Studies in Abnormal Pressures.

Developments in Petroleum Science, 38

edited by W.H. Fertl, R.E. Chapman and R.E Hotz
8 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved 25 1

Chapter 9

MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING

R. DESBRANDES and R. CLAYTON

9.1. INTRODUCTION

Collecting and transmitting downhole data from the bottom of a wellbore during
drilling became a commercial success in the late 1970’s. The service is known as
Measurement While Drilling, more frequently referred to by its abbreviation MWD.
MWD was not a new idea in the 1970’s but, rather, the culmination of years of
ideas, experimentation, and general “wishful thinking”.
For many years researchers have been looking for simple, reliable rneasurement-
while-drilling techniques. In 1939 an electrical logging/drilling system using a wire
was attempted successfully but was not commercialized (Reed, 1939; Mills, 1940).
Mud pulse systems were proposed in 1963 (Arps, 1963; A r p s and A r p s , 1964). The
first mechanical mud pulse system was marketed in 1964 by Teledrift for transmitting
directional information (Roberts and Johnson, 1978). The steering tool, a wireline
system that is used with a downhole motor to make directional measurements,
was introduced in 1970 (Russell, 1970). Finally, the first modern mud pulse data
transmission system was commercialized in 1977 (Spinnler and Stone, 1978). State-
of-the-art surveys of the technology were made in 1978 (Oil and Gus Journal, 1978),
in 1988 (Desbrandes, 1988a, b, c), and in 1990 (Desbrandes, 1990).
The initial commercial application of measurement while drilling was for di-
rectional control, mainly offshore where the high cost of the service was justified.
The application has since been extended to formation logging data, then to drilling
parameters, and now to safety parameters.
Most of the cost in producing a well is expended during the drilling phase. Any
amount of information gathered during drilling can be used to make decisions re-
garding the efficiency of the process. But the scope and ultimate cost to gather and
analyze such information must be offset by the decrease in drilling expenditures,
i.e., increase in drilling efficiency. Mud logging services, initiated for well control
and drilling fluids programs, are a focal point for data gathering and anaIysis of
drilling parameters. Sophisticated surface instrumentation, computer technology,
and mathematical analyses give skilled drilling engineers the necessary tools to
predict a significant portion of downhole drilling parameters with only surface
measurements. In the past as drilling technology moved the pursuit of hydrocarbon
resources into higher-cost offshore and hostile environments, intentionally deviated
boreholes required information such as azimuth and inclination that could not be
derived by surface instrumentation alone. Survey instruments, either dropped into
the drill pipe for later retrieval or deployed on an electrical cable, to some degree
satisfied the requirements but consumed expensive rig time and sometimes pro-
252 R. DESBRANDES AND R. CLAYTON

duced questionable results. Hence, the need for real time directional measurements
while drilling was increasing and emerging technology would make MWD viable.
The race to place a man on the moon and military defense developments
provided major advances in electronics, data processing, and materials technology.
In a nation stunned by the Arab oil embargo of the 1970’s, the U.S. oil industry
was emphasizing the need for new techniques to improve drilling efficiency. MWD
appeared not only to offer a technical solution but a lucrative one at that. A
study performed in 1978 (McDonald, 1978) revealed 44 known companies to be
involved in the development of MWD. The interests of those companies ranged
from financial investments in MWD projects to hardware development programs.
The list was believed to be as complete as possible since McDonald obtained
information from literature and personal contacts with knowledgeable industry
personnel. Nevertheless, much of the early work was regarded as proprietary and
often confidential due to its competitive nature. Out of these 44 companies, only
15 had active MWD hardware-directed projects in stages from prototype design to
field testing. As of this writing seven companies, only four of which were on the
original list of 44,offer commercial services.
The key to the incorporation of MWD into the drilling process was the devel-
opment of a reliable, cost-effective data transmission system. Hardware that could
survive the rigors of the harsh downhole drilling environment and not significantly
perturb the drilling operation would ultimately satisfy the MWD requirements in
high-cost wells. Hence, initial emphasis was placed on the communications network
and secondarily on parameter measurement and data handling.

9.2. TELEMETRY TECHNIQUES

Classical communication networks consist of three basic components: transmit-

ter, communications link, and receiver. The communications link has absorbed most
of the R and D expenditures. Four choices of communications links are available:
(1) the drilling fluid; (2) the drillstring; (3) the earth surrounding the borehole; or
(4) the addition of an electrical conductor. MWD telemetry techniques involving
one or more of these links have become known as mud pulse, electromagnetic,
acoustic, and hardwired. Only mud pulse telemetry has succeeded so far in fully
commercial practice.

9.2.1. Hardwired telemetry

Electric logging introduces electrical cables into the borehole and drill pipe but
precludes simultaneous drilling operations. Directional drilling, however, requires
the use of downhole steering and survey tools while drilling. With downhole drilling
motors, the real time measurement can be carried out with a wireline since the
drill pipe is not rotating. However, the encumbrance of the electrical cable seriously
affects drilling efficiency. Several companies developed more efficient hardwired
systems since an electrical conductor provides the maximum possible data rate.
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING 253

