AUTOMATA THEORY ANSWERS

-PRUTHVIRAJ CHAVAN

THEORY ANSWERS

1. Definitions and Examples:

- Alphabet: An alphabet is a finite set of symbols or characters. It is used to define the basic building
blocks of a language. For example, the alphabet {0, 1} represents the binary language consisting of the
symbols 0 and 1.

- String: A string is a finite sequence of symbols chosen from an alphabet. It represents a sequence of
characters or symbols. For example, the string "hello" consists of the characters 'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', and 'o'.

- Language: A language is a set of strings over a specific alphabet. It represents a collection of words or
sentences. For example, the language L = {"cat", "dog", "mouse"} consists of the strings "cat", "dog", and
"mouse".

2. Regular Expression:

A regular expression is a sequence of characters that defines a search pattern. It is used to match and
manipulate strings based on specific rules. Regular expressions are commonly used in pattern matching
algorithms, text processing, and programming languages.

Example: The regular expression "ab*c" matches strings that start with 'a', followed by zero or more
occurrences of 'b', and ends with 'c'. It can match strings like "ac", "abc", "abbc", "abbbc", and so on.

3. Regular Expression for the language with at least one 'a' and at least one 'b':

The regular expression for the language that contains at least one 'a' and at least one 'b' over the
alphabet {a, b, c} can be written as follows: "(a+b+c)*a(a+b+c)*b(a+b+c)*". This expression matches
strings that contain at least one 'a' and at least one 'b', allowing any number of 'c' symbols in between.

4. Definitions and Examples:

- Kleene Star: The Kleene star, denoted by *, is a unary operator applied to a language. It represents the
concatenation of zero or more occurrences of strings from the language. For example, if L = {"a", "b"},
then L* = {ε, "a", "b", "aa", "ab", "ba", "bb", "aaa", ...}, where ε represents the empty string.
- Kleene Plus: The Kleene plus, denoted by +, is similar to the Kleene star but requires at least one
occurrence of a string from the language. For example, if L = {"a", "b"}, then L+ = {"a", "b", "aa", "ab",
"ba", "bb", "aaa", ...}.

- Power of an Alphabet: The power of an alphabet represents the set of all possible strings that can be
formed using the symbols from the alphabet. For example, if the alphabet is {0, 1}, then the power of
the alphabet can be written as {ε, "0", "1", "00", "01", "10", "11", ...}, where ε represents the empty
string.

5. Language of NFA:

The language of a nondeterministic finite automaton (NFA) is the set of strings that can be accepted by
the NFA. An NFA is a mathematical model used to recognize patterns or languages. It consists of a set of
states, transitions, and an acceptance criterion. The language of an NFA is the collection of strings that
lead the NFA from the initial state to an accepting state.

6. Finite Automata and its Applications:

- Finite Automaton: A finite automaton is a mathematical model used to recognize languages or

patterns. It consists of a finite set of states, transitions between states based on input symbols, an initial
state, and one or more

accepting states. Finite automata can be deterministic (DFA) or nondeterministic (NFA).

- Applications of Finite Automata:

- Lexical analysis: Finite automata are used in compilers and programming languages to perform
tokenization, which involves recognizing and categorizing the lexical units (keywords, identifiers,
operators, etc.) in the source code.

- Pattern matching: Finite automata are used in text processing applications, such as searching for
specific patterns or substrings in large texts.

- Circuit design: Finite automata are used in designing sequential circuits, where they help model the
behavior of digital systems with memory elements.

- Natural language processing: Finite automata are used in language processing tasks, such as spell
checking, text-to-speech conversion, and information extraction.

7. Applications of Automata Theory:

Automata theory has several applications in various fields, including:

- Compiler design: Automata theory is used to build lexical analyzers and parsers, which are essential
components of compilers.

- Natural language processing: Automata theory is used in tasks such as text processing, spell checking,
and information retrieval.

- Computer networking: Automata theory is applied in the design and analysis of protocols and routing
algorithms used in computer networks.

- DNA sequence analysis: Automata theory is used in bioinformatics to analyze and search DNA
sequences for specific patterns.

- Hardware design: Automata theory is used to design and verify digital circuits and systems.

