s41685 023 00279 6

Asia-Pacific Journal of Regional Science (2023) 7:749–774
https://doi.org/10.1007/s41685-023-00279-6
ARTICLE
Factors influencing farmer intentions to scale up organic

rice farming: preliminary findings from the context
of agricultural production in Central Vietnam
Nguyen Cong Dinh1 · Takeshi Mizunoya2 · Vo Hoang Ha1,3 ·

Pham Xuan Hung1 · Nguyen Quang Tan4 · Le Thanh An1
Received: 15 September 2022 / Accepted: 10 February 2023 / Published online: 9 March 2023
© The Japan Section of the Regional Science Association International 2023
Abstract
The Vietnamese government encourages organic farming (OF) as a move
toward safer and more eco-friendly agricultural practices. To achieve the goal
of popularizing OF, besides encouraging the participation of newcomers, the
government should also focus on farmers already involved because their production
decisions are the most effective means for communication. By blending quantitative
and qualitative approaches, this study investigated smallholder farmer intentions to
scale up organic rice farming (ORF). Data were obtained through direct interviews
with 325 farmers in the Phu Vang, Phong Dien and Huong Thuy Districts of Thua
Thien Hue Province, Central Vietnam. The results revealed the ineffectiveness in
demographic characteristics, including gender, age, education, number of laborers,
OF experience, percentage of organic rice area, non-farm jobs and involvement in
community-based organizations to predict farmer intentions to expand ORF. The
findings highlighted the more significant influence of factors related to economic
outcomes, farmer awareness of OF, and their confidence in the market outlook. We
recommend policies and interventions associated with promoting the advantages
of organic agriculture, intensifying technical training, linking production with the
market following the value chain model, equipping the market with information,
diversifying support and timely undertaking of issued policies.
Keywords Agriculture · Organic farming · Organic rice farming · Farmers’

intention · Central Vietnam
JEL Classification O13 · Q18 · Q19 · R11 · R21 · R28
* Takeshi Mizunoya
mizunoya.takeshi.ff@u.tsukuba.ac.jp
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
13
Vol.:(0123456789)
750 Asia-Pacific Journal of Regional Science (2023) 7:749–774
1 Introduction
Sustainable farming practices are being promoted to counter the threats posed
by the overuse of chemicals on the environment and human health. Among
these, organic agriculture represents one of the most reasonable choices targeted
by most countries (Lee et al. 2015; Mishra et al. 2019). Organic agriculture is
defined as a production system that responds to site-specific conditions by
integrating cultural, biological, and mechanical practices that foster resource
cycling, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity (SARE 2003).
Sustainable farming is currently being practiced by 3.1 million farmers in 187
countries. The total area of organic farmland increased considerably within a
decade, from 36.3 million ha in 2009 to 72.3 million in 2019. Australia, Argentina,
Spain, the USA, and India are the top five countries in terms of organic farmland
area worldwide. By share of total agricultural land, Liechtenstein is the leading
country (41%), followed by Austria (26.1%) (Willer et al. 2021). Consumers are
increasingly turning to organic products because they believe they are healthier
and more eco-friendly (Smith and Paladino 2010; Nguyen et al. 2019). The global
organic food market was worth 201.77 billion USD in 2020 and is expected to be
worth 380.84 billion USD in 2025 at a compound annual growth rateof 14.5%
(Research and Markets 2021).
Despite the rapid industrialization and modernization in recent years,
agriculture remains an essential component of the Vietnamese economy. In 2020,
agriculture, forestry, and fisheries accounted for 14.85% of the economy (GSO
2020). This sector creates stable earnings for approximately 13.8 million laborers,
equivalent to 27.01% of the national labor force (GSO 2021a). Vietnamese
agricultural products were exported to 190 countries and territories, with a
turnover of USD 41.2 billion in 2020 and USD 22.83 billion in the first 5 months
of 2021 (GSO 2021b). Rice, coffee, rubber, pepper, cashews, and vegetables are
the main agricultural products exported by Vietnam. Although it is one of the
leading producers and exporters of agricultural products, the targeted economic
value of Vietnamese agricultural products has not been achieved. Vietnam
currently ranks 2nd in Southeast Asia and 15th globally in agricultural exports
but accounts for only 1.95% of the world’s agricultural import value. Low quality
should be considered the primary cause of this issue, which is the main obstacle
for Vietnamese agricultural products to overcome in order to penetrate deeper
into strictly regulated markets, such as the UK, the USA, Japan, Australia, and
the EU. Therefore, improving the quality of agricultural products is essential to
boost the export value to 50 billion USD by 2025 and 60 billion USD by 2030,
as targeted in the scheme to enhance the competitiveness of Vietnam’s exports by
2020, with a vision to 2030 (Vietnamese Government 2017).
In addition to exports, the Vietnamese government has also moved toward
cleaner, safer, and more eco-friendly agriculture for domestic consumption. In
recent decades, the pressure to increase crop yields has raised many concerns.
Notably, agricultural input pollution has increased considerably in Vietnam over
the past 2 decades with the expansion and intensification of crops. It is estimated
13
Asia-Pacific Journal of Regional Science (2023) 7:749–774 751
that the use of pesticides in Vietnam has increased by approximately 3- to 5-fold in

almost 25 years, with imports of active pesticide ingredients ranging from 20,000
to 30,000 tons per year in the 1990s to nearly 100,000 tons in 2015. Likewise, the
levels of the active ingredient per hectare tripled during this period (World Bank
2017). According to an overview of toxic pesticides in Vietnam (Phong and Tran
2020), several highly toxic active ingredients are still licensed for use despite
being banned by the Asia–Pacific Pesticide Use Reduction Action Network. In the
long run, this should be considered a substantial threat to consumer health, the
reputation of Vietnamese agricultural products, and environmental sustainability
(Nguyen 2017; Huyen et al. 2020). Developing organic agriculture appears to be a
critical measure taken by the Vietnamese government to steer agriculture toward
sustainability. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development,
the organic agricultural area in Vietnam increased from 53,350 ha in 2016 to
approximately 237,693 ha in 2019. Moreover, 46 out of 63 provinces were
implementing organic cultivation, and the number of farmers involved in OF was
roughly 17,168 (MARD 2020). Vietnam currently ranks 32nd globally and 2nd in
Southeast Asia regarding organic farmland area. However, OF accounts for only
approximately 1.1% of the total agricultural land area (equivalent to 237,000 ha),
which is unimpressive compared to its agricultural potential.
The Vietnamese government has established the goal of developing organic
agriculture through decision 885/QD-TTg, approving the organic agriculture
development scheme for 2020–2030. Accordingly, the organic agricultural land
area is scheduled to increase to approximately 2% by 2025 and 3% by 2030. Its
efficiency was also targeted to be 1.3–1.5 times higher than conventional models
by 2025 and 1.5–1.8 times higher by 2030 (Vietnamese Government 2020). In
addition to government efforts, farmers’ roles should be emphasized to achieve
these goals. Farmers still make the ultimate decisions regarding farming; therefore,
the consensus of farmers is a prerequisite to popularizing this sustainable farming
model.
In addition to encouraging newcomers’ participation, intensifying organic
agriculture can be achieved by encouraging those considering expanding their area.
The farmers’ decision to extend, limit, or withdraw from this model directly changes
the current scale of OF and affects the psychology of those intending to participate,
as their production decisions are the most effective means of communication. Recent
studies (Sterrett et al. 2005; Karki et al. 2011; Peterson et al. 2012; Azam and
Banumathi 2015; Pinthukas 2015; Xie et al. 2015; Ma et al. 2017; Métouolé Méda
et al. 2018) have focused on investigating the factors driving the decision to engage
in OF while neglecting the production decisions afterward (e.g., extending, limiting,
or withdrawing from the model). Understanding the factors driving farmers’
intentions toward OF expansion is crucial for proposing timely and effective policies
and interventions.
To fill this knowledge gap, we aimed to examine the factors driving the intention
to expand the OF area of smallholder farmers in Thua Thien Hue province, central
Vietnam. The results of this study are expected to provide deeper insights into
the drivers promoting ORF in Vietnam, which are crucial for proposing effective
policies and interventions.
13
2 Literature review on factors promoting organic farming
Owing to the scarcity of studies investigating farmers’ intentions toward

