 are the velocity and pressure at the exit section of the nozzle. Assuming an
adiabatic nozzle and a isentropic flow, the pressure at the exit, 𝑝𝑒𝑥 , can be given by Equation
12 and the velocity, 𝑣𝑒𝑥 , by Equation 11.

𝟐𝒌 𝒑𝟐 (𝒌−𝟏)/𝒌
𝒗𝒆𝒙 = √ 𝑹𝑻𝟏 [𝟏 − ( ) ] (11)
𝒌−𝟏 𝒑𝟏

𝒌/(𝒌−𝟏)
𝟏
𝒑𝒆𝒙 = 𝒑 [𝟏 + (𝒌 − 𝟏)𝑴𝟐 ] (12)
𝟐

where 𝑀 is the mach number.

Furthermore, in Equation 10, 𝜆 represents a theoretical correction factor for a conical nozzle,
given by 𝜆 = 0.5(1 + cos 𝛼). This correction factor is the ratio between the momentum of the
mass flow in a nozzle with a divergence angle of 2𝛼 and the momentum of an ideal nozzle with
all the mass flow flowing in the axial direction. Additionally, in all equations above assumptions
and simplifications are made to analyse a real nozzle assuming the characteristics of an ideal
nozzle. However, in real nozzles, there are energy losses and energy unavailable for conversion
into kinetic energy. Thus, a nozzle efficiency η is applied to Equation 10 to account for these
losses. The value used for this study was 90%, as advised in [2].
Implementing this numerical model into a MATLAB program, it is possible to size a nozzle and
grain dimensions accordingly to a desired total impulse and chamber pressure, as well as to
obtain the thrust and pressure curves during motor operation.

3. Propellant and Grain Geometry

The propellant is a decisive factor when it comes to the rocket overall performance. The
team choice was based on price, availability, safety, and ease of handling.

i. Propellant Composition
The propellant is a mixture of Potassium Nitrate and Sorbitol, more commonly known as KNSB.
Compared to other chemicals used in SRAD propulsion, these substances are cheaper, safer,
and easier to acquire. The ease of the casting process of KNSB was also a determinant factor
for the propellant choice. However, the drawback is the low specific impulse, ideally 164 s,
according to Nakka [4], and experimentally around 103 s, according to Adeniyi et al. [5]. The
results presented in this article will reinforce these results. The team adopted a mixture ratio
of 65% Oxidizer and 35% Fuel. This ratio provides a specific impulse close to the one when
stoichiometry is achieved and makes the casting process easier than lower O/F ratios.
Consequently, the moulding process is more effortless, which is essential to avoid imperfections
such as cracks and air pockets. These imperfections increase the burning area and,
consequently, the combustion chamber’s internal pressure, which may cause combustion

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 instability leading to failure. The chemical equation of this propellant combustion is shown
below, as defined by Moreno et al. [6].

𝐶6 𝐻14 𝑂6 + 3.345 𝐾𝑁𝑂3 → 1.870 𝐶𝑂2 + 2.490 𝐶𝑂 + 4.828 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2.145 𝐻2 + 1.672 𝑁2 + 1.644 𝐾2 𝐶𝑂3 + 0.057 𝐾𝑂𝐻

ii. Grain Cross-Section

The thrust-time curve is the most important parameter when choosing a grain cross-section.
The team’s ideal thrust profile is a regressive one: a fast thrust peak, followed by a plateau
with the thrust near the peak, ending with a linear decrease of the thrust. However, the team
chose a BATES cross-section with a neutral curve. Despite this geometry not meeting the
parameters described above, when compared to other grain sections such as Fynocil or Star,
the BATES present benefits regarding structural integrity, ease of manufacture, and overall
production cost.

iii. Manufacture Process

To grant a viable final product is essential to follow several steps strictly.

• Finely mill the Potassium Nitrate with the Sorbitol.

• Resorting to a tumbler, mix the propellant for about 30 minutes at around 30 rpm.
• The casting temperature should be in the range of 115-120 ºC. To monitor the
• temperature is used an infrared thermometer. Since the melting point of the Sorbitol
is lower than the casting temperature, the mixture will become a slurry, where the
Potassium Nitrate grains will remain solid and the Sorbitol liquid.
• When the skillet maintains the required temperature for a few seconds, half of the
total amount is added and stirred often to assist in melting. Once this has melted,
the second half is added and heated until the mixture resembles an ivory-white
colour. For reference, Potassium Nitrate and Sorbitol's natural colour is pure white.
• The mixture is immediately poured into the moulds to avoid undesired thickness. The
metallic moulds are internally covered with a thin sheet of craft paper that will serve
as an inhibitor for the grain.
• After pouring the slurry fluid into the mould, a washer is inserted into the internal
metal rod, resting on top of the propellant. Immediately afterwards, resorting to
another washer, a spring, and a nut, pressure is applied, as seen in Figure 1.
• The final grain is presented in Figure 2, and its density after the cure should not be
lower than 0.95 times the ideal density (1.841 g/cm3 according to Nakka [7]). If that
happens, the team always discards the product.