8. Language L = {w ∈ {a, b}* : w contains at least one instance of "aaba", "bbb", or "ababa"}:

The regular expression for the language L can be written as "(a+b)*((aaba)+(bbb)+(ababa))(a+b)*". This
expression matches strings that contain at least one instance of "aaba", "bbb", or "ababa" and can have
any number of 'a' or 'b' symbols before or after the desired patterns.

9. Language L = {w ∈ {0-9}* : w corresponds to the decimal encoding of a natural number whose

encoding contains, as a substring, the encoding of a natural number that is divisible by 3}:

The regular expression for the language L can be written as

"(0|1|2|4|5|6|7|8|9)*(0|3|6|9)(0|1|2|4|5|6|7|8|9)*". This expression matches strings that
represent decimal encodings of natural numbers containing a substring that represents a natural
number divisible by 3.

10. Language L = {w ∈ {0, 1}* : w contains both "101" and "010" as substrings}:

The regular expression for the language L can be written as "(0+1)*(101)(0+1)*(010)(0+1)*". This
expression matches strings that contain both "101" and "010" as substrings, allowing any combination
of '0' and '1' symbols before, between, and after the desired substrings.

11. Language L = {w ∈ {a, b, c, d, e}* : |w| ≥ 2 and w begins and ends with the same symbol}:

The regular expression for the language L can be written as "(a+b+c+d+e)(a+b+c+d+e)*(a+b+c+d+e)".

This expression matches strings that begin and end with the same symbol and can have any combination
of 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', or 'e' symbols in between.

12. Finite State Machine (FSM) accepting L = {w ∈ {a, b, c}* : w contains at least one substring consisting
of three identical symbols
in a row}:

Here is a nondeterministic finite automaton (NFA) that accepts the language L:

```

┌───a───┐

│ ▼

→q0─a─→q1─a─→q2─a─→q3─┐

│ │

│ a,b,c │ a,b,c

└───────┬───────┘

▼
q4

```

In this NFA:

- q0 is the initial state.

- q4 is the only accepting state.

- The transition from q3 to q4 is labeled with a,b,c because it can transition to q4 regardless of the next
symbol encountered.

This NFA accepts strings that contain at least one substring consisting of three identical symbols in a
row.

13. Ambiguous Grammar:

An ambiguous grammar is a type of formal grammar where there exists at least one string in the
language that can have more than one valid parse tree or derivation. In other words, there are multiple
ways to derive the same string from the grammar, leading to different interpretations or meanings. This
ambiguity can cause difficulties in understanding and implementing the grammar.
Example of an ambiguous grammar:

Consider the following grammar:

S -> S + S

S -> S * S

S -> a

This grammar represents arithmetic expressions with addition and multiplication operations. However,
it is ambiguous because it allows multiple valid parse trees for some expressions. For example, the
expression "a + a * a" can be derived in two ways:

1. Parse Tree 1:

/ \

a *

/ \

a a

2. Parse Tree 2:

/ \

+ a

/\

a a

Both parse trees correspond to different interpretations of the expression, leading to different results.
This ambiguity can cause confusion and issues in evaluating the expression correctly.

14. Regular Expressions for the given languages:

a) L = {w ∈ {a,b}* : |w| is even}

Regular Expression: (aa+bb)*

b) L = {w ∈ {a,b}* : w contains an odd number of a's}

Regular Expression: (b*ab*ab*)*

15. Regular Expressions for the given languages:

a) L = {w ∈ {a,b}* : there is no more than one b}

Regular Expression: (a+b)*(ε+ab+a)

b) L = {w ∈ {a,b}* : no two consecutive letters are the same}

Regular Expression: (a+b)*(ε+ab+ba)*

16. Context-Free Language for the given grammar:

The given grammar G = ({S}, {a, b}, S, P) with the productions:

S → aSb (Rule: 1)

S → ab (Rule: 2)

The context-free language generated by this grammar is:

L = {anbn : n ≥ 1}

It represents the set of strings with an equal number of 'a's followed by an equal number of 'b's, where
the count of 'a's and 'b's is the same.