Shell developed a system (Dennison, 1976) in which the electrical cable was made
part of each joint of drill pipe. Each box and pin of the drill pipe was configured with
special connectors that would provide an electrical connection across the tool joint
under normal drillstring make-up. The high cost of the special drill pipe and potential
reliability problems with multiple series connectors overshadowed its benefits.
k o n developed another hardwired concept (Heilhecker, 1975) in which long
sections of electrical cable were doubled up and stowed in the bore of a drillstring.
Additional standard drill pipe is added until the cable is pulled to its full length.
This technique eliminates multiple connectors and dedicated drillstring as in the
Shell system but introduces considerable erosion, abrasion, and potential damage to
the cable in the drill pipe. After significanttesting the technology was abandoned.
Znstitut Franpis du Petrole developed a drilling technique (Thiery, 1978) which
uses a continuous flexible drillstring for straight and deviated wells. Imbedded in
the drillstring are electrical conductors for both telemetry and remote control of
downhole equipment. While feasibility was proven, inherent problems with the
hardware limited the application of the technique.
General Electric joined forces with Cullen Research (Traynor, 1978) to demon-
strate the operational effectiveness and economic viability of the Electrodril system.
Electrodril uses a downhole electric motor for drilling, and electronic downhole
data acquisition and monitoring system, standard drill pipe, and an easily deployed
cable and wet connector system (Aker et al., 1966). Like Flexodrill (Thiery, 1978),
which is a drilling technique using a flexible drillstring and developed by the Institut
Fransais du Petrole, feasibility was proven. However, GE would not independently
fund the additional research required, and the program was dropped.
Hardwired telemetry can provide a high data rate, two-way communications,
and ample electrical power. However, rig cost, reliability of connectors, abrasion
and failure of the cable due to fluid flow and pipe rotation, and equipment en-
cumbrances have challenged further development. Only low-cost drilling operations
revert to wireline steering tools for directional drilling where MWD cannot be
cost justified. The steering tool technique involves lowering a directional tool in
the drillstring when a downhole mud motor is used. The directional tool gives the
inclination and azimuth of the drill collar in real time.

9.2.2. Acoustic telernety

The drillstring as well as the earth can be used to communicate downhole
information to the surface. Acoustic telemetry through the earth to delineate
subsurface lithology is continuing to be developed and refined. Vertical Seismic
Profiling (VSP) has been well established as a means to provide seismic images
near a wellbore. A new seismic technique (Rector and Marion, 1988) produces
a VSP while drilling. The natural vibrations created by the drill bit become a
downhole energy source for surface receivers and subsequent survey generation
(see Chapter 8 for details). Elf-Aquitaine devised a scheme (Raynal et al., 1970) in
which vibrations sensed on the drill pipe are used to indicate drill bit condition and
drilling performance. But difficulty in the 1960’s in deciphering bit vibrations from
254 R. DESBRANDES AND R. CLAYTON

other sources of drilling noise resulted in little industry interest. A R C 0 conceived

and demonstrated a similar technique, known as Advanced Drillstring Analysis
and Measurement System (ADAMS), as a means to analyze efficient drillstring
performance (Besaisow and Payne, 1988).
Through the use of sophisticated transducer technology, specialized algorithms,
and personal computers, on-site analysis can minimize drillstring vibrations and
optimize penetration rates. Even though drillstring and earth measurements are
made while drilling, these techniques do not use the acoustic channel as a true
MWD communications medium for downhole parameters other than acoustic-
related data.
Acoustic MWD research was pursued (McDonald, 1978) by several companies
(e.g., Sandia Laboratories, Motorola, and Sperry Research) to develop an acoustic
signaling scheme for transmission through the drillstem. Rapid signal attenuation
and other noise generated by the drilling environment limited the usefulness to
depths of approximately 3000 ft. Although used in production wells for pressure
monitoring and control of valves, acoustic transmission was not a viable MWD
transmission scheme.

9.2.3. Electromagnetic telemetry

The drillstring and earth have been studied as means to transmit electromagnetic
(EM) signals in telemetry methods. McDonald’s 1978 study revealed that seven
companies were researching EM technology. Most of the work was funded through
government contracts relating to coal mine safety, military applications, and nuclear
testing. A n oilfield application of EM for formation logging while drilling was stud-
ied by Lane Wells in the 1950’s (Applied Research Associates, 1959). With testing
and experimentation supporting theoretical work, the conclusion was reached that
depth limitations in highly conductive sediments would preclude its use as a general
MWD telemetry system.
Two basic means of transmitting electromagnetic signals are: (1) inducing a
magnetic field about the drill pipe and into the earth; and (2) generating into the
drillstem a current that returns through the earth. The generation of current is
the more common technique and has been implemented in one of two methods.
A toroidal coupling method (Smith, 1983) configures the transducer apparatus as
a slender toroidal transformer with a mandrel in the center which serves as the
structural member. The direct coupled method (Rubin and Harrison, 1987) requires
a complete electrical discontinuity in the drillstring so that an electrical potential
difference can be produced across adjacent conducting faces. Articles in the litera-
ture (DeGauque and Grudzinski, 1987) indicate continued testing and modeling of
electromagnetic communications capabilities of a drillstring. The Geoservices Com-
pany is offering an electromagnetic MWD and MAD (Measurement After Drilling)
service to a depth of 2000 m at 10 Hz in formations with an average resistivity 10
ohm m or higher (Grudzinski and Isseman, 1990). Figure 9-1 shows a schematic
of the path of the current in the earth. The electromagnetic MWD is particularly
useful in boreholes drilled with air, gas, mist, foam, or aerated mud.
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING 255

Fig. 9-1. Principle of the Geoservices electromagnetic MWD. An emitting antenna in the drill collar
transmits the data to the surface electrodes. A signal can be transmitted downwards to activate or
modify the tool mode. (Courtesy of Geoservices Co.)

