1.

Introduction

All life on Earth depends on carbon, which is also necessary for the development
of complex structures like proteins and DNA. Since it regulates the planet's temperature,
makes up a sizable component of the food that keeps us alive, and contributes
significantly to the world's economy in terms of energy, carbon is essential for all life on
Earth. There are multiple forms of carbon. It may coexist with other elements like
oxygen, hydrogen, etc., in a mixed form. Carbon dioxide is the only form of carbon that
can be found in the atmosphere, and it makes up 0.03% of the atmosphere. Carbon
dioxide is produced naturally by volcanic eruptions, plant respiration, animal and human
breathing, and other processes.

2. Why carbon dioxide?

Since the start of the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s, human activities like the
combustion of fossil fuels and extensive deforestation have increased the atmospheric
Carbon dioxide level by 50%. According to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations reached 400 parts per million
(ppm) in May 2013 from 315 ppm in 1958 (the year the first precise measurements were
made), in 2022 Carbon dioxide concentration has 417.2 ppm.

The main cause of climate change and global warming worldwide is carbon
dioxide emissions. Greenhouse effect is the major case for global warming as Carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases operate as a blanket or cap, retaining part of the heat
that Earth could otherwise emit into space. Infrared energy is split roughly in half, with
half of it travelling into space and the other half returning as heat to the planet, as showed
in fig. 1, some of the heat from the Sun is captured by Earth's atmosphere, preventing it
from escaping back into space.

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 Fig 1: Greenhouse Effect.

From the fig. 2, shows the composition of green house gases. The diagram
demonstrates that the Greenhouse Effect is mostly caused by Greenhouse Gases like
carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide absorbs this infrared energy; it vibrates and radiates the
infrared energy back in all directions. There is general agreement that emissions must be
drastically reduced if we are to prevent the worst effects of climate change.

Fig 2: The composition of green house gases, U.S Environmental protection Agency (2021).

In 2014, the total global CO2 emissions were 35.7 Gt, or 74% of the overall
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG). According to the International Energy Agency,
global energy-related CO2 emissions increased in 2022 by 0.9%, or 321 million tonnes,
hitting a record high of more than 36.8 billion tonnes. The overall proportion of CO2

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emissions from each sector is shown in fig. 3, The industrial sector is responsible for 6.8
Gt of indirect emissions and 8.3 Gt of direct emissions of CO2.

Fig. 3: The overall proportion of CO2 emissions from different sectors, (IEA 2017).

The bulk (71%) of direct industrial CO2 emissions are produced by just four
subsectors of the industrial sector: iron and steel (2.32 Gt CO2), cement (2.24 Gt CO2),
chemicals (1.1 Gt CO2), and paper and pulp (0.25 Gt CO2). Although carbon capture and
storage (CCS) has the potential to collect between 85 and 95 percent of all CO2, produced
(IPCC, 2005), actual net emission reductions are more in the range of 72 to 90 percent
(Viebahn et al., 2007). This is because it takes energy to separate CO2 from upstream
emissions.

3. History of CCS

The idea for the first carbon capture facility originated in 1938, and in 1977, it
was proposed that CO2 from coal power plants might be collected and injected into
appropriate geological formations. This was the beginning of the notion of CCS, the first
significant effort to inject CO2 into the ground got underway in Texas's Sharon Ridge
oilfield in 1972. Modelling conducted by the International Energy Agency (IEA) and
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change highlights the critical role that carbon
capture technology must play in reaching the global climate goals. 24 years later, Norway
began operating Sleipner in the North Sea, the first integrated carbon capture and storage
project in history.

CCS must be included into global policy in every country to decrease the severe
impacts of global warming since, according to the International Energy Agency, it has the
potential to erase 17% of global CO2 emissions by 2050. In their analysis of scenarios for

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maintaining global warming at 2° Celsius, the IEA found that carbon capture delivers
20% of the necessary annual emissions reductions by 2050, with more than half of those
reductions coming from industrial processes that lack any other practical method of
decarburization. Although carbon capture and storage (CCS) has the potential to collect
between 85 and 95 percent of all CO2 produced (IPCC, 2005), actual net emission
reductions are more in the range of 72 to 90 percent (Viebahn et al., 2007). This is
because it takes energy to separate CO2 from upstream emissions.