17. Regular Expression for strings with runs of 'a's of lengths multiple of three:

Regular Expression: (b+c)*(aaa(bb+cc)*)*(b+c)*

This regular expression matches strings where every run of 'a's has a length that is a multiple of three. It
allows any combination of 'b' and 'c' symbols before, between, and after the runs of 'a's.

18. Regular Expression for strings with either no '1' preceding a '0' or no '0' preceding a '1':
Regular Expression: (0+10)* + (1+01)*

This regular expression matches strings where either there is no '1' preceding a '0' or no '0' preceding a
'1'. It allows any combination of '0' and '1' symbols, ensuring the specified condition is met.

19. Regular Expression for strings containing exactly one 'a':

Regular Expression: (b+c)*a(b+c)*

This regular expression matches strings that contain exactly one 'a' and can have any combination of 'b'
and 'c' symbols before and after the 'a'.

20. Finite State Machine (FSM) from the given Regular Expressions:

a) (b U ab)*

FSM:

```

┌───b───┐

│ ▼

→q0─b─

→q1─a─┘

```

b) (b(b U ε)b)*

FSM:

```

┌───b───┐

│ ▼
→q0─b─→q1─b─┘

```

c) bab U a*

FSM:

```

→q0─b─→q1─a─→q2

```

21. Parse tree for generating the string 11001010 from the given grammar:

S -> 1B -> 1S -> 1A -> 1S -> 1A -> 0AA -> 0SA -> 0S -> 0B -> 0

Parse Tree:

/ \

1 B

/\

1 S

/\

1 A

/\

1 S

/\

1 A

/| |\

0 A A ε

/\

0 S
 |

Note: The parse tree may vary depending on the specific rules applied during parsing, as long as it
adheres to the grammar's production rules and generates the desired string.

22. ε-NFA for the regular expression (a+b)*ab:

```

┌───a,b───┐ ┌───a───┐

│ ▼ │ ▼

→q0─a,b─→q1─a,b─┐ │ a │

│ │ │ │

│ a │ │ b │

└─────┬───┘ └───┬───┘

│ │

▼ ▼
q2 q3

```

In this ε-NFA:

- q0 is the initial state.

- q3 is the only accepting state.

- The transition from q1 to q2 is an ε-transition, allowing for the possibility of skipping the 'b' symbol.

23. ε-NFA for the regular expression a* + b* + C*:

```

┌───a───┐ ┌───b───┐ ┌───C───┐

│ ▼ │ ▼ │ ▼

→q0─a─→q1─ε─→q2─b─→q3─ε─→q4─C─→q5─ε─→q6─┐
 │ │ │ │

└───────────┘ └───────────┘

```

In this ε-NFA:

- q0 is the initial state.

- q6 is the only accepting state.

- ε-transitions are used to allow for zero or more occurrences of 'a', 'b', or 'C'.

24. NFA that accepts the language L(aa*(a+b)):

```

┌───────a───────┐

│ ▼

→q0─a─→q1─a─→q2─a,b─→q3

└─────a─────┘

```

In this NFA:

- q0 is the initial state.

- q3 is the only accepting state.

- The NFA accepts strings that start with 'a', followed by one or more 'a's (aa*), and ends with either 'a'
or 'b

' (a+b).

25. Regular Expression and Languages:

i) Language of all strings w such that w contains exactly one '1' and an even number of '0's:

Regular Expression: 0*(10*0)*1(0+1)*

ii) Set of strings over {0, 1, 2} containing at least one '0' and at least one '1':

Regular Expression: (0+1+2)*(0(0+1+2)*(1+2)+(1+2)(0+1+2)*)(0+1+2)*

26. Context-Free Grammar (CFG):

A context-free grammar is a formal grammar consisting of a set of production rules that define the
structure and syntax of a formal language. It is called "context-free" because the left-hand side of each
production rule consists of a single non-terminal symbol, which can be replaced with a sequence of
symbols (terminals or non-terminals) on the right-hand side.

i) Grammar for L = {0^n+2 1^n | n≥1}:

S -> 001S1 | ε

ii) Grammar for L = {a^n b^m | m > n and n ≥ 0}:

S -> aSb | A

A -> aAb | ε

27. CFG for the language L = {0^n 1^n | n≥1}:

S -> 01 | 00S1

28. Finite Automata (FA) for the indicated languages:

a) Language of all strings containing exactly two 'a's:

FA:

```

→q0─a─→q1─a─→q2

```

q2 is the only accepting state.

b) Language of all strings containing at least two 'a's:

FA:

```

┌───a───┐

│ ▼

→q0─a─→q1─a─→q2

```

q1 and q2 are accepting states.