Fig. 1 - Grain mold configuration. Fig. 2 - Grain after demolding process.

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 4. Motor Design
Entirely designed by the members of the propulsion team, the SRM was developed to serve the
required mission specifications and, at the same time, gain valuable experience in designing
solid rocket motors. As this was the team's first motor, it helped develop a design methodology
focused on obtaining the best performance. Not only that, but also manufacturing, handling,
and static testing of the motor were perfected during this process.
As seen in Figure 3, the rocket motor can be divided into three main parts: nozzle, case, and
bulkhead. All these are assembled separately, allowing ease in transportation and propellant
loading.

Fig. 3 - Cross-section view of the rocket motor.

The motor case must withstand the pressure created during the combustion process. Therefore,
a material suitable for highly stressed structural parts is required. For this purpose, the
aluminium alloy Al 7075 - T6 was chosen as it combines great mechanical strength with its low
density, excellent machinability, and high erosion resistance. In addition, a thermal insulator
made of cork is fitted between the grains and the case to protect the aluminium alloy from the
combustion temperature and exhaust gases, preventing damage to the material and extending
the component's lifespan.
To prevent gas leakage from the casing, an o-ring sealing system is used. A pair of o-rings are
fitted both in the nozzle and the bulkhead, creating redundancy in case one of the o-rings
suffers any damage.
Responsible for converting the thermal energy of the gas flow into kinetic energy, the nozzle
is one of the most significant parts of the rocket motor because its geometry determines the
exhaust gas velocity and the pressure inside the combustion chamber. A conical De Laval nozzle
geometry was adopted with a convergence and divergence angle of 30º and 12º, respectively.
As the nozzle operates under the most demanding conditions of all the components, exposing
the material to high levels of erosion caused by complex interactions between the high-
temperature, high-velocity gas flow, the chemically aggressive species in the gas, and the
mechanical abrasion by small particles, a suitable material for it had to be selected. Therefore,
the austenitic stainless steel AISI 316 was chosen as it offers excellent thermal and mechanical
resistance, ideal for withstanding erosion and extreme conditions, with the benefit of a
significant improvement in corrosion resistance due to the addition of molybdenum.
At last, retaining rings are used to fix the nozzle and the bulkhead to the motor casing. These
retaining rings have a thread on the external side that screws into the inside wall of the case,
creating a strong mechanical connection and ensuring that both components are properly
installed. This system was preferred over the commonly used retain screws system because it
reduces the stress on the material and is easier to assemble.

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 5. Structural analysis
Regarding the structural design of the motor, it was performed through the Ansys structural
software, where a simplified motor geometry without the nozzle was considered. For the
analysis, the boundary conditions applied can be seen in Figure 4 and consist of a fixed support
in one of the motor sides and a pressure of 30 MPa inside the case to simulate the motor
operating conditions, considering a safety factor of 5. Regarding the connections between the
case, bulkhead and retaining ring, they were selected as frictional with a threaded interface
between the case and the retaining ring, allowing to compute the stress on the threaded
connection. Furthermore, a mesh convergence study was carried out with the solution
converging for five thousand elements. The mesh elements were hexahedral, and the average
aspect ratio of the mesh was 1.2.

Fig. 4 – Boundary conditions applied for the structural analysis.

In Figure 5, the equivalent Von-Misses stress of the motor is represented, with the maximum
value located at the first thread of the threaded connection between the case wall and the
retaining ring. This maximum results from the pressure applied at the bulkhead being supported
by the threaded connection and the first thread supporting most of the load. At last, it is
possible to conclude that the motor can support the structural loads applied as the maximum
value is still below the yield stress of the aluminium alloy 7075-T6 (450 MPa).

Fig. 5 – Von-Mises equivalent stress contour lines obtained resorting to FEA commercial software Ansys®.

6. Static Tests

The motor was tested on a SRAD test bench. This testing system is represented in Figure 6 and
relies on one 200 kg S-type load cell, which output analogue data that further needs to be
converted to digital using an HX711 amplifier module with a sampling rate of 80Hz. Wired to
an Arduino, this module sends the load data to another Arduino responsible for saving the latter
in a computer for the post processing analysis. The wireless communication is established

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 through a Groove LoRa Radio 433MHz. Via the traction curve (load data) provided by the
electronic system, it is possible to calculate the total and specific impulse.
The test bench is made of a thick piece of steel as a base with four rails on which the motor
slides, providing structural rigidity and vibration damping. As a safety feature, a thick 15mm
acrylic and steel cage surrounds the entire setup, as presented in Figure 7.

Fig. 5 - Igniter Fig. 6 – System schematic of the Fig. 7 - Acrylic protection

transmission system. testing setup. used on static tests.

The ignition system relies on a SRAD igniter. This igniter is made out of straw with a small piece
of nichrome wire running through it. Since the dissociation temperature of KNO3 is arround
500ºC, an intermediate component to accelerate the temperature of the wire is needed.
Therefore, the igniter is filled with gunpowder, that due to the presence of sulfur can ignite at
a much lower temperature (190ºC) while burning at temperatures above the required for
dissociation. To produce the current that runs through the wire, the team used a COTS system
(the PocketPyro by SECUREPYRO as seen in Figure 5). Even though this decision facilitated the
beginning experiments in this project, a new system that ignites the propellant and records
data simultaneously is being developed.