expanding OF, we reviewed the published literature regarding factors driving
farmers’ decisions to engage in organic agriculture and employed them as a basis
for the discussions. These studies are also helpful in identifying the differences
between farmers’ expectations of participating in this model (e.g., economic
and market conditions, government support, health, and environment) and the
performance achieved in practice.
Adoption of OF requires favorable conditions to improve the likelihood of the
conversion process. Besides lacking motivation, farmers may encounter several
barriers and obstacles in this process, decreasing the likelihood of adoption.
Scholars have employed various factors to investigate households’ decisions
to engage in OF models. In general, these are diverse and vary by country and
region. The following is a brief and systematic summary of these factors.
As baseline factors, demographic variables were most commonly employed
by previous scholars to examine farmers’ decisions toward adopting OF
(Genius et al. 2006; Isin et al. 2007; Mwiathi 2008; Karki et al. 2011; Läpple
and Rensburg 2011; Azam and Banumathi 2015; Pinthukas 2015; Xie et al.
2015; Métouolé Méda et al. 2018). Isin et al. (2007) employed social, structural,
and intellectual group factors to examine dried fig production in Turkey. Their
findings revealed that producers’ educational status, age, and fig-growing
experience were influential parameters in adopting organic dried fig agriculture.
Using Nepalese tea producers in the Ilam and Panchthar districts of Nepal as a
case study, Karki et al. (2011) found that farmers who are older, located further
from regional markets, better trained, affiliated with institutions, and have
larger farms are more likely to adopt organic cultivation. Läpple and Rensburg
(2011) investigated the temporal aspects of organic agriculture implementation
in the Republic of Ireland. They concluded that the factors influencing adoption
played different roles for early, medium, and late adopters, particularly regarding
farming intensity, age, information collection, and farmers’ attitudes. More
specifically, early adopters of OF were the youngest, and their decisions were
less profit-related than those of other groups. A study of potato farming in
the Nalanda district of Bihar by Azam and Banumathi (2015) showed that
educational attainment, age, and gender had an influence; however, family size
and land ownership were less influential. It was found that the economic situation
of organic farmers had improved considerably, and training provided by the
government had led farmers to become more confident and self-reliant. Meda
et al. (2018) highlighted the role of education in selecting conventional, organic,
and genetically modified cotton-planting models in Burkina Faso. Pinthukas’s
(2015) research on organic vegetables in Chiang Mai, Thailand, emphasized the
crucial role of age, education level, household labor, farm income, and extension
visits on farmers’ awareness of organic cultivation. Moreover, education level,
experience, availability of natural water, and farmers’ networks or membership
markedly contributed to their adopting organic vegetable production. However,
13
Cukur (2015) found a negative association between farmers’ educational levels

and their intention to produce organic milk in the future. Meanwhile, the study
by Xie et al. (2015) explored the willingness of small farmers to engage in OF in
Jiangsu, China. Five factors were discovered: the farmer’s age, risk preferences,
labor costs, expected benefits, and the environment. The effects of farm size and
farming year were further noted by Liu et al. (2019) and Pradhan et al. (2017) for
small farms in the US and India, respectively.
Financial reasons were demonstrated as critical factors in making decisions
regarding OF (Sholubi et al. 1997; Entz and Guilford 1998; Lohr 2000; Pietola
2001; Sterrett et al. 2005; Ács 2006; Läpple and Kelley 2010; Nguyen et al.
2020). Entz and Guilford (1998) noted that organic wheat and alfalfa farms in
Canada were more profitable than conventional models despite not setting higher
prices. Similarly, Sholubi et al. (1997) found that organic dairy farms were more
profitable than conventional farms. According to Pietola (2001), low output prices
and the escalation of direct government subsidies spurred farmers in Finland
to become organic producers. Lohr (2000) demonstrated the role of subsidy
requirements as determinants that encouraged Swedish farmers to convert to OF.
Accordingly, services had a more substantial impact than subsidies in promoting
farmer participation in organic practices. By examining the Netherlands’ transition
to OF systems, Ács (2006) concluded that OF remained economically attractive to
producers, despite the difficulties in the conversion phase. Meanwhile, Sterrett et al.
(2005) scrutinized organic conversion in Virginia and concluded that high costs and
uncertain certification processes were the main obstacles. Marketing shortages and
the high cost of labor and information were additional obstacles. By considering
farmers’ decisions to abandon OF, Läpple and Kelley (2010) suggested that
structural and economic factors primarily drove abandonment decisions. Farmers
engaged in non-farm jobs were likelier to abandon OF, whereas more intensive farm
systems tended to maintain their organic practices. Based on a dataset of factors
influencing intentions to engage in OF in Vietnam, Nguyen et al. (2020) emphasized
the positive impact of farmers’ attitudes toward productivity and profit on their
application. Similarly, the investigation of Kaufmann et al. (2011) in Lithuania
stressed that the main drivers of future in-conversions were related to economic and
farm management reasons. These depended primarily on the type of farm, whether
farmers believed it was possible to manage an organic farm effectively, subsidies,
and, in this regard, farmers’ expectations about the impact on land prices and land
rents.
Farmers’ awareness and attitude toward the advantages of organic production have
also been thoroughly investigated in previous studies (Anderson 1995; Marshall 1999;
Duram 2000; Burton et al. 2003; De Cock 2005; Parra López and Calatrava Requena
2005; Läpple and Kelley 2010; Läpple and Rensburg 2011; Pornpratansombat et al.
2011; Peterson et al. 2012; Yanakittkul and Aungvaravong 2020). Environmental
and health issues that emerge in common practices have contributed markedly in
developing the sustainable agriculture movement (Anderson 1995). Organic farming
is closely related to an eco-friendly lifestyle that addresses environmental and health
issues. Duram (2000) revealed that farmers who are more concerned about the
environment and have a better attitude toward challenges were more likely to choose
13
OF. Meanwhile, Marshall (1999) showed that the value brought about by OF was the
primary motivation for farmers to convert to the organic model in France. Burton et al.
(2003) proposed a model to test the adoption of organic horticultural technology in the
UK. They proved that attitudes toward the environment and information systems were
essential drivers of adoption decisions. Similarly, Peterson et al. (2012) discovered
that younger farmers were more likely to be motivated by environmental and lifestyle
goals than older farmers. This asserts that environmental judgments were the main
reason for switching from conventional to OF. Through a case study of Spanish olive
orchards, Parra López and Calatrava Requena (2005) indicated that farmers with more
negative opinions regarding chemical usage tended to engage in organic agriculture,
even though it requires more time and effort. Compared with Belgian farmers’ attitudes
toward conventional and organic models, De Cock (2005) revealed that conventional
farmers were more concerned with yield, risk, and cost reduction. Achieving higher
economic efficiency than colleague farmers was often considered important.
Meanwhile, organic farmers valued business goals such as flexibility, production
quality, and reduced environmental impact. Through a case study in Ireland, Läpple
and Kelley (2010) stated that conversion to OF was strongly affected by farmers’
attitudes toward the environment, perceived social pressure, and ability to convert. In
the agricultural context of Ireland, Läpple and Rensburg (2011) also found that later
adoption of OF was constrained by risk considerations, while environmental attitudes
and social learning were identified as important determinants for all adopters. Research
by Pornpratansombat et al. (2011) in northeastern Thailand concluded that water
accessibility, on-farm prices, and farmers’ attitudes toward conventional production
problems promoted their engagement in OF models. In addition, Yanakittkul and
Aungvaravong (2020) accentuated the positive influences of farmers’ attitudes
toward farming behavior and perception of risk on their organic cultivation decisions
in Thailand. Mohamed Haris et al. (2018), through a case study in four regions of
Peninsular Malaysia, underscored that positive environmental attitude was the most
influential factor, followed by information-sharing attitudes and land ownership.
Other valuable factors, such as technical aspects (Fairweather 1999; Schneeberger
et al. 2002), information acquisition (Wynen 2004; Genius et al. 2006; Isin et al. 2007;
Läpple and Rensburg 2011), social relationships (Lobley et al. 2005), institutional
support (Lynggaard 2001; Michelsen et al. 2001; Koesling et al. 2008; Pradhan et al.
2017; Yanakittkul and Aungvaravong 2020), production contracts (Ma et al. 2017), and
training (Métouolé Méda et al. 2018), were also investigated by previous researchers.
In general, the above literature sketched a vivid picture of the factors driving
farmers to switch to OF. However, the factors influencing the intention of farmers
with experience with this model to scale up OF have not been adequately considered.
Therefore, by examining farmers’ intentions toward expanding the organic rice area
in central Vietnam, this study aims to expand this area of knowledge.
13
3 Study design
3.1 Study sites
This study was conducted in Thua Thien Hue Province in Central Vietnam.
The province’s total agricultural land area is almost 70,000 ha, accounting for
approximately 14.12% of the total natural land area. Rice is one of the key crops
in Thua Thien Hue Province, with a total area of almost 31,000 ha (the annual
rice cultivation area is about 54,000 ha). The province’s high-quality rice area
exceeded 17,125 ha in 2020, 6,780 ha higher than that in 2015, and accounted
for approximately 31.5% of the province’s rice area. Currently, the province
is implementing agricultural restructuring toward increasing added value and
sustainable development. The People’s Committee of Thua Thien Hue Province
has issued Decision No. 67/2021/QD-UBND (November 12, 2021), encouraging
the development of key goods and products in 2021–2025. Accordingly, expanding
the scale of high-quality rice production following sustainable cultivation models,
such as OF, is highly prioritized. The province’s target is to reach roughly 25,000 ha
of high-quality rice by 2025, with half of the area used based on commitments or
contracts with enterprises (see Table 1). The profit from high-quality rice production
is also expected to increase by 10–15% compared to conventional production.
Organic rice development, which started in 2014 with a five-ha pilot area, is
considered a key direction in the province’s scheme toward improving the quality
and efficiency of agricultural products. Currently, the province is implementing
many measures to attract more farmers to this sustainable model and encourage
those already involved in expanding their scale of ORF. However, this province’s
scale of organic rice production is currently inadequate. As of 2021, the province’s
organic rice production area is approximately 370 ha, accounting for roughly 1%
of the total land under rice. Therefore, determining the underlying cause of this
situation is crucial.
Table 1 Planned area (hectare) City/district Year

for high-quality rice production
in the period 2020–2025 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025
Phong Dien 3000 3000 3100 3250 3350 3500