Fig 4: Burning fossil fuels and various industrial activities contributed to global CO2 emissions in
2014, ( Boden, T.A., Marland, G., and Andres, R.J. (2017).).

Fig. 4, represents Global CO2 emissions in 2014 from Burning fossil fuels and
various industrial activities. As shown in fig 4, China, the United States, the European
Union, India, the Russian Federation, and Japan were the leading carbon dioxide emitters
in 2014. These statistics cover CO2 emissions from cement production, petrol flaring, and
the burning of fossil fuels.

4. Carbon capture and storage (CCS)

It is a technique made to capture carbon dioxide produced by burning fossil fuels

or other chemical or biological processes and store it in a way that keeps it from altering
the environment, hence reducing the effects of global warming. By lowering greenhouse
gas emissions (CO2), CCS aims to mitigate climate change. Carbon capture and storage
(CCS) is a combination of technologies designed to prevent the release of CO2 generated
through conventional power generation and industrial production processes by injecting
the CO2 into suitable underground storage reservoirs.

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 Basically, capture technology separates CO2 emissions from the process, after
which the compressed CO2 is transported to a suitable geological storage location and
injected. The consequences for compression, transport, and storage (or utilisation) of the
captured carbon dioxide are then evaluated in context with the variations in the impurities
of the "pure" CO2 streams from these various operations. Figure 5 illustrates the many
stages of the CCS technique.

The CCS procedure consists of three phases.

Fig. 5: Stages of the CCS technique

 Capturing the carbon dioxide for storage - CO2 is separated from other gases
produced in industrial processes, such as those at coal and natural-gas-fired power
generation plants or steel or cement factories.
 Transport - CO2 is subsequently compressed and shipped, carried by road, or
stored on-site via pipelines.

 Storage - CO2 is then permanently stored by being injected into underlying rock
formation

5. Capture Techniques:

The many approaches and configurations of CCS are taken into account under the three
primary capture technologies—post-combustion, oxy-fuel, and pre-combustion capture.
Some of the most popular methods for CO2 capture technologies are listed below:

5.1. Post-Combustion:
The term "post-combustion capture" refers to a technique for capturing carbon
dioxide from fuels. This technique uses the flue gas produced by a power plant after
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burning fossil fuels or other carbon-based materials. Using solvents, carbon dioxide is
removed from the gas during the post-combustion separation process. The
thermodynamics of this approach is frequently less than 15%. Two examples of typical
uses for this technology include combined cycle natural gas plants and pulverised coal
plants. Post-combustion devices extract CO2 from the flue gases created when the main
fuel burns in the atmosphere.
In these systems, the little quantity of CO2 (approximately 3–15% by volume) that
is present in the flue gas stream is frequently collected using the liquid solvent. Wet
solvent Scrubbing, an absorption technology that frequently makes use of amine-based
aqueous solvents, is one of the most advanced approaches for post-combustion CO2
collection. For post-combustion collection, both solvent-based and calcium looping (cal)
methods are taken into account.

5.1.1. Solvent-based capture: amines as the capture media

One of the more advanced techniques for post-combustion CO2 collection is wet
solvent scrubbing; an absorption process that commonly uses amine-based aqueous
solvents. According to the temperature swing theory, CO2 is absorbed by the solvent at
low temperatures and desorbed at higher degrees. As shown in Fig. 6, absorber and
desorber columns are crucial parts that are supported by a boiler, condenser, coolers,
pumps, and other auxiliary machinery.
The solvent picks up CO2 from the flue gas and pumps the "rich" CO2-loaded
solvent to the desorber. Flue gas leaving the absorber is frequently sent through a water
wash to remove entrained solvent droplets. The desorber's solvent is heated by the
reboiler to liberate CO2 that has been absorbed. After CO2 stripping, the "lean" solvent is
sent through the cross-exchanger to recover heat before being put back into the absorber
for another cycle.

Fig. 6, Schematic diagram of solvent-based, Post-combustion of CO2 absorption.