9.2.4. Mud pulse telemetry

While mud pulse telemetry has the slowest data rate of all the telemetry
techniques, it is the only viable MWD system in commercial use today. Compared
later in this chapter, seven service companies offer commercial MWD systems
today. All generate coded pressure variations in the mud column that are decoded
through a pressure transducer on the standpipe at the surface. Pressure pulses travel
up the mud column at a velocity of 4000 to 5000 ft/s (1.2-1.5 km/s) or close to the
velocity of sound in the mud ( A r p s , 1963).
However, factors such as the pulse shape, pulse frequency, system pressure noise,
reflections, and detections schemes impose limitations on the information rate or
the time it takes to transmit a piece of useable information. All mud pulse systems
require the mud pumps to be running to generate the pressure environments. The
systems are categorized as either pulse telemetry or continuous-wave telemetry
(Anon., 1988). In pulse telemetry, information is sent to the surface by either a
positive or negative pressure pulse generated in the drilling fluid.
256 R. DESBRANDES AND R. CLAYTON

MAXIMUM, VI BRAT1 ON
VALVE ISOLATOR
TRAVEL

MUD VALVI
4zLlJR

TURBINE. ' GENERATOR

\
ELECTRI CP CENTF L ZER
CABLE

mmR PULSE

I
3
. 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
SENSOR AP
ELECTRON]
PACKAGE
, VIBRATION
ISOLATOR
v)

a
1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I l l I
I 1 1 1 1 1 I f 1 1 1 I
a b TIM3
Fig. 9-2. Positive mud pressure pulse transmission system (after Spinnler and Stone, 1978). (a) The
downhole tool assembly showing major components. (b) The pressure variation and coding principle
(courtesy of Teleco). The binary number shown is 1100110110 or 822 in decimal equivalence.

A positive pressure pulse system (Spinnler and Stone, 1978) varies pressure in
the flowing mud column by placing a variable restriction in the path of the mud
stream. The restriction, or mud valve, consists of an orifice and a movable poppet as
shown in Fig. 9-2. The poppet has two possible positions, either retracted away from
the orifice or extended towards the orifice. With the poppet retracted, a negligible
pressure drop is effected in the mud as it flows through the orifice. But extended,
the effective area for mud flow through the orifice is reduced. Since the flow is
essentially constant, a pressure increase occurs.
Negative pressure pulse systems (Anonymous, 1978) vary pressure in the flowing
mud column controlling a valve which opens and closes a small passageway between
the inside and outside (annulus) of the drill collar as depicted in Fig. 9-3. When
momentarily opened, a sudden pressure drop is caused inside the drill collar. This
pressure drop causes a negative pulse to be transmitted to the surface.
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING 257

t
b
Fig. 9-3. Negative mud pressure pulse transmission system (after Anonymous, 1978). (a) The pulse
generator or valve which momentarily vents internal pipe bore pressure to the annulus creating a
negative pressure pulse. (b) The pressure variation on coding (courtesy of Gearhart). No pulse is a
binary zero and a negative pulse is a binary one.

The continuous-wave system was a concept developed by MobiZ (Patton et al.,

1976). A rotary valve is used to generate a pressure wave in the flowing mud
column, as seen in Fig. 9-4. The wave is sinusoidal at a constant frequency. Data is
transmitted digitally by phase shifting the pressure wave.
Regardless of the pressure pulsing scheme, MWD surface systems consist of
at least a pressure transducer for signal detection, a signal decoding processor,
and various output devices including displays, plotters, and printers. As coding
and decoding schemes become more sophisticated, software systems will become
increasingly complex. Interpretation software is growing in importance as operators
search for additional ways to use downhole information.

9.2.5. Downhole recording

An alternative to the real-time telemetry techniques is recorded MWD. Direc-

tional drilling requires real-time measurements to be telemetered to the surface in
order to control bottom hole assemblies and to keep the borehole on its planned
trajectory. However, some measurements can be recorded and studied for analysis
when the bit is pulled. k o n developed and used a downhole recorder system
(McDonald, 1978) in the late 1960's to measure and record vibration information at
the bit. This information was captured purely for research purposes.
Services to record formation evaluation data for situations where real-time data
258 R. DESBRANDES AND R. CLAYTON

Fully Fully
b open closed
Fig. 9-4. Continuous mud pressure wave transmission system (after Patton et al., 1976). (a) The rotary
valve or “siren” used to modulatc the continuous 12-Hz pressure wave in the mud flow. (b) One cycle
of the wave form.

is not required have been commercialized. In lieu of running some surface and
intermediate wireline logs, adequate data is measured and recorded downhole while
drilling. As illustrated in Fig. 9-5, a typical configuration records gamma ray and re-
sistivity (Coope and Hendricks, 1984) with the possibility of adding other formation
sensors (Fig. 9-5). The primary advantages of recorded MWD over real-time MWD
are lower cost to the user and increased amount of data. However, real-time MWD
systems are now offering downhole memory (Honeybourne, 1985) for increased
data density, particularly in fast drilling intervals. This new technology enables
recording formation evaluation information while supplying real-time directional
data and/or enhancing real-time data with that which is recorded.

9.2.6. Measurement Afier Drilling (MAD)

Downhole recordings can also be made while tripping the drill pipes. Formation
evaluation data are recorded during each trip and the invasion effect can be
determined (Holbrook, 1985).
The recently commercialized electromagnetic MWD can also be used to transmit
formation evaluation parameters during tripping since the downhole package is
battery-powered. The mud pulse telemetry cannot be used since no circulation can
be established during tripping the drill pipes.
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING 259

Fig. 9-5. Downhole sub to record resistivity and gamma-ray data. (Courtesy of SPWLA, 1984.)