Quang Dien 2033 2190 2420 2590 2800 3050
Huong Tra 2480 2850 3080 3220 3280 3300
Huong Thuy 2890 2955 2955 3025 3025 3025
Phu Loc 1540 1540 1540 1540 1540 1540
Hue City 668 655 654 654 654 654
Nam Dong 16 17 17 17 17 17
A Luoi 923 956 1008 1058 1097 1158
Phu Vang 5246 6066 6566 7202 7919 8624
Total 18,796 20,229 21,340 22,556 23,682 24,868
Source: People’s Committee of Thua Thien Hue Province (2020)
13
The Phu Vang, Phong Dien, and Huong Thuy districts were selected as the key
organic and high-quality rice production areas of Thua Thien Hue Province (see
Fig. 1). In recent years, the scale of organic rice cultivation in these locations has
increased more impressively than elsewhere. For example, the organic rice field area
in Huong Thuy District reached 75 ha in 2020, which is 30 ha greater than that
in 2019. However, this organic rice area is still small, accounting for only approxi-
mately 1.25% of the district’s total rice cultivation area. In the Phong Dien district,
the An Lo cooperative deployed the organic rice production model in the Phong
Hien commune in 2016, over approximately 8 ha. Although it was expanded to
22 ha in 2020, the district’s organic rice scale is now facing many obstacles due to
difficulties related to product consumption. Phu Vang is one of the districts with the
most extensive rice farming areas in Thua Thien Hue Province, with approximately
12,000 ha. The Phu Luong commune is a typical rice-producing commune with an
annual rice production area of nearly 2300 ha. The organic rice scale in this area has
considerably extended from just 10–130 ha in 2020.
3.2 Methods
3.2.1 Data collection
The data for analysis were collected in the Phu Vang, Phong Dien, and Huong Thuy
districts from June to July 2021 and October to December 2021. In the first step, the
unstructured in-depth interview method was employed to obtain secondary socio-
economic and agricultural production data from local government agencies at the
provincial, district, and commune levels (Department of Agriculture and Rural
Development; People’s Committees of districts; People’s Committees of communes).
This step aided us in identifying key organic rice-growing areas in selected districts
for the survey. The same method was used to interview individuals responsible for
producing rice in agricultural cooperatives. The farmers at the selected sites were
Fig. 1 Map of study sites
13
interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. The study population included

households that concurrently produce organic and conventional rice in Thua Thien
Hue province. As most of these households are managed by local cooperatives, the
survey was conducted following cooperatives’ guides. The questionnaires were
distributed equally among the six selected agricultural cooperatives in three districts:
Phu Vang, Phong Dien, and Huong Thuy, where the organic rice production of
Thua Thien Hue province is concentrated (60 per cooperative). The number of
surveyed households was decided based on consultation with local authorities
and cooperatives’ representatives. Accordingly, surveying around 60 households
per cooperative was appropriate to capture the general situation of organic rice
production. Regarding the survey method, we applied simple random sampling
to eliminate discrimination in household selection. Accordingly, households were
randomly selected by interviewers based on lists provided by representatives of
agricultural cooperatives, regardless of their production scale and socio-economic
conditions. Our target interviewees were household heads (husband or wife) who
understood production activities and often held the highest decision-making power
in the family. A household would be ignored or visited later if the head was absent.
Regarding the interview content, the interviewees were first asked to provide basic
information on their demographic characteristics and livelihood activities. We
then explored the results and effectiveness of recent crops that were organically
farmed, the advantages and disadvantages encountered, and their views on this
sustainable production model. Finally, farmers were asked to share their intentions
regarding scaling up ORF over the next five years and their explanations. Out of
360 questionnaires distributed, only 325 contained complete information and were
used for analysis (90.28%), while the others with missing data were excluded. The
number of questionnaires obtained from agricultural cooperatives was relatively
uniform (53–57).
3.2.2 Data analysis
Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were used to perform this study. While
the interactions of output variables and predictors were tested using a quantitative
approach, the meanings behind the predicted numerical data were interpreted
using a qualitative approach. The study used a binary logistic regression model to
investigate the factors driving farmers’ intention to scale up ORF. The dependent
variable is farmers’ intention to scale up organic rice farming (expanding cultivated
land area). It was split into either “intended” or “not intended,” corresponding to 1
and 0 in the regression model. Data were processed using IBM SPSS Statistics 22
software.
Through reviewing relevant literature in Sect. 2, this study considered 17 explan-
atory variables related to household demographics, economic outcomes of ORF,
farmers’ awareness of OF, and their confidence in this model’s prospects. These
variables are briefly described in Table 2. We expected to discover some statistically
significant effects on households’ production intention from these variables. Based
on the results of published documents (see Sect. 2), we hypothesize that households
characterized by one or several of the following attributes intend to scale up ORF:
13
Table 2 Brief description of the key variables
758
Variable Type Description Min Max Mean SD Expected signs
Dependent variable
13
Intention to scale up organic rice farming Binary 1 = intended; 0 = not intended 0 1 0.46 0.499 N/A
Explanatory variables
Household demographics
Householder’s sex Binary 1 = male; 0 = female 0 1 0.81 0.391 +
Householder’s age Nominal 1 = under 40 years old; 2 = 40–60 years old 1 3 2.11 0.653 –
3 = over 60 years old
Householder’s highest educational attainment Nominal 1 = elementary school; 2 = Secondary school; 3 = high 1 3 1.60 0.571 +
school
Number of agricultural laborers Continuous Number of self-employed agricultural laborers 1 5 2.57 0.968 +
Experience in organic agriculture Continuous Number of years in OF 2 9 4.00 1.633 +
Percentage of ORF land Continuous Percentage of ORF land to rice land 15 70 31.32 8.435 ±
Engaging in non-farm job Binary 1 = yes; 0 = no 0 1 0.56 0.497 ±
Actively involved in community-based organizations Binary 1 = yes; 0 = no 0 1 0.11 0.318 +
Economic outcomes of organic rice farming
Organic rice yield achieved as expected 5-level Likert 1 = strongly disagree–5 = strongly agree 1 5 2.50 0.922 +
Organic rice price achieved as expected 5-level Likert 1 = strongly disagree–5 = strongly agree 1 4 2.18 0.699 +
Consumption of organic rice is guaranteed 5-level Likert 1 = strongly disagree–5 = strongly agree 1 5 2.96 0.890 +
Income from ORF plays an important role 5-level Likert 1 = strongly disagree–5 = strongly agree 1 5 1.59 0.678 +
Farmers’ awareness of organic farming
OF contributed to improving the environment 5-level Likert 1 = strongly disagree–5 = strongly agree 2 5 3.47 1.020 +
OF enhanced my family members’ health 5-level Likert 1 = strongly disagree–5 = strongly agree 1 5 3.67 1.344 +
My OF fostered awareness and adoption of others 5-level Likert 1 = strongly disagree–5 = strongly agree 1 5 3.46 1.023 +
Farmers’ belief in market prospects
I believe in the market prospects of organic agriculture 5-level Likert 1 = strongly disbelieve–5 = strongly believe 1 5 3.12 1.016 +
I believe in government support for organic agriculture 5-level Likert 1 = strongly disbelieve–5 = strongly believe 1 5 3.43 1.361 +
Source: household interviews

male-headed households, younger and better-educated householders, having more

laborers, having more experience in organic cultivation, engaging in off-farm occu-
pations, active involvement in community-based organizations, satisfaction with
organic rice outcomes, awareness of OF’s positive effects, and positive beliefs in
OF prospects. These characteristics are often seen as advantages for households to
access/implement advanced agricultural production models. Their positive influence
on farmers’ decisions to engage in OF has also been demonstrated (see Sect. 2). But
how they affect farmers’ intention to scale up OF remains unknown and thus needs
to be explored.
4 Results and discussion
4.1 Demographic profile of respondents
The main characteristics of the study population are shown in Table 3. Most
respondents were male (81.2%) and middle-aged (56.3%). More than half of the
households (51.7%) had only attended secondary school, while only 4% claimed
high school. The average number of laborers per household was 2.57; however, less
than half (47.7%) of the households had more than two laborers. By income level,
most households (59.7%) were classified as middle-class, with a monthly average
income in the range of 1.5–4.5 million VND. In comparison, approximately, one-
fifth (19.1%) of households were poor. Approximately 60% of the interviewees had
used OF for approximately 3–5 years. Meanwhile, the number of respondents with
less than two or more than 5 years of experience was approximately 20%. Most
households (78.7%) used 20–40% of the rice land for organic cultivation. More than
half (56%) of the farmers engaged in non-farm work to improve their household
earnings. Most families resided in semi-permanent houses (67.1%), whereas only
13.2% were still using temporary dwellings.
4.2 Factors influencing household intention to scale up organic rice farming
This study used the binary logistic regression model to explore the factors driving
smallholder farmers’ intention to scale up ORF. Based on the model design, the
dependent variable (intention to expand the scale of ORF) is treated as a discrete
variable that can only take values of zero or one. One (1) refers to households
that intend to scale up organic rice cultivation, whereas zero (0) refers to those
that do not. As predictors, the model comprised 17 variables related to household
demographics, ORF outputs, awareness of ORF impacts, and their confidence in the
prospects of this sustainable farming method in the coming years.
Table 4 summarizes the accuracy of the model in making predictions. The model
correctly anticipated 157 of 176 cases (89.2%) with no intention of expanding ORF.
Similarly, the model misjudged only 28 out of 149 households intending to expand
ORF, equivalent to an accuracy rate of 81.2%. As a result, the model’s average
success rate reached 85.5%, indicating its robust dependability.
13
Since this study’s outcome variable is designed in binary form, the