29. Finite Automata (FA) for the indicated languages:

a) Language of all strings that do not end with 'ab':

FA:

```

┌───a───┐ ┌───b───┐

│ ▼ │ ▼

→q0─a─→q1─b─→q2─a─→q3─a─→q4

│ │

└───────────┘

```

q0, q1, and q3 are accepting states.

b) Language of all strings that begin or end with 'aa' or 'bb':

FA:

```

┌───a,b───┐ ┌───a───┐ ┌───b───┐ ┌───a───┐ ┌───b───┐

│ ▼ │ ▼ │ ▼ │ ▼ │ ▼

→q0─a─→q1─a─→q2─a─→q3─b─→q4─b─→q5─a─→q6─a─→q7─a─→q8─b─→q9─b─→q10─a─→q11

```

q1, q2, q4, q5, q7, q8, q9, and q11 are accepting states.
30. Transition diagram for an FA that accepts the string 'abaa' and no other strings:

```

→q0─a─→q1─b─→q2─a─→q3─a─→q4

```

q4 is the only accepting state.

31. FA accepting the indicated languages:

a) FA for the language {a, b}*{a}:

```

┌─────a─────┐

│ ▼

→q0─a,b─→q1─a─→q2

└───────────┘

```

q2 is the only accepting state.

b) FA for the language {bb

, ba}*:

```

→q0─b─→q1─b─→q2

│ │

└─a──┘

```

q0, q1, and q2 are accepting states.

32. FA accepting the indicated languages:

a) FA for the language {a, b}*{b, aa}{a, b}*:

```

┌─────a─────┐ ┌─────b─────┐ ┌─────a─────┐

│ ▼ │ ▼ │ ▼

→q0─a,b─→q1─b─→q2─a─→q3─a─→q4─a─→q5─a─→q6─a─→q7─a─→q8─a─→q9

│ │

└─────────────────────────────┘

```

q9 is the only accepting state.

b) FA for the language {bbb, baa}*{a}:

```

┌─────a─────┐ ┌─────b─────┐ ┌─────b─────┐

│ ▼ │ ▼ │ ▼

→q0─a,b─→q1─b─→q2─a─→q3─a─→q4─a─→q5─a─→q6─a─→q7─a─→q8─a─→q9

│ │

└─────────────────┘

```

q9 is the only accepting state.

33. CFG generating the given languages:

a) CFG for the set of odd-length strings in {a, b}* with the middle symbol 'a':

S -> a | b | aSa

b) CFG for the set of even-length strings in {a, b}* with the two middle symbols equal:

S -> aa | bb | aSb | bSa

c) CFG for the set of odd-length strings in {a, b}* whose first, middle, and last symbols are all the same:

S -> a | b | aSa | bSb

34. The CFG with productions S → aSbScS | aScSbS | bSaScS | bScSaS | cSaSbS | cSbSaS | ε does
generate the language {x ∈ {a, b, c}* | na(x) = nb(x) = nc(x)}.

Proof:

We can observe that each production rule in the CFG adds exactly one 'a', one 'b', and one 'c' to the
string while maintaining the order of the symbols. Hence, the number of 'a's, 'b's, and 'c's will always be
equal in any string derived from this CFG.

35. The language L generated by the CFG with productions S → aSb | ab | SS does not contain any string
that begins with 'abb'.

Proof:

We can analyze the CFG to see that the only way to generate a string that starts with 'abb' is by applying
the production S → ab. However, once 'ab' is generated, the subsequent derivations can only generate
strings with 'a's before 'b's (e.g., S → aSb). Therefore, it is not possible to generate a string that begins
with 'abb' from this CFG.