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 The solvent degrades as the process proceeds, using both thermal and oxidative
mechanisms. This is because cyclic absorption and stripping processes include frequent
heating and cooling of the solvent. The deteriorated solvent needs to be routinely changed
out in order to preserve capture performance.
To recover active solvents, some contemporary factories employ reclaimers. For
Pulverised Coal (PC) or Natural Gas Combined Cycle (NGCC) power plants, post-
combustion capture systems commonly employ an organic solvent like
monoethanolamine (MEA).

The benefits and drawbacks of post-combustion capture

Benefits:

 The ease of retrofitting the technology into new and existing plants.
 More flexible technology than pre-combustion capture.
 Can be used with a variety of fuels.

Drawbacks:

 Lower carbon capture efficiency: Post-combustion capture can only capture about
85% of the carbon dioxide produced from combustion.

 Increased complexity: Post-combustion capture requires more complex equipment

and processes.

5.1.2. Calcium looping (CaL)

CaL refers to a wide range of CO2 capture systems that utilize CaO as a solid
sorbent and depend on reversible chemical reactions. The most advance post combustion
cal arrangement, as shown in fig. 7, comprises of two coupled circulating fluidized-bed
reactors, a carbonator and a calciner. CO2 is captured when flue gas in the carbonator
interacts with CaO particles that are continuously supplied from the calciner.

The carbonated solids are sent to the higher temperature calciner, heated by oxy-
combustion of the fuel, where the CO2 is concentrated and released as a byproduct of

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CaCO3 calcination. A stream of CaO is then transferred back to the carbonator to
complete the cycle. As depicted in fig. 7, a continuous make-up flow of CaCO3 is fed into
the system to compensate for the decay in the CO2-carrying capacity of the CaO with
consecutive carbonation calcination cycles; a purge is also extracted to avoid
accumulation of inerts.

Fig. 7, Schematic diagram of Calcium looping, Post-combustion of CO2 absorption.

The benefits and drawbacks of cal post-combustion capture

Benefits:

 When compared to other capture methods, like amines, postcombustion cal

processes have a lower energy cost because a significant portion of the energy
used to power the endothermic calcination reaction in the calciner can be
recovered as high-temperature energy streams and integrated into a steam cycle.
 Additionally, natural limestone, which is a cheap, plentiful, and harmless
substance, is the sorbent precursor.

Drawbacks:

 By several rounds of calcination and carbonation, cao's reactivity significantly

decreases. This is a result of carbonation's permanent closing of tiny pores.

5.2. Pre-Combustion CO2 Capture (PCC):

Operators often use integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plants
to do this carbon capture. In pre-combustion CO2 capture, biomass fuel combines with
oxygen or steam to produce a gaseous fuel combination called syngas that is mostly made
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up of CO and H2, as shown in Fig. 6. The process involves producing synthetic gas, also
known as syngas, by partly oxidizing coal with oxygen/air, and steam at high
temperatures and pressure Syngas, which consists of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
dioxide (CO2), hydrogen, and lesser amounts of other gaseous substances including
methane (CH4), may go through the water-gas shift process to create a gaseous mixture
that mostly contains H2 and CO2.

The CO2 in the mixture is captured, moved, and sequestered by the operators,
leaving a fuel that is high in H2 for burning. The syngas flows through a shift reactor,
where additional H2 is created and CO is changed into CO2. The CO2 and H2 combination
is then sent through a CO2 capture process, where CO2 is physically or chemically
separated from the remainder of the gas. Through the technique of pre-combustion carbon
capture, CO2 can potentially be taken out of a gas mixture before combustion occurs. The
Pre-combustion capture procedure is demonstrated in Fig. 6. Post-combustion capture ,
which includes capturing carbon dioxide from a power plant's flue gas after it has been
burnt, is a less effective method of doing so.

Fig. 8, Pre-combustion of CO2 capture for power generation

The benefits and drawbacks of pre-combustion capture

Benefits:

 Higher carbon capture efficiency: Pre-combustion capture can capture up to 90%

of the carbon dioxide produced from combustion.
 Reduced water vapour emissions: Pre-combustion capture produces less water
vapor than traditional combustion methods, which can help to reduce acid rain and
other environmental problems.

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Drawbacks:

 Increased cost: Pre-combustion capture is more expensive than traditional

combustion methods.
 Increased complexity: Pre-combustion capture requires gas turbines to operate
high H2.
 Gas turbine operational windows are highly constrained, and changes in fuel
characteristics can cause a number of problems, including increased CO and nox
emissions.