Hosmer–Lemeshow goodness of fit test was used to assess the model’s fit. Although
this test has certain limitations, for instance, its results can be different when the
Hosmer–Lemeshow goodness of fit test is performed with a lower number of
covariate samples than the number of objects (Hosmer et al. 1997; Bertolini et al.
2000; Kramer and Zimmerman 2007), it is still widely accepted and used by
previous scholars (Kwadzo and Quayson 2021; Abdillah Tiffany et al. 2022; Ha
et al. 2022).
Table 5 lists the calculated parameters for the binary logistic regression.
The p-value of the Hosmer–Lemeshow goodness of fit test (0.786 > α = 0.05)
demonstrates that the model adequately fits the data. Otherwise stated, the overall
link between explanatory factors and household intention probability is plausible
(χ2 = 4.729; p = 0.786 > 0.05). The value of Nagelkerke’s R2 (0.706) further indicates
that the predictive variables included in the model explained 70.6% of households’
intention to expand ORF. The factors driving household intention to scale up ORF
are discussed in the following sub-sections.
4.2.1 Effects of demographic characteristics
We found no statistically significant relationship between farmers’ intentions and

the eight demographic predictors. Although the intention to expand ORF was higher
in male-headed households, this linkage was statistically insignificant (p = 0.425).
Similarly, the effects of age and education level were insignificant (p = 0.322;
p = 0.279). Male, younger, and better-educated household heads are often considered
more advantageous and active in exploring new information and advanced
production approaches, including OF (Vo et al. 2021). Most farmers in the study
sites mastered ORF techniques regardless of gender, age, or education level. This
may explain why the above characteristics did not make any difference to farmers’
intentions to scale up ORF. Our results were distinct from those of previous studies.
On the contrary, Azam and Banumathi (2015) revealed a positive relationship
between farmers’ ages and OF practices, and Singh et al. (2015) showed a negative
relationship. Most previous studies concluded that males were more likely to engage
in OF (Pinthukas 2015; Ma et al. 2017; Pradhan et al. 2017). Shaban (2015) found
that farmers with higher educational qualifications were more likely to convert to
organic cultivation models, contradicting the findings of Cukur (2015).
Contrary to our hypothesis, the role of agricultural laborer numbers in anticipat-
ing farmers’ intentions toward expanding ORF was negligible (p = 0.263). House-
holds with more laborers were even less willing to broaden their ORF. Several
studies have demonstrated that the labor required for ORF is almost twice that of
conventional rice farming (Thanh et al. 2020). However, the fieldwork suggested
that most households did not face much difficulty in OF despite having a couple
of regular agricultural laborers. Some households reported that labor shortage did
not affect their decisions, as the labor requirement was concentrated in several
stages of the rice growth cycle. In addition, this issue could be easily solved through
labor exchange, which is quite common in rural Vietnam. This could be a plausible
13
Table 3 Demographic profile of respondents

Characteristic Frequency Percentage
Householder’s sex
Male 264 81.2
Female 61 18.8
Householder’s age
< 40 years old 53 16.3
40–60 years old 183 56.3
> 60 years old 89 27.4
Householder’s highest educational attainment
Elementary school 143 44.0
Secondary school 168 51.7
High school 14 4.3
Number of agricultural laborers
≤2 170 52.3
>2 155 47.7
Monthly per capita income
< 1.5 million VND 62 19.1
1.5–4.5 million VND 194 59.7
> 4.5 million VND 69 21.2
Experience in organic agriculture
≤ 2 years 73 22.5
3–5 years 190 58.4
> 5 years 62 19.1
Percentage of ORF land
< 20% 34 10.5
20–40% 256 78.7
> 40% 35 10.8
Engaging in non-farm job
No 143 44.0
Yes 182 56.0
Household classification
Poor 62 19.1
Non-poor 263 80.9
Housing type
Permanent 64 19.7
Semi-permanent 218 67.1
Temporary 43 13.2
Source: household interviews
explanation for the poor correlation between farmers’ decisions and their work-
force. This result would negate the findings of Wollni and Andersson (2014) and
Ullah et al. (2015) that family laborers were able to join farming activities, even if
they worked elsewhere. Thus, households reduce the cost of hiring other workers.
13
Table 4 Percentage accuracy in Observed Predicted

classification (PAC)
Expanding ORF Percentage
correct
No Yes
Expanding ORF
No 157 19 89.2
Yes 28 121 81.2
Overall percentage 85.5
Source: data calculated by authors
Meanwhile, it was consistent with the result of Läpple and Rensburg (2011) that an
increase in household members was an obstacle deterring households’ intentions.
This indicated that the number of laborers determined a households’ decision to
enter OF but was less significant for their scaling-up intention.
Farmers’ intentions were also unaffected by their experience (p = 0.149). Most
households stated that their organic rice production strictly followed the instructions
of the extension staff, cooperatives, and local authorities. In general, knowledge
of organic agriculture among households was relatively similar. Therefore, longer
organic rice production time may not offer any advantage in increasing crop yields.
More experience in ORF might slightly improve production efficiency by reducing
labor input. Since households were equipped with similar and adequate knowledge,
fewer years of experience was not a significant obstacle and, therefore, had no effect
on a households’ intention to increase farming scale. Most previous studies showed
a negative relationship between conventional agricultural experience and intention
to adopt OF practices. Farmers with vast experience in conventional farming
were usually older and less educated; therefore, it was difficult to shift them to the
relatively new concept of OF (Parra López and Calatrava Requena 2005; Adesope
et al. 2012; Pinthukas 2015; Ullah et al. 2015; Ma et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2019). Only
a few studies have reported the opposite result that farmers with more agricultural
experience were more likely to practice OF, possibly because they had a deeper
understanding of the environment and the potential adverse effects of conventional
farming on human health. On the other hand, with regard to OF experience,
most scholars showed a positive correlation between OF experience and farmers’
intentions to scale up. It is likely that farmers with more experience with organic
cultivation had more accurate perceptions of the advantages of this model for health,
productivity, markets, and the environment (Parra López and Calatrava Requena
2005; Saoke 2011; Pradhan et al. 2017).
Likewise, the percentage of area under organic rice cultivation was separate from
the farmer’s plan to scale up ORF (p = 0.392). In the context that household inten-
tions are separated by experience, technique, and human resources, as discussed
above, the reluctance of households to scale up OF implies that they may face cer-
tain obstacles or potential risks (e.g., selling price and output market). Concerning
farm size, some studies found a negative association (Khaledi et al. 2010; Läpple
and Kelley 2010; Läpple and Rensburg 2011; Malá and Malý 2013; Métouolé Méda
13
Table 5 Binary logistic regression results on factors driving farmers’ intention to scale up organic rice farming
Indicators B S.E. Wald df Sig. Exp(B) 95% CI for EXP(B)
Lower Upper
Householder’s sex 0.372 0.466 0.636 1 0.425 1.450 0.582 3.615

Householder’s age 0.278 0.281 0.983 1 0.322 1.321 0.762 2.291
Householder’s highest educational attainment − 0.354 0.327 1.170 1 0.279 0.702 0.369 1.333
Number of agricultural laborers − 0.263 0.235 1.253 1 0.263 0.769 0.485 1.218
Experience in organic agriculture 0.179 0.124 2.081 1 0.149 1.196 0.938 1.524
Percentage of ORF land − 0.021 0.024 0.732 1 0.392 0.979 0.934 1.027
Engaging in non-farm job − 0.169 0.397 0.181 1 0.670 0.844 0.388 1.839
Actively involved in community-based organizations 0.257 0.647 0.157 1 0.692 1.292 0.364 4.591
Organic rice yield achieved as expected** 2.042 0.314 42.335 1 0.000 7.702 4.164 14.246
Organic rice price achieved as expected* 0.675 0.301 5.045 1 0.025 1.964 1.090 3.540
Consumption of organic rice is guaranteed** 1.329 0.251 27.975 1 0.000 3.778 2.309 6.182
Income from ORF plays an important role 0.351 0.291 1.453 1 0.228 1.420 0.803 2.511
OF contributed to improving the environment 0.318 0.198 2.594 1 0.107 1.375 0.933 2.025
OF enhanced my family members’ health* 0.428 0.190 5.070 1 0.024 1.534 1.057 2.227
My OF fostered awareness and adoption of others 0.064 0.206 0.095 1 0.758 1.066 0.711 1.597
I believe in the market prospects of organic agriculture* 0.444 0.217 4.195 1 0.041 1.559 1.019 2.385
I believe in government support for organic agriculture 0.016 0.113 0.021 1 0.885 1.016 0.815 1.268
Constant − 15.221 2.195 48.087 1 0.000 0.000
Model summary − 2 log-likelihood 204.293
Cox and Snell R2 0.528
Nagelkerke R2 0.706
Chi-square 4.729
Sig. 0.786
Source: Data calculated by the authors