7. Results and Discussion

To prove the reliability of the motor design, a prototype was machined and tested. In this
chapter, the static test results are presented, discussed, and compared to the numerical
prediction. The static test was carried out with the prototype shown in Figure 8 and mounted
in the test bench presented in the previous chapter to measure its thrust. In Figure 10, a
comparison between the predicted and experimental thrust curves is plotted.

Fig. 8 – Motor prototype assembled. Fig. 9 – Motor plume.

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 perimental
redicted

Fig. 10 - Comparison of the predicted thrust curve with the experimental data.

Analysing the plot, it is possible to see the differences between both curves. At the beginning
of the combustion, a low slope curvature in the experimental data is verified due to the grains
taking some time to ignite. On the contrary, in the numerical model, the ignition of the grains
was not considered, and a constant temperature of 1200 K was assumed for the combustion
process, leading to an exponential increase in thrust from the beginning until it reached its
nominal value. Furthermore, it is possible to deduce that the pressure exponent used in the
theoretical model is bigger than the ones obtained from the static tests, as the curvature slope
of the tests until it reaches nominal thrust is significantly lower. At the end of the burning, the
theoretical model also does not fully capture the transient state with an abrupt ending.
Another important aspect is that the static motor test spends most of the time in a transient
state due to having a short burning time and the motor taking a considerable time until reaching
a steady state. Additionally, a higher peak thrust than the one expected was obtained.
Regarding the pressure curve, its numerical prediction is plotted in Figure 11. A satisfactory
correlation can be seen between the desired maximum chamber pressure and the pressure it
achieves accordingly to the tool developed. The motor was designed to operate at a 60 bar
chamber pressure, and the algorithm predicts it to achieve 58 bar. Although obtaining the real
chamber pressure during the static test was not feasible due to the lack of a pressure
tranduscer, its shape would be similar to the thrust curve as they are correlated. Furthermore,
the motor plume can be seen in Figure 9, where it can be noticed that the plume is close to an
ideally expanded exhaust flow with a slight under expansion. Therefore, it is expected that the
motor operates inside the chamber pressure range predicted, with a small deviation for a higher
pressure.

Fig. 11 – Theoretical pressure curve obtained from the numerical model.

Despite the numerical model not being able to fully capture the thrust curve during the
transient regime, its impulse, peak thrust, and specific impulse present only a small deviation
compared to the experimental results obtained, as seen in Table 1. As such, the numerical
model presents a good correlation with the experimental data considering its objectives, which
were sizing a motor for a given impulse and chamber pressure.

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 Table 1 - Values of total impulse, peak thrust and specific impulse retrieved theoretically and experimentally, and
respective deviation.
Experimental Predicted Deviation [%]
Total Impulse [𝑁 ∙ 𝑠] 524 541 3.2
Peak Thrust [𝑁] 503 450 10.7
Specific impulse [s] 117 121 3.1

8. Conclusion
This study presents a viable approach to the design process of a solid rocket motor, starting
with its numerical modelling and sizing until its machining and static fire testing. A good
correlation between the methodology and experimental tests was achieved, validating its
design.
The results illustrated the ability of the numerical model to capture important motor design
parameters, even though it was unable to capture the transient operation of the motor
accurately. Furthermore, the casting process of the grains for the motor has been presented,
as well as its structural sizing and the development of a test bench capable of acquiring the
thrust curve during the static fire tests while equipped with a containing box in case of failure.
At last, this study will also be used as a stepping stone for future motor developments and
create the expertise for further improvements.

9. References
[1] Suksila, T : “ perimental Investigation of Solid Rocket Motors for Small Sounding Rockets”.
IOP Conference series: Materials Science and Engineering, Bangkok, Thailand, December
2017. Available at https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/297/1/012009

[2] Sutton, G. P.; Biblarz O. Rocket Propulsion Elements pp. 439-591, 3rd edition. John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. New Jersey, USA, 2016.

[3] Nakka, R. KN-Dextrose & KN-Sorbitol Propellants Burn rate Experimentation

https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/bntest.html. (01/07/2001)

[4] Nakka, R. KN-Sorbitol Propellant Chemistry and Performance Characteristics.

https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/sorbchem.html (13/11/1999)

[5] Adeniyi, G. O.; Njere, I , Adetoro, L M , Sholiyi, O S : “ erformance Analysis of a Dual-

Fuel Sugar Based Solid Rocket ropellant” European Journal of Engineering and Technology
Research, Vol.6 nº1 (2021),34-41, DOI: https://doi.org/10.24018/ejeng.2021.6.2.2347.

[6] Moreno, J. A. V., and Moreno, J. A. L.: "Optimización de un motor de combustible sólido
tipo KNSB para cohetería experimental." Ciencia y poder aéreo Vol.11 nº1 (2016), ISSN1909-
7050

[7] Nakka, R. KNSB Propellant https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/sorb.html (04/07/2018)

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