5.3. Oxy-fuel capture

Oxy-fuel combustion is a carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology that involves
burning fuel with pure oxygen instead of air. These results in a flue gas that is almost
entirely carbon dioxide and water vapor, which makes it easier to capture the carbon
dioxide. Oxyfuel combustion systems burn the primary fuel with oxygen rather than air,
creating a flue gas that is primarily made up of water vapour and CO2. Due to the high
temperatures that result from combustion in oxygen-rich settings, portion of the exhaust
stream is recirculated, as illustrated in the fig.9. The carbon dioxide is then separated
from the water vapour and stored underground. As a result, the flue gas has a high
volumetric CO2 content of more than 80%. The gas stream is subsequently cooled and
compressed to eliminate the water vapour. The upstream separation of oxygen from the
air is necessary for oxy-fuel burning; most contemporary systems assume an oxygen
purity of 95–99%. Before the CO2 is delivered to storage, the flue gas may require
additional treatment to remove air contaminants and uncondensed gases (such as
nitrogen).

Fig. 9, Oxy-fuel combustion of CO2 capture for power generation

Oxy-fuel combustion systems are now in the demonstration stage as a way to capture
CO2 in boilers. Despite the challenges, oxy-fuel combustion is a promising CCS

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technology that has the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
power plants.

The benefits and drawbacks of oxy-fuel combustion capture

Benefits:

 Up to 100% CO2 collection capacity, as well as the absence of nox emissions, are
also requirements.
 Oxy-fuel combustion also produces less water vapor than post-combustion
capture, which can help to reduce acid rain and other environmental problems.

Drawbacks:

 For high-efficiency gas power plants, a turbine must be created, and the air
separation process requires a lot of energy, which is expensive.

 Oxyfuel combustion can be corrosive to materials used in power plants, and it can
increase the risk of fires and explosions.

In addition to these techniques, there are also a number of other technologies that are
being developed to capture CO2. These technologies are still in the early stages of
development, but they have the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. These include:

 Direct air capture (DAC): DAC involves capturing CO2 directly from the
ambient air. This method typically uses chemical processes or sorbents that
selectively bind with CO2, allowing for its removal from the air. Once captured,
the CO2 can be stored underground or used for various applications.

 Biological capture: Some organisms, such as certain types of algae and bacteria,
can capture CO2 through photosynthesis or other biological processes. These
organisms can be cultivated in bioreactors, and the captured CO2 can be harvested
for various purposes, including bio-energy production or storage.

 Mineral carbonation: This technique involves capturing CO2 by reacting it with

certain minerals to form stable carbonates. Utilizing naturally existing silicate
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 rocks that include alkaline and alkaline-earth oxides, such as magnesium oxide
(MgO) and calcium oxide (CaO), to reduce CO2. This process occurs naturally
over long geological timescales, but researchers are exploring ways to accelerate
and optimize it for carbon capture purposes.

6. Carbon Dioxide Transport

CO2 is transported, stored and handled in liquid form, either at ambient temperature
(in cylinders or non-insulated storage tanks at a pressure of 45-65 bar) or refrigerated (in
insulated tankers and storage tanks) at temperatures between -35 °C and -15 °C and
pressures of 12 to 25 bar. Large distances of CO2 transportation may be necessary.
Depending on the distance and amount, CO2 is transported by truck, ship, or pipeline.
Regardless of the method of transportation, CO2 is often moved in its supercritical state,
where it possesses both a liquid-like density and a gas-like viscosity. The low viscosity of
supercritical CO2 (500–750 kg m3) decreases transmission energy losses, which is crucial
for pipelines because of the high density. For temperatures over 31 °C and pressures over
7.4 mpa, CO2 is in its supercritical state. Trucks are only useful for pilot-scale injections
because of their relatively low capacity (a few tonnes of CO2 per truck). For offshore
CCS operations, where several spatially distributed CO2 would access the storage site,
ships have been considered because it would be too expensive to build and operate
multiple ocean floor pipes.