36. NFA for the grammar with productions:

S → abA | bB | aba

A → b | aB | bA

B → aB | aA

NFA:

```

┌───a,b───┐ ┌───a───┐ ┌───b───┐ ┌───a───┐ ┌───b───┐

│ ▼ │ ▼ │ ▼ │ ▼ │ ▼

→q0─a─→q1─b─→q2─a─→q3─b─→q4─□─→q5─a─→q6─a─→q7─□─→q8─a─→q9─□─→q10─b─→q11
 │ │ │ │ │

└───────────┘ └───────────┘ └───────────┘

```

q0 is the initial state and q11 is the only accepting state.

37. Finite Automaton (FA) for the regular expression (0+1)*:

```

┌─0,1─┐

│ ▼

→q0─0,1─→q1

└───┘

```

q0 is the initial and accepting state.

38. Grammar converted to Chomsky Normal Form (CNF):

S -> R1 | R2

R1 -> CA

R2 -> DB

A -> AA | SA | a

B -> BB | SA | a

C -> DD

D -> BB | SA | a

39. Context-Free Grammar (CFG) and removal of unit productions:

S -> AB

A -> E | b

B -> a | C

C -> D
D -> b

E -> a

After removing unit productions:

S -> AB

A -> b

B -> a | C

C -> D

D -> b

E -> a

40. Context-Free Grammar (CFG) and removal of ε-productions:

S -> ABaC

A -> BC | B

B -> b

C -> D | aD

D -> d

After removing ε-productions:

S -> ABaC | ABa | ABaC | ABa | ABa | ABC | AB | AB | AaC | Aa | Aa | AC | A | BaC | Ba | Ba | BC | B |

aC | a

41. Parse tree for generating the string 11001010 from the given grammar:

```

_____|_____

| | |

1 B 0

_|_
 | |

0 S

___|___

| | |

1 0 1

```

42. Derivation and parse trees:

Leftmost derivation of string 0100110:

S -> 0S -> 01A -> 010B -> 0100S -> 01001A -> 010011B -> 0100110

Parse tree for leftmost derivation:

```

_____|_____

| | |

0 S 1

_|_

| |

1 A

_|_

| |

0 B

```
Rightmost derivation of string 0100110:

S ->

0S -> 01A -> 010B -> 0100S -> 01001A -> 010011B -> 0100110

Parse tree for rightmost derivation:

```

_____|_____

| | |

0 S 1

_|_

| |

1 A

_|_

| |

0 B

```

43. PDA recognizing all strings with an equal number of 0's and 1's:

```

▼
→q0─0,ε─→q1─1,ε─→q2─0,ε─→q3─1,ε─→q4─0,ε─→q5─1,ε─→q6─0,ε─→q7─1,ε─→q8─0,ε─→q9
│ │ │ │ │

└─────────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────────────┴──────────
───────┘

```

q0 is the initial state and q9 is the only accepting state.

44. PDA from the given grammar:

```

▼
→q0─a,ε─→q1─b,ε─→q2

│ │

└─────────────────┘

```

q0 is the initial state and q2 is the only accepting state.

45. Pushdown Automaton (PDA) is a finite automaton extended with a stack. It has the ability to push
symbols onto the stack, pop symbols from the stack, and make transitions based on the current state,
input symbol, and the top symbol of the stack.

Example of a PDA:

Consider a PDA that recognizes the language L = {w#w | w ∈ {0, 1}*}. The PDA has the following
transitions:

State: q0

Input: ε, ε → X

Stack: Z

State: q1

Input: 0, X → X
Stack: X

State: q1

Input: 1, X → X

Stack: X

State: q1

Input: ε, Z → Z

Stack: Z

State: q2

Input: 0, X → ε

Stack: ε

State: q2

Input: 1, X → ε

Stack: ε

State: q2

Input: ε, Z → ε

Stack: ε

State: q3 (final state)