*,**Significant at 5% and 1%, respectively
763
13
et al. 2018; Liu et al. 2019), whereas others found a positive association with farm-
ers’ decisions (Genius et al. 2006; Mwiathi 2008; Kafle 2011; Karki et al. 2011).
For instance, Liu et al. (2019) and Pradhan et al. (2017) argued that large farms
were more difficult to manage in terms of crops, inputs, and other support, result-
ing in fewer incentives for farmers to deal with these problems. Meanwhile, Läp-
ple and Kelley (2010) and Läpple and Rensburg (2011) clarified that OF was more
labor-intensive when dealing with pests, diseases, and marketing. Therefore, organic
agriculture was more likely to be adopted in small farms managed by family labor-
ers. Other researchers explained that it was often more challenging for small-scale
farms to access credit, which led to a drop in adoption rates. However, the available
evidence on farm size was inconclusive.
The results were similar for the non-farm job variables (p = 0.670). Due to the
relatively low income from agricultural activities, many farmers engage in non-
farm work during their leisure time. Several studies in Vietnam have demonstrated
the importance of non-farm income in rural household income structures (Nguyen
et al. 2021; Dinh et al. 2021; Phuong et al. 2022). Their findings also revealed
that prioritizing off-farm jobs causes farmers to pay less attention to agricultural
activities, such as implementing climate change adaptation measures (Ha et al.
2022). The results of this study also showed a similar trend: household heads
with non-agricultural work tended to be less interested in expanding the area
of ORF (B = − 0.169). However, this relationship was weak and statistically
insignificant (p = 0.670). This result contradicts the findings of Sriwichailamphan
and Sucharidtham (2014) and Liu et al. (2019) that extra income earned from non-
agricultural sources increased the probability of farmers participating in OF. They
further argued that income from non-agricultural sources was the basis for applying
new technology.
Households’ intentions were not promoted by actively evolving in community-
based organizations (p = 0.692). Actively participating in community-based
organizations such as farmers’ unions and cooperatives was regarded as a factor
driving farmers to adopt more advanced and sustainable agricultural production
models because they had more opportunities to access scientific, technical, and
market information, as well as gain more experience and skills from other active
members (Vo et al. 2021). These organizations’ key members occasionally act as
pioneers in implementing new production models and farming techniques. This
is often regarded as a guarantee of the participation of other members and may
be crucial for the initial stage when deciding to enter OF, but it was ineffectual
in promoting scale-up in this study context. Previous studies found a positive
association (Parra López and Calatrava Requena 2005; Mwiathi 2008; Karki et al.
2011; Sriwichailamphan and Sucharidtham 2014; Wollni and Andersson 2014;
Singh et al. 2015; Lu and Cheng 2019), while only one study suggested a negative
linkage (Mohamed Haris et al. 2018). Almost all articles implied that farmers from
community-based organizations, such as agricultural associations, were more likely
to adopt organic agriculture. They explained that group activities and knowledge
shared by other organic farmers simplified information access, marketing, and
achievement of product certifications. Additionally, membership in an agricultural
association could increase bargaining power with commission merchants.
13
4.2.2 Effects of results and economic efficiency
Contrary to the above results, the model demonstrated the significant influence of
variables related to results and economic efficiency. First, households’ intentions
were influenced by the achievement of expected yield in previous crops (B = 2.042,
p = 0.000). This was the most influential factor among the variables in the regression
model. The farmers’ intention odds to expand ORF will increase 7.7 times with
each additional level of satisfaction (OR = 7.702). Otherwise stated, the below-
expectation yield of organic rice reduces farmers’ motivation to expand ORF.
Some respondents stated that their family’s organic rice yield in the last year was
approximately 260 kg/Sao (equivalent to 5.35 tons/hectare), close to 70% of the
conventional cultivation model. This yield did not meet their expectations. Other
households’ yields were even lower due to poor disease regulation. Similarly,
farmers who had achieved the expected price for organic rice tended to have positive
intentions for expanding organic farm areas, while the rest showed the opposite
intentions. This result is statistically significant at p = 0.005 (B = 0.675, p = 0.025).
With each higher satisfaction level, the farmers’ intention odds to expand ORF will
increase approximately double (OR = 1.964). The below-expectation selling price
dampened farmers’ motivation. The descriptive statistics results showed that up to
71.7% of the respondents were dissatisfied with the selling price (5-level Likert).
The price varied among the study sites depending on the type of sale (free sale,
agreement, or under contract) and contractors. Therefore, farmers’ satisfaction levels
varied. For instance, the organic rice price in Phu Luong 1 Cooperative (Phu Luong
Commune, Phu Vang District) for the winter-spring crop of 2021 was approximately
8000 VND/kg, only 500 VND/kg more than that of normal rice. Occasionally, the
difference was only approximately 200 VND/kg. Meanwhile, organic rice in An Lo
was sold by the cooperative (Phong Hien commune, Phong Dien district) at 10,000
VND/kg, approximately 2500 VND more than normal rice. Some farmers in Phu
Luong complained that the organic rice price, which was already low in normal
conditions, was even lower due to the difficulties experienced during the COVID-
19 outbreak. It was not worth the effort their family put in. By underscoring the
importance of economic output to farmers’ scaling intentions, this study reinforced
the conclusions from the Netherlands, i.e., Ács (2006) and Kaufmann et al. (2011).
Through a case study in the Netherlands, Ács (2006) concluded that OF remained
economically attractive to producers despite difficulties in the conversion phase.
Similarly, the investigation of Kaufmann et al. (2011) in Lithuania stressed that
the main drivers of future in-conversions were related to economic and farm
management reasons. However, some studies found that farmers still devoted more
time to OF, despite their relatively low yields. The organic growers differed from
their conventional counterparts in that their orchards were less productive and in
the part-time nature of their dedication to agriculture (Parra López and Calatrava
Requena 2005). Some studies concluded that profit and productivity were not the
driving factors for adopting OF (Mohamed Haris et al. 2018).
Guaranteeing the output market for organic rice was also an important factor
boosting the farmers’ intentions (B = 1.329, p = 0.000). With each higher level of
satisfaction in guaranteeing the output market, the farmers’ intention odds to expand
13
ORF will increase 3.778 times (OR = 3.778). The descriptive statistics showed
that the average value of farmers’ assessment for the statement "consumption of
organic rice is guaranteed" was relatively low (2.96). Accordingly, 41.2% of the
informants expressed that the market guarantee was acceptable, whereas 31.7%
were disappointed. This implies that the output market for organic rice in the
study sites was uncertain, and this may be a barrier preventing households from
expanding production. Consumption of organic agricultural products in Vietnam, in
general, is facing many difficulties due to factors related to the distribution system
and consumer habits and acceptance. Several enterprises and organizations at the
study sites secured organic rice output through commitments with cooperatives or
local authorities. However, most of these commitments were not highly binding and
covered only a small part of the organic rice area. The low purchase price from these
enterprises and organizations further discouraged farmers from expanding their
production. Some offering acceptable prices, such as the An Lo cooperative (Phong
Hien commune, Phong Dien district), faced many consumption hardships due to
the COVID-19 pandemic’s impact, which narrowed the market. This delayed the
retrieval of capital for re-investment. Since organic rice is not preserved, the quality
will deteriorate over time; therefore, some households had to sell at a low price to
reduce risks, while others waited for interventions from local authorities.
4.2.3 Effects of farmers’ awareness of organic farming
This study also examined the association between farmers’ awareness of ORF
and their intention to scale up. Although farmers who appreciated the positive
impacts of OF on the environment were more likely to expand farming, this
connection was statistically insignificant (B = 0.318, p = 0.107). This result also
implies that underestimating the effects of organic agriculture on improving the
environment diminishes the incentive to expand farming to some extent. Organic
agriculture has been shown to improve soil, water, air, and ecosystem quality
through strict regulations regarding chemical usage. Previous studies have also
shown that enhancing environmental quality encourages farmers to engage in OF.
However, since OF improves the environment gradually, it is difficult for farmers
to notice this change. This may reduce farmers’ confidence in this model and,
thus, discourage their intention to scale up OF. Most previous studies unveiled a
statistically significant affinity between farmers’ perceptions/awareness/attitudes
of the environmental advantages of OF and their adoption (Genius et al. 2006;
Koesling et al. 2008; Läpple and Kelley 2010; Kaufmann et al. 2011; Läpple and
Rensburg 2011; Mohamed Haris et al. 2018). For instance, Kaufmann et al. (2011)
suggested that OF is more environmentally friendly. Similarly, Koesling et al. (2008)
noted that sustainable and environmentally friendly farming is the ultimate goal for
organic farmers. However, this linkage was ambiguous in the context of this study.
In contrast to the above results, there is a statistically significant association
between the perception of OF’s positive effects on family members’ health and
the intention to expand the scale. Accordingly, the perception of the significance
of organic agriculture for health increased the farmers’ intentions (B = 0.428,
p = 0.024). With each higher level of satisfaction, the farmers’ intention odds
13
to expand OF will increase about 1.5 times (OR = 1.534). As discussed, organic
agricultural production must ensure the long-term management of resources
(including soil, water, and air) according to systematic and ecological principles.
Synthetic chemical materials are prohibited at all stages to avoid exposing people
and the environment to hazardous chemicals, thereby minimizing pollution
in the field and the surrounding environment. By limiting exposure to harmful
chemicals, the health of workers directly involved in production can gradually
improve. Regarding this, some farmers asserted that their family member’s
health issues related to respiratory and skin diseases had been reversed since
the restriction on the use of chemicals. They intend to expand the organic rice
model to minimize these toxic chemicals. Our results are in agreement with the
findings of Wollni and Andersson (2014), Ullah et al. (2015), Ma et al. (2017),
and Nguyen et al. (2020). For instance, Wollni and Andersson (2014) revealed
that farmers who associate sustainable practices with positive health effects are
more likely to adopt organic practices. Nguyen et al. (2020) analyzed a dataset of
factors influencing intentions for OF expansion in Vietnam and obtained similar
results.
Another hypothesis of this study is that perception of the positive effects of
OF on other farmers’ consciousness and adoption would encourage farmers to
scale up. However, the results of the regression model contradict our hypothesis
(B = 0.064, p = 0.758). About 45% of the respondents agreed with the following
statement: “My OF promoted other farmers’ adoption.” A farmer in An Lo said
that his sharing information about ORF had inspired other farmers to engage in
this model. He believes that expanding production would increase other farmers’
awareness and belief in ORF. Although he acknowledges it is meaningful, this is
not a reason for him to expand the farming area at present.
4.2.4 Influence of farmers’ belief in market prospects
Farmers’ beliefs about OF prospects were also considered predictors. The results
show that anticipated market opportunities positively impact farmers’ intentions
to scale up OF (B = 0.444, p = 0.041). With each higher belief level, the farmers’
intention odds to expand OF will increase roughly 1.5 times (OR = 1.559).
Some farmers believe that consumers will extensively accept organic products
as a future consumption trend. Scaling up OF at present is a way to seize this
opportunity. Even in the event of market hardships, businesses may prioritize
the output of organic rice products by farmers who have been associated with
them for an extended period. This perspective is reasonable because Vietnamese
consumers are increasingly turning to clean and safe agricultural products to
mitigate health issues induced by insecure foods (Thang 2021). This is consistent
with the Vietnamese government’s current green and sustainable agricultural
development orientation (Vietnamese Government 2020). Contrary to the above
result, farmers’ intentions were not influenced by their belief in government
support (p = 0.885). The average value of farmers’ assessment for the statement
“I believe in government support for organic agriculture” was only 3.43 on a
13
5-level Likert scale (see Table 2). This may imply that the government’s efforts
to encourage the development of organic agriculture are currently less impressive
and thus insufficient to motivate households to expand scale decisions. Although
the government issued approval to the Organic Agriculture Development Scheme
for 2020–2030 in June 2020, its support has been sparse as it mainly focuses on
training in farming techniques and ensuring the supply of organic production
inputs. Similarly, although the government of Thua Thien Hue Province has
enforced several activities to connect farmers and enterprises under the value
chain model, the scale of these linkages remains small and fragile.
5 Conclusion and policy implications
Organic farming is one of the Vietnamese government’s foremost priorities