7. Carbon Dioxide Storage

The captured CO2 must be kept in storage for a very long time at least several
hundred years. The captured CO2 is stored underground in geological formations such as
depleted oil and gas reservoirs, saline aquifers, or deep coal seams. The CO2 is injected
deep underground, and various mechanisms ensure its long-term storage and prevent its
release into the atmosphere. The method for deep ocean storage involves releasing CO2
close to the ocean floor at depths more than 2700 m when temperature and pressure
conditions result in the creation of liquid CO2, which is denser than seawater. Although
there are variations between naturally occurring accumulations and manufactured storage,
injecting CO2 into deep geological formations at well-chosen locations can store it
underground for a very long time. Saline formations, which are deep underground porous
reservoir rocks saturated with brackish water or brine, may also be utilised to store CO2,
as well as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, coal formations, and other types of rock. Figure
10 illustrates different Storage options for Carbon Capture and Storage
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 Fig. 10, Storage options for Carbon Capture and Storage

Criteria for the storage of captured carbon:

CO2 must be kept after the collection procedure in order to prevent atmospheric
emissions. The storage strategy must meet a number of important requirements:
The following conditions should be met:
 The storage period should be prolonged, ideally hundreds to thousands of years;
 The cost of storage, including the cost of transportation from the source to the
storage site, should be minimized;
 The risk of accidents should be eliminated;
 The environmental impact should be minimal;
 The storage method should not break any local, state, or federal laws or
regulations.

Storage options for CCS:

 Geological Storage: Geological storage is the most popular and commonly
utilised type of CCS storage. It entails injecting collected CO2 into porous rock
formations far below, such depleted oil and gas fields, saltwater aquifers, or deep
coal seams. The CO2 may be safely trapped and stored in these formations for a
very long time.
 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR): Captured CO2 may occasionally be used for
enhanced oil recovery (EOR), which is an improved method of recovering oil. Oil
reservoirs are given CO2 injections, which boost oil output by enhancing oil flow

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 through the reservoir. By compensating the expenses of capturing and storing
CO2, this procedure can offer extra financial incentives for CCS implementation.

 Mineralization: A process known as mineralization, or carbon mineralization,

can also be used to store CO2 by transforming it into stable mineral forms. In
order to do this, CO2 must be captured and then reacted with certain minerals or
rocks that naturally produce solid carbonates when exposed to CO2. The resultant
carbonates may either be buried for storage or utilized for a variety of things, such
building materials.
 Ocean Storage: Injecting CO2 into the deep ocean is another possible storage
choice. Ocean storage, now commonly not used due to environmental worries and
the possible effects on marine ecosystems. Regulation frameworks and ongoing
research are being done on the long-term consequences and viability of ocean
storage.

8. Case study:

Boundary Dam: Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage project

The saskpower Boundary Dam Power Station in Estevan, Saskatchewan, launched the
world's first commercial scale post-combustion coal fueled carbon capture and storage
project in September 2014. Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) is anticipated to
become a global industry. Older equipment in the saskpower fleet, Unit 3 of the Boundary
Dam Power Station, was subject to new federal restrictions limiting carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions from coal-fired power plants. The improvements to the unit are expected to
increase its useful life of electricity output by 30 years. Figurer 11, Depicts the Boundary
Dam Integrated Carbon Capture and Storage Project – Capture Plant and Compression
Plant.

Over one million metric tonnes of CO2 are captured annually by the saskpower
Integrated Carbon collection and Storage (ICCS) Demonstration Project, which represents
a 90% CO2 collection rate for the 139 MW coal-fired unit. Following their capture, the
CO2 emissions are compressed and sent to Cenovus Energy, which utilises it for enhanced
oil recovery (EOR) operations at the Weyburn oil field. The biggest geological CO2
storage project in the world is known as Weyburn. While this is going on, .the entire
sulphur dioxide (SO2) that is present in the flue gas is collected and utilised to make

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sulphuric acid, which is then sold as a useful by-product. In this project CO2 Capture
Technology were Post-combustion amine methods. EOR in the Weyburn field (90% of
CO2): CO2 fate. Cenovus developed a 66 km pipeline for transportation. Any CO2 that is
not utilised for EOR will be used at the 2 km distant Aquistore project.