Input: #, Z → ε

Stack: ε

In this PDA, the stack serves as a memory to keep track of the symbols in the first half of the input string.
The PDA pushes symbols onto the stack until it reaches the '#' symbol. Then it starts popping symbols
from the stack and matching them with the remaining input symbols. If all symbols match and the stack
becomes empty, the PDA accepts the input string.
For example, if we input '101#101' into this PDA, it will go through the following transitions:

q0, ε, Z → q0, XZ

q0, ε, Z → q0, XXZ

q0, 1, X → q1, X

q1, 0, X → q1, ε

q1, 1, X → q1, X

q1, #, Z → q2, Z

q2, 1, X → q2, ε

q2, 0, X → q2

46. The grammar E → E + E | E * E | (E) | id is ambiguous because it allows multiple valid parse trees for
certain expressions. For example, consider the expression "id * id + id". This expression can be parsed in
two different ways:

Parse Tree 1:

```

__|_____

| | |

id * E

| |

E id

_|_

| |

id +

id
```

Parse Tree 2:

```

__|_____

| | |

id + E

| |

E E

_|_

| |

id *

id

```

Both parse trees are valid, but they represent different interpretations of the expression. This ambiguity
can lead to different meanings or results when evaluating or interpreting the expression.

47. Derivation tree for a context-free grammar (CFG) represents the step-by-step derivation of a string
from the start symbol using production rules. It shows the structure and hierarchy of the generated
string.

Parse tree, on the other hand, is a graphical representation of the syntactic structure of a string derived
from a CFG. It visually shows how the terminal and non-terminal symbols are replaced and combined to
generate the string.

For example, consider the CFG:

S → AB
A→a

B→b

Derivation tree:

```

_|_

| |

A B

| |

a b

```

Parse tree:

```

_|_

| |

A B

| |

a b

```

Both the derivation tree and parse tree represent the same structure and generation process of the
string "ab" from the given CFG.

48. Constructing a Turing machine that multiplies two unary numbers involves designing a machine that
can perform repeated addition based on the input numbers.
Here is a high-level description of the Turing machine:

1. Read the unary representation of the two numbers separated by a special symbol (e.g., #).

2. Move to the rightmost symbol of the first number.

3. Begin a loop:

a. Move to the rightmost symbol of the second number.

b. Check if the symbol is 1.

- If it is 1, move back to the rightmost symbol of the first number and add 1 to it.

- If it is 0, move back to the rightmost symbol of the first number.

c. Move one position to the left on the second number.

d. Repeat steps 3b-3c until reaching the leftmost symbol of the second number.

4. Repeat the loop until the leftmost symbol of the first number is reached.

5. Move to the rightmost symbol of the result and halt.

This Turing machine essentially performs repeated addition of the first number, based on the value of
each digit of the second number, resulting in the multiplication of the two unary numbers.

Note: The detailed transition function and states of the Turing machine are not provided in this
explanation, but they would be required for a complete specification of the machine.

49. Turing machines can be classified into various types based on their capabilities and restrictions. The
main types of Turing machines are:

a) Deterministic Turing Machine (DTM): A Turing machine where the transition from one state to
another is uniquely determined by the current state and input symbol. It has a deterministic behavior.

b) Non-deterministic Turing Machine (NTM): A Turing machine where the transition from one state to
another can have multiple possibilities for a given input symbol and state. It has non-d

eterministic behavior and can explore multiple paths simultaneously.

c) Multi-Tape Turing Machine: A Turing machine that has multiple tapes, each with its own head. The
tapes can be used to store and access additional information, allowing more complex computations.

d) Multi-Dimensional Turing Machine: A Turing machine that operates on a multi-dimensional tape,

where the head can move in multiple directions and access cells in multiple dimensions.

e) Universal Turing Machine (UTM): A Turing machine that can simulate the behavior of any other Turing
machine. It is capable of executing the description of any Turing machine and can perform any
computable function.

Each type of Turing machine has its own characteristics and computational power, enabling different
levels of complexity and capabilities in solving computational problems.

50. Recursive definition of languages involves defining a language in terms of itself using a set of rules or
productions. It allows the language to be described recursively, breaking it down into simpler
components until base cases are reached.

For example, let's define a language L of well-formed arithmetic expressions consisting of addition and
multiplication operations:

1) The symbols '0' and '1' are in L.

2) If x and y are in L, then 'x+y' and 'x*y' are also in L.

Using these rules, we can recursively define the language L. Starting from the base cases, we can
generate more complex expressions by applying the second rule repeatedly.