9.3. MWD SENSORS

Data retrieved from a borehole during drilling is acquired for either: (1) direc-
tional steering and survey; (2) formation evaluation; (3) drilling efficiency; or (4)
safety. Sensors used to obtain downhole data provide information that may apply to
one or more of these areas. The following descriptions cover sensor technology that
is available on a commercial basis.

9.3.1. Directional steering and survey

Early steering tools used a plumb bob equipped with a potentiometer to convert
the inclination angle to an electric signal. Plumb bobs have a tendency to oscillate
when submitted to the vibration and shock that occurs in a bottomhole assembly
during drilling. Plumb bobs have been replaced with accelerometers in today’s
technology.
260 R. DESBRANDES AND R. CLAYTON

TEST MASS

COILS 1

PO

PROXIMITY
SENSORS
SIGNAL
Fig. 9-6. In a servo-controlled accelerometer, the test mass is kept in position by the coils (after
Desbrandes, 1982).

The principle of a single-axis servo-controlled accelerometer is shown in Fig. 9-6

(Desbrandes, 1982). A test mass is attached to a housing with flexible joints.
Two proximity sensors maintain the mass at a given position, up to a maximum
acceleration, by controlling the current flowing in two coils. This current generates a
force that balances the inertial force. The current is proportional to the acceleration.
These sensors can fit in a cylinder 3 cm in diameter as show in Fig. 9-7. They are
not perfectly linear and must be calibrated. Furthermore, their performance is
dependent on temperature, which must be monitored so that corrections can
be made. If the acceleration due to the vibration is greater than the measuring
range, then the average reading is not equal to the static acceleration. MWD
accelerometers are single-axis instruments and the acceleration is measured along
the sensitive axis of the accelerometer. The typical values of the characteristics for
an MWD accelerometer are:
Measurement range = -20 m/s2 to +20 m/s2
Scale factor = 0.13 mA per m/s2
Resolution = 10-~ m/s2
Zero offset = lo-' m/s2
Service temperature = -55°C to 100°C

With three accelerometers, three components of the gravity acceleration vector

can be measured in any frame of reference. In an MWD tool, the frame of reference
is the tool (borehole) axis, the toolface direction and a third axis normal to both.
By convention, the z-axis is along the tool body and oriented towards the bit. Axes
x and y are perpendicular to the tool body and make a direct orthogonal frame.
Figure 9-8 shows a typical accelerometer cartridge.
The inclination is given by:

for I > 60" 1 = arcsin ([(Gi + G;)',']/G]

MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING 261

THIN FILM PICKOFF AND

bTOROUER lEy:E 1 TOROUER LEADS

CONNECTOR

ELECTR0N IC S

PICKOFFAND J PROOF MASS

DAMPING GAPS SUBASSEMBLY
PICKOFF PLATE

Fig. 9-7. Q-flex servo controlled accelerometer (courtesy of Sundstrand Data Control). (a) The actual
device. (b) A detailed illustration of the component parts.

for I c 60” I = arccos(G,/G)

where:
G = (Gi + G ; + G3O.5 (9-1)
and G , = acceleration along axis x , G , = acceleration along axis y , and G , =
acceleration along axis z.
The value of G computed in eq. 9-1 represents the value of the gravitational
acceleration of the site for valid readings.
The measurement of the borehole orientation is carried out with reference to the
earth’s magnetic field. Regular compasses are too fragile for the drilling conditions
and solid state magnetometers must be used. The most common are the flux-gate,
single-axis magnetometers. While their design is complex, the principle is simple.
A drive winding is coiled around a high magnetic permeability toroid with a sharp
saturation characteristic as shown in Fig. 9-8. When the winding is not energized,
the toroid will attract the earth’s field, so-called “gate open”. When a current flows
in the drive winding, the toroid saturates and does not attract the earth’s field, “gate
262 R. DESBRANDES AND R. CLAYTON

2-ACCELEROMETER

HOLDING POINT

Y-ACCELEROMETER

23

X-ACCELEROMETER

CONNECTOR

HOLDING POINT

REFERENCE PIN
Fig. 9-8. T h e three-axes accelerometer unit uses three accelerometers, similar to the one shown in Fig.
9-7, aligned with the two perpendicular horizontal axes and the vertical axis (courtesy of Sundstrand
Data Control).

DRIVE A
WINDING A

b SENSE b
B WINDING B
Fig. 9-9. In the flux gate magnetometer principle, a magnetic field applied along the axis of a toroid
includes a signal in the sense winding B-B when drive winding A-A is excited with an alternating
current.

closed”. With an alternating current flowing through the drive winding, the earth’s
field is successively attracted and not attracted, inducing a signal in the sensing coil
as shown in Fig. 9-9. The signal is proportional to the component of the magnetic
field normal to the toroid plan. Other techniques have been devised to achieve the
same effect.
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING 263