regarding sustainable agricultural development. However, the popularization
of organic agriculture in Vietnam still faces many challenges, despite the
implementation of many incentive policies. Understanding the factors driving
farmers’ cultivation intentions could solve this issue. Therefore, this study
investigated farmers’ intentions toward expanding ORF in connection with their
demographics, expected farm and market performance, awareness of OF, and
confidence in market prospects in Thua Thien Hue Province, Central Vietnam.
The binary logistic regression model results showed the underperformance of
demographic characteristics (e.g., gender, age, education, number of laborers,
OF experience, percentage of organic rice area, engagement in non-farm jobs,
and active involvement in community-based organizations) in anticipating
farmers’ intentions toward scaling up organic rice production. In other words,
these characteristics are separate from the farmers’ intentions. Therefore, local
authorities should not differentiate according to these characteristics when
implementing incentives and interventions.
In contrast, the model indicates a greater influence of factors related to
economic outcomes, farmers’ awareness of OF, and belief in the prospects of
organic agriculture. Economic outputs, such as productivity, price, and the market,
were decisive factors for farmers’ intentions to expand OF. Low yields and selling
prices associated with an uncertain output market reduce farmers’ intentions
to expand ORF. The lower yield of OF compared to conventional farming is
inevitable because it resists chemical usage during farming. However, yields
that are too low may also show limitations regarding farming techniques, such
as pest and weed control. Therefore, local authorities should further strengthen
technical training for farmers in combination with developing measures to strictly
control the application of these cultivation techniques in organic rice fields.
This result may also imply that the local government’s efforts and interventions
to link organic rice products to the market are less effective. Although the
local government has cooperated with several enterprises/organizations to
sell products, the scale is still limited, and the price difference compared to
conventional rice products is relatively low. This was one of the reasons for
reducing the farmers’ motivation to expand the farming area. Therefore, boosting
13
organic rice production linkages following the value chain model, which ensures
the output market for the product at an appropriate price, may solve this problem.
This is especially meaningful in the era of COVID-19, which challenges the
consumption of agricultural products. In addition to enterprises in the province,
local governments should actively seek and contract with those in other provinces
and countries to expand and diversify consumers. To realize this task, more
emphasis should be placed on product quality assurance, manufacturing process
certification, and brand building and promotion. It is a fact that there is a demand
for organic products but a lack of product information and sales spots. Although
often shopping in small volumes, the number of individual customers is vast.
Therefore, in addition to focusing on corporate customers, local authorities
should also introduce and promote exhibitions, build appropriate distribution
channels, and create online sales systems to reach individual customers in the
domestic market.
The study also revealed that the positive effects of OF on farmers’ health
motivated their intention to expand ORF. In other words, farmers appreciate
the health benefits of reducing chemical use in organic agriculture. This is an
essential point that policymakers should focus on to achieve the goal of scaling
up ORF. Propaganda might be effective in this case; however, propaganda should
be associated with sharing experiences with farmers to increase persuasion
instead of solely conveying confusing scientific information. Besides, despite the
statistically insignificant relationship in the model, propaganda can also integrate the
significance of OF to improve environmental quality, such as soil, water, and air, in
the long term, which also positively impacts public health.
The findings of this study also demonstrated the positive influence of belief in
OF prospects on farmers’ intentions to scale up farming. Farmers who positively
view the future of OF are more likely to expand their farming scale. Farmers’
views on organic markets may vary depending on the variety and accuracy of
their acquired information. Therefore, to further develop this sustainable farming
model, local authorities should focus on equipping farmers with market information
to understand the trend of switching to this farming model globally and the
increasing use of clean and safe agricultural products by consumers. In addition
to reports from experts, local authorities can launch contests on market trends and
organic agricultural product consumption among farming communities to increase
communication effectiveness. Moreover, related to farmers’ beliefs, this study did
not find a statistically significant relationship between government support and the
farmers’ intentions. This finding implies that government support is insufficient
to encourage people to expand farming. Therefore, the government and local
authorities should consider diversifying and actualizing policies, support, and
interventions to incentivize farmers to scale up organic rice production.
The above suggestions are proposed based on the specific contextualization of
organic agricultural production, the market, and the characteristics of farmers in
Thua Thien Hue province, Central Vietnam. Thus, applying these suggestions in
other geographical areas (e.g., other provinces or regions) requires flexibility based
on thorough consideration of differences in, for instance, cultural peculiarities,
13
market characteristics, farmers’ awareness, level of access to market information,