Examples of strings in L:

- '0'

- '1'

- '0+1'

- '1*0+1'
- '1+0*1+0'

Recursive definition allows us to describe the structure of a language in a concise and systematic way,
capturing the patterns and rules that govern its formation.

51. The Pumping Lemma for Context-Free Languages is a property that helps identify if a context-free
language satisfies certain conditions. It states that for any context-free language L, there exists a
pumping length p such that any string in L of length p or longer can be divided into five parts: u, v, x, y,
and z. These parts satisfy the following conditions:

1) For any non-negative integer k, the string uv^kxy^kz is also in L.

2) The length of the string vxy is at most p.

3) The length of the string vy is greater than 0.

In other words, if a language is context-free and satisfies the Pumping Lemma, it implies that the
language can be pumped (repeated or removed) within certain constraints and still remain in the
language.

The Pumping Lemma provides a tool for proving that certain languages are not context-free by
demonstrating that the pumping condition cannot be satisfied for all strings in the language. If any of
the conditions of the Pumping Lemma is violated, it indicates that the language is not context-free.

52. A Universal Turing machine (UTM) is a Turing machine that can simulate the behavior of any other
Turing machine. It is a theoretical machine that can execute the description of any Turing machine and
perform any computable function.

The concept of a UTM was introduced by Alan Turing as a way to demonstrate the universal nature of
Turing machines and the equivalence of different Turing machines. A UTM consists of a control unit, a
tape, and a head, similar to other Turing machines. However, its tape contains not only the input string
but also the description of another Turing machine.

To simulate a Turing machine, the UTM reads the description of the machine from its tape and
interprets it as the transition table, states, and symbols of the simulated machine. It then simulates the
behavior of the simulated machine step by step, updating the tape and moving the head accordingly.
The UTM can execute any algorithm that can be implemented on a Turing machine. It

forms the basis of the theory of computation and the concept of Turing completeness, which states that
any computation that can be algorithmically performed can be done by a Turing machine.

The UTM demonstrates the theoretical concept of universality and provides a foundation for studying
the limits and capabilities of computation.

53. For the grammar G:

S -> aAS | a

A -> SbA | SS | ba

i) Leftmost derivation (LMD) for the string "aabbaa":

S => aAS => aaSbAS => aabbaAS => aabbaaSbAS => aabbabbaAS => aabbabbaa

ii) Rightmost derivation (RMD) for the string "aabbaa":

S => aAS => aaSbAS => aaSbASSbAS => aabbaSSbAS => aabbaaSbAS => aabbabbaAS => aabbabbaa

iii) Parse tree for LMD:

/\

a AS

/\

a SbAS

/\

a SS

/\
 a SbA

ba

iv) Parse tree for RMD:

/\

aAS a

||

a SbAS

||

a SS

a SbA

ba

54. For the grammar:

S -> iCtS

S -> iCtSeS

S -> a

C -> b

(i) Leftmost derivation for the sentence w = ibtibtaea:

S => iCtS => ibCtS => ibtCtS => ibtiCtSeS => ibtibtaea

(ii) Parse tree for the sentence w = ibtibtaea:

 S

/ | \

i C t

| |

b S

/| \

i C t

| |

b S

55.

a) Top-down parsing: Top-down parsing is a parsing technique where the parsing process starts from the
root of the parse tree and moves down towards the leaves. It begins with the start symbol of the
grammar and recursively applies production rules to expand non-terminal symbols until the input string
is derived. The top-down parsing approach includes methods such as recursive descent parsing and LL
parsing.

b) Bottom-up parsing: Bottom-up parsing is a parsing technique where the parsing process starts from
the input string and gradually builds the parse tree from the leaves to the root. It begins by recognizing
the smallest units of the input (tokens) and applies production rules in reverse to reduce them into
higher-level constituents. The bottom-up parsing approach includes methods such as shift-reduce
parsing and LR parsing.

Both top-down and bottom-up parsing are widely used in different parsing algorithms and have their
advantages and disadvantages. Top-down parsing is intuitive and closely follows the structure of the
grammar, while bottom-up parsing is more efficient and can handle a broader class of grammars.
56. Recursive definition is a mathematical technique used to define a concept or set in terms of itself. It
involves breaking down a complex concept into simpler components, including base cases and recursive
rules. In the context of language definition, recursive definition is often used to define languages by
describing their structure and formation rules recursively.