Magnetic orientation requires three magnetometers mounted in a manner similar

to the accelerometers of Fig. 9-8. This gives the three components of the magnetic
field in the frame of reference of the accelerometers. The MWD magnetometers
are built to measure a maximum magnetic field of one gauss’ and can fit in a
3 cm-diameter cylinder. The typical values of the characteristics are:
Measurement range = -1 to +1 G
Scale factor = 5 VIG
Resolution = 10-4 G
Accuracy = lo-’ G
Frequency response = DC to 1 kHz (generally used with a l-Hz low-pass filter)
Service temperature = -55°C to 150°C
Non-magnetic drill collars are required when using magnetic sensors; however,
their length is less critical than with the single-shot or multi-shot since the effect of
the magnetic drill collars above and below can be corrected (Russell and Russell,
1979; Grinrod and Wolff, 1983). The correction principle rests on the possibility of
measuring the magnetic vector module, which can be adjusted to the normal value
by correcting the axial magnetic components.
In mud motor drilling, the bottomhole assembly is essentially stationary and the
orientation can be measured during drilling. In rotary drilling, until recently, the
rotation had to be stopped long enough for the directional measurements to be
made.
The most accurate borehole surveying technique is performed with gyroscopic
technology. The delicacy of mechanically gimballed gyros precludes their use
under drilling conditions. However, a three-axis laser gyro can be used when the
bottomhole assembly is perfectly stationary (Gibbons and Hense, 1987). Such a gyro
system is a North seeker and determines the earth’s rotation vector, which can be
used in lieu of the earth’s magnetic vector for azimuth calculations. In this case,
expensive magnetic drill collars would no longer be required.
The information needed for directional surveying is azimuth and inclination.
Directional steering requires a third parameter known as toolface (mentioned
earlier). Magnetometers and accelerometers are used to derive these parameters
through calculations of magnetic vectors or acceleration components.
Inclination can be calculated from eq. 9-1. The gravity toolface angle is the
angle between the vertical plane passing through the drill collar axis and the plane
containing the drill collar axis and the mud motor axis. The notion of toolface
applies only to downhole motor drilling with a bent sub. It does not apply to rotary
drilling. Figure 9-10 shows the toolface angle. This angle, TF, is calculated simply
with the equation:

TF = arctan (-G,,/Gx) (9-2)

Gauss (G) is an electromagnetic unit of flux density defined as one line per square centimeter. The
SI unit for magnetic flux density is the t a l a (T): 1 T = G.
264 R. DESBRANDES AND R. CLAYTON

VERTICAL PLANE
PASSING THROUGH P L A N E THROUGH COLLAR,
BENT SUB AND MUD MOTOR

PLANE NORMAL

Fig. 9-10. Schematic of the planes defining toolface angle. The gravity toolface angle is shown as T F . In
a nearly vertical hole, the magnetic toolface is the orientation of the bent sub with respect to magnetic
north.

where G, = gravity acceleration component lined up with the motor or bit face in a
plane normal to the borehole axis, G, = normal to G, in the same plane.
If TF > 0, the bottomhole assembly (BHA) will direct the borehole to the right;
if TF = 0, the borehole will go straight ahead and continue to build angle; if TF < 0,
the borehole will turn left.
The angle TF cannot be defined gravitationally if the inclination is zero. When
a directional borehole section is initiated from a vertical (or zero inclination) well-
bore, the magnetic toolface is used. It is the angle of the vertical plane containing
the bent sub or bent housing with respect to the north. The magnetic toolface is
used until sufficient build angle or inclination is reached, typically up to 5".
The azimuth calculation for a directional borehole can be achieved throu&h
vector analysis. In Fig. 9-11 the vecto! .? represents the borehole axis; vector H ,
the earth's magnetic field, and vector G, the vertical or gravity vector. The azimuth
is the angle between the vertical planes V H and VZ measur_ed clo$wise starting
at V H .This angle is the same as the angle between vectors A and B, respectively,
perpendicular to VH and V Z .We know that the vector products are:

(9-3)

The components of B and G are measured in the referential of the MWD tool and
2 is (0, 0, 1) in the same referential; Now the azimuth of the borehole can be
computed with the scalar product k x A; thus:
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING 265

Fig. 9-11. Schematic of the planes defining the azimuth angle. Measurements are made in the tool
referential. Digi_al ana9sis provides orientation angle 01 in real time as a function of the components of
the vectors G , H , and 2.

(9-4)

Some precautions must be taken to assure that the correct angle is computed.
The magnetic sensors must be located in a non-magnetic drill collar. The
magnetic collars, while located several meters away, still have an effect by creating a
perturbation in the direction of the borehole axis. This introduces an error, which is
empjrically corrected with the single-shot instruments. Since the three components
of H are measured, the magnitude of the error vector can be calculated if the
module of the non-perturbed earth magnetic vector is known (Russell and Russell,
1979). The corrected dip angle vector can also be computed and compared to the
non-perturbed dip angle. These two angles should match; if they do not, then an
non-axial perturbation is present. This perturbation may be due to “hot spots”,
points in the non-magnetic drill collar that have developed some magnetism, or due
to external factors such as a cased well in the vicinity. Correction techniques have
been introduced for the “hot spots’’ (van Dongen and Maeklaho, 1987). External
magnetism due to casing or steel in the well vicinity is used in passive ranging tools
for blowout well detection from a relief well (Morris et al., 1977).
The accuracy of MWD directional measurements is generally superior to single-
shot or multi-shot type measurements since the sensors are more advanced and
the measurements more numerous. The azimuth measurement is made with the
three components of the earth’s magnetic field vector, but only the horizontal
266 R. DESBRANDES AND R. CLAYTON

component is used in the case of the single-shot or multi-shot. The accelerometer

measurements of the inclination are also more accurate regardless of the value of
the inclination. The average error in the horizontal position varies from 2 m per
1000 m drilled at zero inclination to 8 m per 1000 m drilled at 55" of inclination
(Knox and Milne, 1987; de Lange et al., 1988). The reference position is given by
the inertial Ferranti platform FINDS (Morgan, 1979). A large error dispersion was
noted on the 102 wells surveyed.