and current incentives of local authorities, etc. to achieve the target.
6 Limitations of the study
This study was conducted during the COVID-19 outbreak in many countries,
including Vietnam. Although this context contributed to identifying gaps in the
implementation of product offtake contracts between farmers/cooperatives and
enterprises, the context also led to limitations in the study. During the COVID-
19 pandemic, economic activities, including the production and consumption of
organic agricultural products, were severely affected due to the disruption of supply
chains in the domestic and international markets. Government support for OF was
also limited as the government had to share financial and human resources to restore
other economic sectors. Although this study considered farmers’ intentions toward
scaling up organic rice areas after they had experienced the organic model for
several years, it was difficult to avoid the adverse effects of the COVID-19 pandemic
at the time of the interviews. Some consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic
on farmers’ psychology included the purchasing power of both individual and
corporate customers decreasing, prices of high-quality agricultural products falling,
agricultural offtake contracts being canceled, and government support policies/
activities for organic agriculture being disrupted. We acknowledge the limitations
of this study caused in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and recommend
that further studies integrate external factors that potentially affected informants’
psychology at the time of the survey. In addition, since this study was conducted
in a limited geographical area in Thua Thien Hue province, applying this study’s
results to other geographical regions requires flexibility and thorough consideration
of differences in agricultural production contexts, market characteristics, farmers’
characteristics, and other relevant factors.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the authorities and farmers in Phu Vang, Phong
Dien, and Huong Thuy districts for their support during the survey. We also acknowledge Hue Univer-
sity’s financial support through the Core Research Program (Grant no. NCM.DHH.2022.11).
Funding This work was partially supported by Hue University under the Core Research Program, Grant
no. NCM.DHH.2022.11.
Data availability The datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding
author upon reasonable request.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval All procedures performed in participatory human studies were obtained with the
informed consent of the participants and were in accordance with ethical research standards. This article
does not contain any studies involving animals performed by any authors.
13
References
Abdillah Tiffany R, Tinaprilla N, Adhi AK (2022) Why are farmers willing to join partnerships in organic
rice? Case in Ngawi Organic Center Community, East Java. Agric Soc Econ J 22:111–119. https://
doi.org/10.21776/ub.agrise.2022.022.2.5
Ács S (2006) Bio-economic modeling of conversion from conventional to organic arable farming. Dis-
sertation, Wageningen University
Adesope OM, Matthews-Njoku EC, Oguzor NS, Ugwuj VC (2012) Effect of socio-economic character-
istics of farmers on their adoption of organic farming practices. Crop Prod Technol. https://doi.org/
10.5772/30712
Anderson MD (1995) The life cycle of alternative agricultural research. Am J Altern Agric 10:3–9.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0889189300006032
Azam S, Banumathi M (2015) The role of demographic factors in adopting organic farming: a logistic
model approach. Int J Adv Res 3:713–720
Bertolini G, D’Amico R, Nardi D, Tinazzi A, Apolone G (2000) One model, several results: the paradox
of the Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test for the logistic regression model. J Epidemiol Biostat
5:251–253
Burton M, Rigby D, Young T (2003) Modelling the adoption of organic horticultural technology in
the UK using duration analysis. Aust J Agric Res Econ 47:29–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-
8489.00202
Cukur T (2015) Conventional dairy farmers converting to organic dairy production in Turkey. Pol J
Environ Stud 24:1543–1551. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/41534
De Cock L (2005) Determinants of organic farming conversion. In: Proceedings of the XIth interna-
tional congress of the EAAE (European Association of Agricultural Economists), the future of
rural Europe in the global agri-food system, 24–27 August 2005, pp 1–13
Dinh NC, Ubukata F, Tan NQ, Ha VH (2021) How do social connections accelerate post-flood recov-
ery? Insights from a survey of rural households in central Vietnam. Int J Disast Risk Reduct
61:102342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102342
Duram LA (2000) Agents’ perceptions of structure: how Illinois organic farmers view political, eco-
nomic, social, and ecological factors. Agric Hum Values 17:35–48. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:
1007632810301
Entz MH, Guilford R, Gulden R (1998) Productivity of organic cropping in the Eastern Prairies: on-
farm survey and database development Winnipeg, Manitoba (CA): Department of Plant Science,
University of Manitoba. 1998
Fairweather JR (1999) Understanding how farmers choose between organic and conventional produc-
tion: results from New Zealand and policy implications. Agric Hum Values 16:51–63
Genius M, Pantzios CJ, Tzouvelekas V (2006) Information acquisition and adoption of organic farm-
ing practices. J Agric Resour Econ 31:93–113. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.10150
GSO (2020) Report on the socio-economic situation 2020
GSO (2021a) Report on labor and employment situation in the first 6 months of 2021a
GSO (2021b) Agricultural products export: successful challenges, keeping growth. https://www.gso.
gov.vn/du-lieu-va-so-lieu-t hong-ke/2021/09/xuat-khau-nong-san-vuot-qua-t hach-t huc-giu-da-
tang-truong/. Accessed 12 Aug 2021
Ha VH, Mizunoya T, Kien ND et al (2022) Post-flood recovery in the central coastal plain of Viet-
nam: determinants and policy implications. Asia Pac J Reg Sci 6:899–929. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s41685-022-00244-9
Hosmer DW, Hosmer T, Le Cessie S, Lemeshow S (1997) A comparison of goodness-of-fit tests for
the logistic regression model. Stat Med 16:965–980
Huyen VN, Van Song N, Thuy NT, Dung LTP, Hoan LK (2020) Effects of pesticides on farmers’
health in Tu Ky district, Hai Duong Province, Vietnam. Sustain Futures. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.sftr.2020.100026
Isin F, Cukur T, Armagan G (2007) Factors affecting the adoption of the organic dried fig agriculture
system in Turkey. J Appl Sci 7:748–754. https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2007.748.754
Kafle B (2011) Factors affecting adoption of organic vegetable farming in Chitwan District, Nepal.
World J Agric Sci 7:604–606
Karki L, Schleenbecker R, Hamm U (2011) Factors influencing a conversion to organic farming in
Nepalese tea farms. J Agric Rural Dev Trop Subtrop 112:113–123
13
Kaufmann P, Zemeckis R, Skulskis V, Kairyte E, Stagl S (2011) The diffusion of organic farming in
Lithuania. J Sustain Agric 35:522–549. https://doi.org/10.1080/10440046.2011.579838
Khaledi M, Weseen S, Sawyer E, Ferguson S, Gray R (2010) Factors influencing partial and complete
adoption of organic farming practices in Saskatchewan, Canada. Can J Agric Econ 58:37–56.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7976.2009.01172.x
Koesling M, Flaten O, Lien G (2008) Factors influencing the conversion to organic farming in Nor-
way. IJARGE 7:78–95. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJARGE.2008.016981
Kramer AA, Zimmerman JE (2007) Assessing the calibration of mortality benchmarks in critical care:
the Hosmer-Lemeshow test revisited. Crit Care Med 35:2052–2056
Kwadzo M, Quayson E (2021) Factors influencing adoption of integrated soil fertility management
technologies by smallholder farmers in Ghana. Heliyon 7:e07589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliy
on.2021.e07589
Läpple D, Kelley H (2010) Understanding farmers’ uptake of organic farming. In: The 84th annual
conference of the agricultural economics society. Edinburgh
Läpple D, Van Rensburg T (2011) Adoption of organic farming: are there differences between early
and late adoption? Ecol Econ 70:1406–1414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.03.002
Lee KS, Choe YC, Park SH (2015) Measuring the environmental effects of organic farming: a meta-
analysis of structural variables in empirical research. J Environ Manag 162:263–274. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.07.021
Liu X, Pattanaik N, Nelson M, Ibrahim M (2019) The choice to go organic: evidence from small US
farms. Agric Sci 10:1566–1580. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2019.1012115
Lobley M, Reed M, Butler A (2005) The impact of organic farming on the rural economy in England.
Final report to DEFRA CRR research report no. 11
Lohr L (2000) Conversion subsidies for organic production: results from Sweden and lessons for the
United States. Agric Econ 22:133–146
Lu CF, Cheng CY (2019) Impacts of spatial clusters on certified organic farming in Taiwan. Sustainabil-
ity 11:1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11092637
Lynggaard KSC (2001) The farmer within an institutional environment. Comparing Danish and Belgian
organic farming. Sociol Ruralis 41:85–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9523.00171
Ma W, Ma C, Su YS, Nie Z (2017) Organic farming: does acquisition of the farming information influ-
ence Chinese apple farmers’ willingness to adopt? CAER 9:211–224. https://doi.org/10.1108/
CAER-05-2016-0070
Malá Z, Malý M (2013) The determinants of adopting organic farming practices: a case study in the
Czech Republic. Agric Econ Czech 59:19–28. https://doi.org/10.17221/10/2012-AGRICECON
MARD (2020) Developing organic agriculture in the period of 2020–2030. https://www.mard.gov.vn/
Pages/phat-trien-nong-nghiep-huu-co-giai-doan-nam-2020-2030.aspx?item=. Accessed 10 Dec
2021
Marshall A (1999) Conversion to organic farming in Scotland and France. University of Edinburgh, the
UK
Métouolé Méda YJ, Egyir IS, Zahonogo P, Jatoe JBD, Atewamba C (2018) Institutional factors and farm-
ers’ adoption of conventional, organic and genetically modified cotton in Burkina Faso. Int J Agric
Sustain 16:40–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2018.1429523
Michelsen J, Lynggaard K, Padel S, Foster C (2001) Organic farming development and agricultural insti-
tutions in Europe: a study of six countries
Mishra P, Singh PP, Singh SK, Verma H (2019) Sustainable agriculture and benefits of organic farming
to special emphasis on PGPR. In: Role of plant growth promoting microorganisms in sustainable
agriculture and nanotechnology. Woodhead Publishing, pp 75–87
Mohamed Haris NB, Garrod G, Gkartzios M, Proctor A (2018) The decision to adopt organic practices
in Malaysia; a mix-method approach. In: Proceedings of the 92nd annual conference, April 16–18,
2018. Warwick University, Coventry, UK, pp 1–21
Mwiathi, PS (2008) Factors affecting adoption of organic farming by MAIZE farmers in MERU south
district. Dissertation, Kenyatta University. Kenyatta, Kenya
Nguyen TH (2017) An overview of agricultural pollution in Vietnam: the crops sector. World Bank,
Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29241. Accessed 13 Sept
2022
Nguyen HV, Nguyen N, Nguyen BK, Lobo A, Vu PA (2019) Organic food purchases in an emerging mar-
ket: the influence of consumers’ personal factors and green marketing practices of food stores. Int J
Environ Res Public Health 7:3298–3312. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061037
13
Nguyen TPL, Nguyen TT, Doan XH et al (2020) A dataset of factors influencing intentions for organic
farming in Vietnam. Data Brief. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2020.106605
Nguyen CD, Ubukata F, Nguyen QT, Vo HH (2021) Long-term improvement in precautions for flood risk
mitigation: a case study in the low-lying area of Central Vietnam. Int J Disast Risk Sci. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s13753-020-00326-2
Parra López C, Calatrava Requena J (2005) Factors related to the adoption of organic farming in Spanish
olive orchards. Span J Agric Res 3:5. https://doi.org/10.5424/sjar/2005031-119
Peterson HH, Barkley A, Chacón-Cascante A, Kastens TL (2012) The motivation for organic grain farm-
ing in the United States: profits, lifestyle, or the environment? J Agric Appl Econ 44:137–155.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1074070800000237
Phong LT and Tran TA (2020) Highly hazardous pesticides in Vietnam: a situational analysis. Technical
report, international pollutants elimination network. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.35174.45124
Phuong TT, Tan NQ, Dinh NC et al (2022) Livelihood vulnerability to climate change: indexes and
insights from two ethnic minority communities in Central Vietnam. Environ Chall. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.envc.2022.100666
Pietola KS (2001) Farmer response to policies promoting organic farming technologies in Finland. Eur
Rev Agric Econ 28:1–15
Pinthukas N (2015) Farmers’ perception and adaptation in organic vegetable production for sustainable
livelihood in Chiang Mai Province. Agric Agric Sci Procedia 5:46–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
aaspro.2015.08.007
Pornpratansombat P, Bauer B, Boland H (2011) The adoption of organic rice farming in Northeastern
Thailand. J Org Syst 6:4–12
Pradhan M, Tripura B, Mondal TK et al (2017) Factors influencing the adoption of organic farming by
the farmers of north district of Sikkim. Int J Adv Sci Res Dev 4:1–7
Research and Markets (2021) Global organic food market report (2021 to 2030)—featuring general mills,
Cargill and Danone among others. https://www.globenewswire.com/en/news-release/2021/11/23/
2339637/28124/en/Global-Organic-Food-Market-Report-2021-to-2030-Featur ing-General-Mills-
Cargill-and-Danone-Among-Others.html. Accessed 12 Feb 2021
Saoke LA (2011) Organic farming in the Kibera Slum in Nairobi, Kenya. (Doctoral dissertation, Wagen-
ingen University)
SARE (Sustainable agriculture research and education) (2003) Transitioning to organic production. Sus-
tainable agriculture network (SAN). https://www.sare.org/wp-content/uploads/Transitioning-to-
Organic-Production.pdf Accessed 13 Sept 2022
Schneeberger W, Darnhofer I, Eder M (2002) Barriers to the adoption of organic farming by cash-crop
producers in Austria. Am J Altern Agric 17:24–31. https://doi.org/10.1079/AJAA200207
Shaban A (2015) Factors influencing farmers’ decision to shift to organic farming: the case of Gaza Strip.
Br J Econ Manag Trade 5:78–87. https://doi.org/10.9734/BJEMT/2015/11708
Sholubi YO, Stonehouse DP, Clark EA (1997) Profile of organic dairy farming in Ontario. Am J Altern
Agric 12:133–139
Singh M, Maharjan KL, Maskey B (2015) Factors impacting adoption of organic farming in Chitwan
District of Nepal. Asian J Agric Rural Dev 5:1–12
Smith S, Paladino A (2010) Eating clean and green? Investigating consumer motivations towards the
purchase of organic food. Australas Mark J 18:93–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ausmj.2010.01.001
Sriwichailamphan T, Sucharidtham T (2014) Factors affecting adoption of vegetable growing using
organic system: a case study of royal project foundation, Thailand. Int J Econ Manag Sci. https://doi.
org/10.4172/2162-6359.1000179
Sterrett S, Groover GE, Taylor DB, Mundy K (2005) Describing organic agricultural production in Vir-
ginia: Results of the 2004 farm survey
Thang B (2021) Consumers tend to switch to green and organic agricultural products. https://nongnghiep.
vn/nguoi-tieu-dung-co-xu-huong-chuyen-sang-nong-san-xanh-huu-co-d311475.html. Accessed 6
Jan 2021
Thanh NV, Tuan NV, Thuyet CT et al (2020) Economic efficiency of contract-based organic rice pro-
duction in Thua Thien Hue Province: a case study in Phu Luong commune. Vietnam J Agri Sci
18:553–561
Ullah A, Shah SNM, Ali A et al (2015) Factors affecting the adoption of organic farming in Peshawar-
Pakistan. Agric Sci 06:587–593. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2015.66057
Vietnamese Government (2017) Decision No. 1137/QD-TTg approving the scheme of improving the
competitiveness of Vietnam’s exports to 2020, with orientation to 2030. https://thuvienphapluat.
13
vn/van-ban/Thuong-mai/Quyet-dinh-1137-QD-TTg-2017-nang-cao-nang-luc-canh-tranh-mat-hang-
xuat-khau-Viet-Nam-2020-2030-357767.aspx. Accessed 12 Aug 2021
Vietnamese Government (2020) Decision 885/QD-TTg approving the organic agriculture development
scheme for the period of 2020–2030. https://luatvietnam.vn/nong-nghiep/quyet-dinh-885-qd-ttg-de-
an-phat-trien-nong-nghiep-huu-co-giai-doan-2020-2030-185210-d1.html. Accessed 12 Dec 2021
Vo HH, Mizunoya T, Nguyen CD (2021) Determinants of farmers’ adaptation decisions to climate
change in the central coastal region of Vietnam. Asia Pac J Reg Sci 5:327–349. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s41685-020-00181-5
Willer H, Trávníček J, Meier C, Schlatter B (2021) The world of organic agriculture: statistics and emerg-
ing trends 2021. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, Frick. https://www.fibl.org/en/shop-en/
1150-organic-world-2021. Accessed 13 Sept 2022
Wollni M, Andersson C (2014) Spatial patterns of organic agriculture adoption: evidence from Honduras.
Ecol Econ 97:120–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2013.11.010
World B (2017) Overview of agricultural pollution in Vietnam: the 2017 summary report
Wynen E (2004) Conversion to organic grain farming in Australia. Canberra, ACT, p 2615
Xie Y, Zhao H, Pawlak K, Gao Y (2015) The development of organic agriculture in China and the factors
affecting organic farming. J Agribus Rural Dev 36:352–361. https://doi.org/10.17306/JARD.2015.
38
Yanakittkul P, Aungvaravong C (2020) A model of farmers intentions towards organic farming: a case
study on rice farming in Thailand. Heliyon 6:e03039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e03039
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under
a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted
manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and
applicable law.
Authors and Affiliations
Nguyen Cong Dinh1 · Takeshi Mizunoya2 · Vo Hoang Ha1,3 ·