A palindrome is a string that reads the same forwards and backwards. It can be defined recursively as
follows:

Base cases:

- The empty string ε is a palindrome.

- Any single character a is a palindrome.

Recursive rule:

- If w is a palindrome, then awa is also a palindrome, where a is any character and w is a palindrome.

For example, using the alphabet Σ = {a, b}, the language of palindromes can be recursively defined as:

- ε is in the language.

- For any

a in Σ, a is in the language.

- If w is in the language, then awa is in the language.

57. An NFA with null transitions, also known as ε-NFA (epsilon-NFA), is a non-deterministic finite
automaton where transitions can be made without consuming any input symbol. The ε-transition allows
the automaton to move from one state to another without reading an input symbol.

For example, consider an ε-NFA with states q0, q1, and q2, and transitions as follows:

- q0 --ε--> q1

- q0 --ε--> q2

- q1 --a--> q2
In this NFA, the ε-transitions from q0 to q1 and q2 allow the automaton to move to these states without
reading any input symbol. The automaton can then transition from q1 to q2 by consuming the input
symbol 'a'. The presence of ε-transitions increases the flexibility and expressive power of the NFA.

58. Leftmost derivation (LMD), rightmost derivation (RMD), and parse trees are related concepts in the
context of parsing and grammars:

- Leftmost derivation (LMD): In an LMD, the leftmost non-terminal in each step of the derivation is
replaced by a production rule until the entire string is derived. It corresponds to a top-down parsing
approach where the leftmost non-terminal is expanded first. LMD is represented as a sequence of
productions applied in a left-to-right manner.

- Rightmost derivation (RMD): In an RMD, the rightmost non-terminal in each step of the derivation is
replaced by a production rule until the entire string is derived. It corresponds to a bottom-up parsing
approach where the rightmost non-terminal is reduced first. RMD is represented as a sequence of
productions applied in a right-to-left manner.

- Parse tree: A parse tree is a graphical representation of a derivation in the form of a tree. Each node in
the tree represents a non-terminal symbol, and the edges represent the application of a production rule.
The leaves of the tree represent the terminals or input symbols. The parse tree provides a visual
representation of the syntactic structure of the input string according to the grammar rules.

59. A Turing machine (TM) is a theoretical computational model introduced by Alan Turing in 1936. It is a
simple yet powerful abstract machine capable of simulating any algorithmic computation. A Turing
machine consists of an infinitely long tape divided into cells, a read/write head that can move along the
tape, and a control unit that determines the machine's behavior based on its current state and the
symbol under the head.

The representation of a Turing machine includes:

- Input alphabet: The set of symbols that can appear on the input tape.

- Tape alphabet: The set of symbols that can be written on the tape, including the input alphabet and
additional special symbols.

- Set of states: The finite set of internal states that the control unit can be in.
- Transition function: A set of rules that specify how the machine transitions from one state to another
based on the current state and the symbol under the head.

- Start state: The initial state of the machine.

- Accept state: A designated state that indicates the machine accepts the input.

- Reject state: A designated state that indicates the machine rejects the input.

Turing machines can simulate any algorithmic computation and are used to study the limits and
capabilities of computation. They serve as a theoretical foundation for understanding the concept of
computability and the theory of formal languages.

60. Kleene's Theorem Part-I, also known as the Kleene's Closure Theorem, states that for any regular
language L over an alphabet Σ, the Kleene closure of L,

denoted as L*, is also a regular language. The Kleene closure L* represents the set of all possible
concatenations of strings from L, including the empty string ε.

Formally, if L is a regular language, then L* is also a regular language.

For example, consider a regular language L = {a, b}. The Kleene closure L* would include the following
strings: ε, a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab, aba, abb, baa, bab, bba, bbb, and so on. It represents all possible
combinations of the strings "a" and "b" from L, including repetitions and concatenations.

Kleene's Theorem Part-I demonstrates the closure property of regular languages under the Kleene star
operation, which allows the construction of new regular languages by combining existing ones through
concatenation and repetition.