9.3.2. Gamma ray

The first formation evaluation sensor to be offered with an MWD system
was gamma-ray measurement. Because of the difference between wireline and
MWD gamma-ray measurements, the measurement required proper definition and
evaluation (Coope, 1983). MWD gamma-ray sensors are run inside a steel drill
collar and move through the formation at significantly slower speeds than wireline
gamma ray, i.e. 10-100 ft (3-30 m) per hour as compared to 1800 ft (550 m) per
hour with wireline. These factors influence log accuracy, bed resolution, and log
amplitude variation due to spectral biasing. A comparison of wireline and MWD
gamma ray is shown in Fig. 9-12.
Since the industry has begun to accept MWD gamma ray, studies have continued
to be conducted to pursue calibration to API standards (Bryant and Gage, 1988)

9.3.3. Resistivity
MWD formation resistivity technology has evolved in a manner similar to that
of wireline techniques. The simplest measurement technique to implement is made
with electrodes (Tanguy and Zoeller, 1981). More commonly known as a 16-inch
short normal, this measurement is made by mounting electrically conducting bands
on an insulated portion of the MWD drill collar for excitation and measurement.
Resistivity is also measured around the drill collars with toroidal transmitter
and receivers working at 1000 Hz (Gianzero et al., 1985, 1986). The drill collars
and bit are used as electrodes. A well-focused lateral curve with an investigation
similar to the medium induction and an axial measurement focused downward are
recorded. Figure 9-13 shows the current pattern in an homogeneous formation. This
tool only functions in water-base drilling muds; results in oil-base muds are being
evaluated.
For applications in oil-base drilling fluids, propagating electromagnetic wave
measurements have been developed (Rodney et al., 1983). True formation resistivi-
ties can be read directly by using technologies adapted from wireline tools. Figure
9-14 shows the configuration of the tool adapted for MWD. The frequency used is 2
MHz in order to minimize the drill collar perturbation. The receiver antennae used
for these measurements reduce the near zone influence, and their spacing gives
excellent vertical resolution.
Further advancing propagation electromagnetic wave technology, a dual in-
duction technique has been developed (Clark et al., 1988). The phase shift and
 267

Fig. 9-12. Comparison of a wireline and MWD gamma-ray recording. (Courtesy of SPWLA, 1988.)

attenuation of the electromagnetic signals indicate two apparent resistivities at two

depths of investigation. Figure 9-15 shows how two transmitters can eliminate much
of the error in rugose holes by averaging the signals transmitted upward and down-
ward. A new tool with four sets of receivers can measure eight apparent resistivities
at various depths of investigation (Bittar et al., 1991).
268 R. DESBRANDES AND R. CLAYTON

LATERAL
CURRENT

BIT
CURRENT

Fig. 9-13. Computed current pattern in a homogeneous formation for the MWD toroid sonde (after
Gianzero et al., 1985, 1986). The drill collar acts as a series of electrodes in a way similar to the
Laterolog 3 sonde. The lower guard electrode (the bit) is used to get a forward resistivity curve.

9.3.4. Neutron porosity

In addition to true resistivity, formation porosity must also be measured to
calculate the amount of oil in place (Rao and Fontenot, 1988). This porosity
measurement is accomplished with the MWD nuclear tools. A neutron porosity
sensor has been developed which counts the flux of neutron capture gamma
radiation. The formation is bombarded with fast neutrons that are slowed down,
or “thermalized”, through collisions with hydrogen nuclei. The thermal neutrons
are then absorbed by other atomic species to produce gamma radiation. The
concentration of hydrogen nuclei is determined by the flux counts. The tool is
designed to act as a thermal neutron detector, measuring the gamma rays that result
from capture by the steel in the tool (Roesler et al., 1987). Improvement in neutron
detection technology has facilitated this MWD measurement. One configuration
permits retrieval of the nuclear source in the event that the drill pipe becomes stuck
(Evans et al., 1988)

9.3.5. Density
A formation density measurement complements the neutron porosity measure-
ment, enabling more accurate porosity determination (especially in shaley and/or
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLlNG 269

STEEL COLLAR

TR

Fig. 9-14. Configuration of the MWD resistivity tool. Usually Z l = l m and Z z = 0.80 rn.

gas-bearing formations) and lithology determination via standard cross plot meth-
ods (Paske et al., 1987). Unlike the wireline tools, this gamma-gamma density
measurement does not use pads in contact with the borehole wall. The formation
is bombarded with gamma radiation, and the scattered radiation returning to the
sensors is counted (Rao and Fontenot, 1988). The returning flux is inversely related
to the bulk density of the formation. By assuming a formation matrix density and
formation fluid density, porosity can be calculated.

9.3.6. Weight-on-bit,torque and bending moment

Weight-on-bit, torque, and bending moment are all measured in the same sub
with strain gauges. The strain gauges are resistors with straight fine wires oriented
in the direction of the strain to be measured (Holman, 1984) and are bonded to the
metallic part of the sub under test with a special epoxy. Figure 9-16 shows a sketch
of a strain gauge. The measured strain is related to the stress by Hook’s law. The
stress can, in turn, be related to the weight-on-bit (axial load), torque, and bending
moment.
One disturbance that must be taken into account is the end effect, which is due
to the differential pressure A P between the pressure inside the drill collar and
the annulus pressure. The action of AP upon the mud motor and/or the drill bit
introduces an axial load. With a typical A P of 70 bars (1000 psi) and a drill collar
270 R. DESBRANDES AND R. CLAYTON

ATU= Attenuation Up
PSU= Phase Shift U p ATU= Attenuation Dowr
PSU= Phase Shift Down

Fig. 9-15. A dual transmitter configuration of an electromagnetic wave resistivity tool illustrated with
the receiver coils passing through a rugose section of the borehole (Clark et al., 1988). Averaging the
PSU and PSD or ATU and ATD eliminates much of the error in such holes.