Pham Xuan Hung1 · Nguyen Quang Tan4 · Le Thanh An1
Nguyen Cong Dinh
nguyencongdinh@hueuni.edu.vn
Vo Hoang Ha
vohoangha@hueuni.edu.vn
Pham Xuan Hung
pxhung@hueuni.edu.vn
Nguyen Quang Tan
quangtankn43@gmail.com
Le Thanh An
lethanhan@hueuni.edu.vn
1
Faculty of Economics and Development Studies, University of Economics, Hue University, 99
Ho Dac Di Street, Hue, Thua Thien Hue 49000, Vietnam
2
Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
3
Doctoral Program in Environmental Studies, Degree Programs in Life and Earth Sciences,
Graduate School of Science and Technology, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
4
Graduate School of Environmental and Life Science, Okayama University, 3‑1‑1 Tsushima
Campus, Okayama 700‑8530, Japan
13

s41685 023 00279 6

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

s41685 023 00279 6

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Asia-Pacific Journal of Regional Science (2023) 7:749–774

Factors influencing farmer intentions to scale up organic

Nguyen Cong Dinh1 · Takeshi Mizunoya2 · Vo Hoang Ha1,3 ·

Keywords Agriculture · Organic farming · Organic rice farming · Farmers’

JEL Classification O13 · Q18 · Q19 · R11 · R21 · R28

that the use of pesticides in Vietnam has increased by approximately 3- to 5-fold in

2 Literature review on factors promoting organic farming

Owing to the scarcity of studies investigating farmers’ intentions toward

Cukur (2015) found a negative association between farmers’ educational levels

Table 1 Planned area (hectare) City/district Year

Phong Dien 3000 3000 3100 3250 3350 3500

Source: People’s Committee of Thua Thien Hue Province (2020)

Fig. 1 Map of study sites

interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. The study population included

Variable Type Description Min Max Mean SD Expected signs

Source: household interviews

male-headed households, younger and better-educated householders, having more

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Demographic profile of respondents

4.2 Factors influencing household intention to scale up organic rice farming

Since this study’s outcome variable is designed in binary form, the

4.2.1 Effects of demographic characteristics

We found no statistically significant relationship between farmers’ intentions and

Table 3 Demographic profile of respondents

Source: household interviews

Table 4 Percentage accuracy in Observed Predicted

Source: data calculated by authors

Householder’s sex 0.372 0.466 0.636 1 0.425 1.450 0.582 3.615

Source: Data calculated by the authors

4.2.2 Effects of results and economic efficiency

4.2.3 Effects of farmers’ awareness of organic farming

4.2.4 Influence of farmers’ belief in market prospects

5 Conclusion and policy implications

Organic farming is one of the Vietnamese government’s foremost priorities

market characteristics, farmers’ awareness, level of access to market information,

6 Limitations of the study

Authors and Affiliations

Nguyen Cong Dinh1 · Takeshi Mizunoya2 · Vo Hoang Ha1,3 ·

You might also like

2 Literature review on factors promoting organic farming

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Demographic profile of respondents

4.2 Factors influencing household intention to scale up organic rice farming

4.2.1 Effects of demographic characteristics

4.2.2 Effects of results and economic efficiency

4.2.3 Effects of farmers’ awareness of organic farming

4.2.4 Influence of farmers’ belief in market prospects

5 Conclusion and policy implications

6 Limitations of the study