Fig. 11, The Boundary Dam Integrated Carbon Capture and Storage Project – Capture Plant and
Compression Plant

The project is estimated to cost $1.5 billion in total. The price tag at launch was $1.3
billion. $500 million of the initial cost estimate went towards retrofit expenditures,
leaving $800 million for the CCS process. On the following unit, saskpower believes they
can reduce capital costs by 20–30%. The federal government contributed $240 million to
the Boundary Dam project. The project received additional funding by the provincial
government. Along with the selling of power, CO2, sulphuric acid, and fly ash will bring
in money. Saskpower required the payment of C$12 million in fines in 2014 as a result of
a lower capture rate and failing to provide Cenovus Energy with the guaranteed CO2. For
2015, further fines are anticipated. Saskpower is certain that the money made from the
CO2 gathered will outweigh the fines.

The International Test Centre for CO2 Capture already has a $5.2 million pre-commercial
size chemical absorption technology demonstration pilot plant running at Boundary Dam.
The Western Economic Partnership Agreement between Canada and Saskatchewan
provided $1.2 million as part of the investment.

Conclusion

The 66-km pipeline was constructed by Cenovus Energy to deliver the CO2 to
neighbouring oil fields in the province's southern region, where it would be utilised for
increased oil recovery. The independent Aquistore research project, located in the 3.4 km-
deep Deadwood deposit, a brine and sandstone water deposit under the Williston Basin, a
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sedimentary basin made up of porous and non-porous rocks, would store the surplus CO2.
The Petroleum Technology Research Centre (PTRC) is in charge of the research project
Aquistore.

9. The benefits and drawbacks of CCS

Benefits of CCS:

However, there are challenges associated with CCS, including high costs,
technical feasibility, and the need for suitable storage sites. Additionally, some critics
argue that CCS could be a distraction from investing in renewable energy sources and
energy efficiency measures, which they consider more sustainable solutions to combat
climate change.

 Emissions Reduction: CCS has the potential to significantly reduce CO2

emissions from large-scale stationary sources such as power plants and industrial
facilities. By capturing CO2 before it is released into the atmosphere, CCS can
help mitigate climate change and meet emission reduction targets.
 Utilization of Fossil Fuels: CCS allows for the continued use of fossil fuels while
minimizing their environmental impact. This is particularly relevant in industries
heavily reliant on fossil fuels, where alternative low-carbon technologies may not
be readily available or cost-effective.
 Carbon Offsetting: CCS can be used as a carbon offsetting technique, where
captured CO2 is stored permanently underground. This allows industries or
individuals to balance their carbon emissions by investing in CCS projects and
effectively offsetting their environmental impact.

Drawback of CCS:

 High Cost: CCS technology is currently expensive and economically challenging

to implement at large scales. The process of capturing, transporting, and storing
CO2 requires significant investments in infrastructure, making it a costly option
compared to other renewable energy alternatives.
 Energy Intensive: The CCS process itself consumes a significant amount of
energy, typically reducing the overall efficiency of power plants or industrial
facilities. This energy penalty can increase the cost of electricity generation and
reduce the net environmental benefits of CCS.
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  Limited Storage Capacity: The availability of suitable storage sites for
underground CO2 storage is limited. Identifying and developing appropriate
geological formations for long-term storage can be challenging and may not be
feasible in all locations, limiting the scalability and widespread implementation of
CCS.
 Environmental Risks: There are potential environmental risks associated with
CO2 storage, such as the possibility of CO2 leakage from storage sites. Leakage
could have adverse effects on groundwater quality and ecosystem health.
Therefore, proper site selection and monitoring are essential to minimize these
risks.

10. Conclusion
1. CCS has the ability to drastically reduce CO2 emissions from large-scale industrial
sources, which are a primary cause of climate change.
2. In order to reduce emissions and make the transition to a low-carbon economy,
CCS may assist nations, businesses, and industries.
3. The provided case study illustrates the benefits and challenges of implementing
CCS in a variety of industries, including cement production facilities, natural gas
processing plants, and coal-fired power plants.
4. To summarise, CCS is a useful and essential technology for achieving significant
decarbonization and facilitating the shift to a sustainable future. By making
investments in the study, creation, and use of CCS, businesses and governments
can actively battle climate change and assure a more resilient and sustainable
Earth for future generations.

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Hoteit , Mohammad Sarmadivaleh (2022), “Recent advances in carbon dioxide
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