ID of 3.5 inches, the end effect may reach 4.5 tons (9000 lbs, 40 kN). The hydraulic
lift must also be taken into account for both diamond and PDC bits (Winters
and Warren, 1986). A zero-weight test should always be performed with full mud
circulation and the bit just off bottom.
The strain gauges are placed on a cylindrical sub as shown in Fig. 9-17. Two
gauges on opposite sides of the sub can be used for the weight-on-bit measurement
in the opposite legs of a wheatstone bridge; thus the bending moment effect will be
compensated. Two other gauges, also on opposite legs of the sub but in adjacent
legs of another bridge, record the bending moment as an alternating signal. Finally,
two gauges placed at a 45" angle in adjacent legs of a bridge measure the torque.
The resistance variation per gauge for the weight-on-bit is given by:
F x R x WOB
AR = (9-5)
E x A
where, in SI units: F = gauge factor; R = gauge resistance in ohms; WOB =
weight-on-bit in newtons; E = Young modulus in newtons per square meter; A =
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING 27 1

FOIL GRID
PATTERN

TE
WIRE
-'
I
<

INSULATING LAYER
AND BONDING CEMENT
<
NEUTRAL STRUCTURE
AXIS UNDER
BENDING

Fig. 9-16. Bonded foil strain gauge transducer. The resistance of the gauge changes when a strain is
applied along the OX-axis.

sub cross-section in square meters; or, in English units: F = gauge factor; R =

gauge resistance in ohms; WOB = weight-on-bit in pounds; E = Young modulus in
psi; A = sub cross-section in square inches.
For the torque, the equation is:
F x R x x T x R,
AR= (9-6a)
n x G x (R: - R!)
where in SI units: F = gauge factor; R = gauge resistance in ohms; T = torque
in meter newtons; R, = sub outside radius in meters; Ri = sub inside diameter in
meters; G = shear modulus in newtons per square meter; or:
F x R x x T x R,
A R = 0.083 (9-6b)
R xG x (R: - R f )
where in English units: F = gauge factor; R = gauge resistance in ohms; T =
torque in foot pounds; R , = sub outside radius in inches; Ri = sub inside diameter
in inches; G = shear modulus in psi.
272 R. DESBRANDES A N D R. CLAYTON

Fig. 9-17. Measurement principle for weight-on-bit, torque, and bending moment. WOB and bending
moment gauges are laid with their sensitive axis parallel to the drill collar axis. Torque gauges are
positioned at a 45" angle.

9.4. ABNORMAL PRESSURE DETECTION WITH MWD

The natural gamma-ray curve is part of the suite of standard MWD logs, as
shown in Figs. 9-18, 9-19, and 9-20. According to Zoeller (1983), the gamma-ray
counts in the shale sections are found to decrease in overpressured zones since the
amount of shale per unit volume decreases. This phenomenon is shown in Fig. 9-21.
MWD neutron and formation density measurements have been developed (Roesler
et al., 1987; Paske et al., 1987), and these data can be interpreted in the same
manner as the corresponding wireline measurements (Fertl, 1976). Quantitative
computer-based pore pressure determination seems to be possible and to give good
results (Hauck et al., 1986; Holbrook and Hauck, 1987). Furthermore, in porous
intervals the presence of gas can be immediately detected with the density-neutron
combination because of the shallow invasion of mud filtrate at the time of the
measurement.
Measurements in the annulus to detect fluid inflow, particularly gas, have also
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING 273

AMRlfIf0 MYSllVlIV OowWrmLf Wfl6111Ow BII

anno. n2tn TIOU.AW. of .ou(DI
). ... . .. . ..... . . .. . . . . . . . . .1(
SHORI NORMAL RfSlSllVllV SURFACt WflGHI OW 111
OMYO. YXlY T I ( W # A y O l ff POUND*
I 1(
+++++++++4

42.6 1 m.10
43.0 1 0440

43.1 1 a 4 7 3
43.3 2 .SO6

43.4 2 *a37

43.. 2 *no.
8800
44.3 2 0.04
44.a a 0031

48.4 3 0 7 2 0
46.5 2 a T 6 0

8800 40.2 3 0T.T

4?.0 3 .#I?
4T.n 5 *a62

*-
40.0 6 O O T O

40.4 4 0.01
40.5 4 0040
4a.T 0 0072
7000

40.5 4 TO34
40.0 6 TOO6

49.0 0 ?0.6
50.4 4 1121
50.6 6 1169
60.4 T I 1 0 0
7200 51.2 4 I 1 0 0
61.1 5 T Z Z O

61.4 4 1 2 5 3
5t.O 0 T I 0 4
61.9 5 T3PO

7400

62.0 0 T 4 7 2
63.1 T 1603
6 x 6 T 7636
63.. T T500
7800 53.. 7.01

64.1 I 7.21
64.4 m 7.6.
64.. 0 I*.*

s6.0 m 7721

SO.. T762

7800 65.. S T7#J

66.m
66.m
66.0 .
m
7014
7.44
?#T6

Fig. 9-18. MWD log in a deviated borehole (after %guy and Zoeller, 1981). Gamma-ray and resistivity
curves outline the sand-shale sequence. The saw-tooth pattern of the temperature curve is due to
drilling interruptions for directional measurements. Low bottomhole weight-on-bit values occur mostly
in sand zones.
274 R.DESBRANDES AND R.CLAYTON

,-
I

Fig. 9-19. MWD log showing weight-on-bit and torque recordings (after Tanguy and Zoeller, 1981).
Sand and shale sequences are defined by gamma ray and resistivity. The correlation bottomhole torque
and weight-on-bit is good. Weight transfer is poor only in the lower part of the section.

been suggested (Desbrandes and Bourgoyne, 1987). Sound velocity in a fluid is

affected by entrained gas. Since the velocity is related to both the density and the
compressibility of the fluid, a qualitative monitor could be devised. After reaching
a predefined threshold, an influx alarm could be activated, even overriding other
transmissions should an emergency situation occur.
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING 275

Fig. 9-20. MWD mud motor drilling log shows the magnetic toolface up to 4" of deviation and the
gravity toolface afterwards (Tanguy and Zoeller, 1981). Directional data are printed on the right.

GAMMA RAY, CPS RE

GROUND LEVEL 40 6080 1.0 :

OVER PRESSURE
J

k
a
g 5000

3
;6000
7000

8000 t I I I11111 I

Fig. 9-21. MWD gamma-ray shale profile in well located offshore in Texas. The observed gamma-ray
curve is corrected for the mud density in the annulus. Both resistivity and corrected gamma-ray plots
indicate a high pressure zone.

9.5. SERVICE COMPANY COMPARISON

Table 9-1 provides a reference source and comparison of several MWD systems
(Anonymous, 1988). All specifications are supplied and approved by the appropriate
vendors. Since MWD technology is advancing rapidly, these specifications may also
TABLE 9-1 h,
4
Q\
Service Company comparison (1990)
Company Tool Tool Bending inertia Max. operat. Power Time Max. hydrostat. Mud flow- Max mud Lost Mud Pressure
O.D. length temperature source operating pressure rate viscosity circulation screen drop
(inch4) (cm4) (psi (cP) material
(inch (ft (“C (hours) (gal/min
mm) m) “F) ma) Ilmin)
Baker 2 >25 as as 125 battery 150 20,000 100-1000 no limit handle most recom- variable
Hughes 51 >7.6 NMDC NMDC 257 137.9 378-3785 mended
Eastman 6%-9Y2 18 87.4 to 3638to 125 battery 200 20,000 clear 50 CP no restriction not 32 psi @
Christensen 171-241 5.5 386.8 16,100 257 137.9 2” ID required 450 gpm
Exlog 6%-9% 31% NA NA 125 turbine no limit 18,000 200-1750 no limit 40 Ib/bl recom- 70 psi @
159-241 9.6 257 124.1 757-6624 1.12 W / m 3 mended 450 gpm
Geodata 3%-9% 30 68.5 to 2851 to 150 battery 75-200 20,000 50-1500 no limit not recom- recom- equiv. 1000 ft
(Halliburton) 83-241 9.1 393.4 16,375 302 137.9 189-5677 mended mended 4Wdp
Geodata 3%-9% 30 68.5 to 2851 to 175 turbine no limit 20,000 250-1500 no limit not recom- recom- equiv. 1000 ft
(Halliburton) 83-241 9.1 393.4 16,375 347 137.9 9465677 mended mended 4%” dp
SperrySun 6%-8 31 79.3 to 3301 to 140 battery 250 15,000 750-1000 50 CP 40 Ib/bl not 80 psi @
MPT 159-203 11.3 174 7242 284 103.4 2839-3785 1.12 kN/m3 required 300 gpm
SperrySun 6%-8 18 NA NA 140 battery 400 15,000 1000 no limit no restriction not 1.9” thru b.
RLL 159-203 5.5 284 103.4 3785 required
SperrySun 6%-10 35 as as 125 turbine no limit 15,000 225-1200 50 CP 20 lb/bl recom- 100 psi @ P
Directional 165-229 10.7 NMDC NMDC 257 103.4 852-4542 560 N/m3 mended 410 gpm er
only
rn
vl
Anadrill 6%-9 30-45 98.8to 4112to 150 turbine no limit 20,000 210-1200 no limit medium nut recom- 150 psi @
Schlumberger 165-229 9.1-13.7 395.8 16,474 302 137.9 795-4542 max mended 350 gpm
Smith 4%-9% 45 18to 749to 150 battery 250-600 20,000 350-1200 no limit no restriction recom- 125 psi @
Datadrill 108-241 13.7 318.1 13,240 302 137.9 1325-4542 mended 600gpm E
vl

Sonat 4%-9% 30-40 84.6to 3521to 125 turbine no limit 20,000 250-1100 no limit medium nut recom- 100 psi @
137.9 9464163 max mended 450 gpm
Teleco 108-241 9.1-12.2 355.4 14,793 257
%U
Geoservices 4%-8 30-31 19.5 to 812to 125 battery 144-190 10,000 NA no limit no restriction not NA P
Electro- 121-203 9.1-9.5 176.6 7351 257 68.96 required
magnetic a g
1 psi = 6.894 kPa; 1gal = 3.785 liter.
a Works in water/oilbase mud, air, gas, mist, foam, aerated mud. All others in water/oil base mud only. s
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING 277

change rapidly. In fact, in these days of oil field acquisitions and competitive
repositioning, company and product names are also subject to change.
Despite the evolution of electronics technology, the development of numerical
methods, and the advent of high-speed computers, many companies have come
and gone in the pursuit of final solutions to MWD problems. The benefits of
simplified downhole hardware and increased data rates continue to entice further
development for the oilfield.

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