‘ay Pleasereter to f¥0} NZ. No.9 2 45. Define progressive wave. Derive progressive wave equation. (143) a Progressi ve wave: A wave that travels from one region of medium to another region cartying, energy is called the progressive wave. Both transverse and longitudinal waves are progressive waves. The motion of progressive wave is given below. uation of progressive wave: Let us consider a wave is travelling from left to righ At as Ja own in figure, the displacement of the vibrating particle in the medium is given by, — y =asin ot i) 1g ale im where a is amplitude, t is time and @ = 2nfandfis — Y frequency of vibration. If be the phase angle of the particle P at distance x from O, then the displacement equation given by y =asin(ot-§) — ... (ii) Since, for a path diff. i, phase diff. is 2x. 2 And for a path diff, x, phase diff. is xNewton assumed th ss oe sas hat the formation of rare fa Peers ane the temperature is equal to the vt eon on hi ‘The gas equation is = constant, where P is i Oral iaiiy, we ee the Fe ure of air and V is the votuine, Pav +VvaPoo ; Pay =-Vv ap Ni p=—SP _ Volumetric stress AY ~ Volumetric stain “8, Bulk moxtuus of lant of ai and compres: temperature of surro So, sev * formula for velocity of sound a is given by For air, at NTP} P= 1.013 «105 Nm2 P = 1293 kg, Pr _ for =108 fr -\/ es = 280.m/s ay iaiad But, the experimental value of the velocity of sound in air at NTP is about 382 m/sec. So, the theoretical value does not agrée with the experimental value. Therefore, there must be something wrong in Newton's formula, A satisfactory soluti discrepancy in Newton's formula was given by Laplace, which is known as Laploc: correction Laplace correction: While deriving the above formula, Newton assumed that the propagation ‘of sound takes place in the isothermal condition, But according to Laplace, the propagation of sound should take place in rapid way so the process is adiabatic process. Since the adiabatic equation of state is PV’ =constant—... (i) ea amen. et, eae ys yPV-ldy + VidP=0 yP V™"! dv = -VidP yap dP ap Way dy PAV av ~~ av707 7 Bo where Baw is adiabatic bulk modulus of elasticity. Negative sign indicates that as the pressure increases, the volume decreases and vice versa, Hence the velocity of sound in air is fe totGe. EEE GAG-FLaH Prove that both types of harmonics, odd and even, can be produced in an ~ 2 = 4) in SE Ges pipe is one which is open at both ends. When air is owe into te through one end, a wave travels through the tube to the next end oe phere | 8 perposition of the incident and reflected waves, a stationary wave is set up Since the fwo ends are open, they must be the positions of antinodes «1s in air in the pipe. shown in Fig, eta oe ae Gainey (i (iid (ii) Fig, Modes of vibration in open organ pipe “ple Fundamental mode (First harmonic): Let length of the pipe is | and the velocity of sound in air is v. In this mode of vibration, there are antinodes at open ends and one node at the middle of the pipe as shown in Fig. (i). Let 4; be the wavelength of the | wave. Then, dy 1=3 or, k= 2 Thus the frequency of fundamental mode or first harmonic is v. a: on fi -@ Second mode (First overtone): In this mode of vibration, two antinodes are at the open ends but inside the pipe, there are two nodes and one antinode as shown in Fig, (ji). If 42 be the wavelength of the wave, then. =a Thus, the frequency of first overtone or second harmonic is = ee fy 257-26 h=2h ~ (ii) Third mode (Second overtone); In this mode of vibration, two antinodes are produced at both open ends and inside the pipe, there are three nodes and two antinodes as shown in Fig, (iii). If 4s be the wavelength of the wave then. UO} Aw oy a ah other higher modes of vibration can be obtained and the frequency of 1!" mode of HON is fy = nly, where n = 1, 2, 3, ... is integer, From this, it is found that frequencies of igher modes of vibration are integral multiple of fundamental frequency {), So, all harmonics 2h, Sf, 4... ie, both old and even harmonics are present possible in an open pipe as fi,SESE VE UE DULL TICLE Dep bh UUOws vente 2087 G.No. 6 a] What is Doppler's effect? Derive an expression for the saan frequency received By a stationary observer when a source is moving away from him. (4) Doppler's Effect; "The phenomenon of variation in the pitch of sound due to the relative motion of the source and the observer (listener) is called Doppler effect." Due to this effect, the pitch emitted by the siren of an approaching ambulance appears increased, Similarly, the pitch appears to drop when it is moving, away. Source is moving away from the stationary observer: Suppose vy is the velocity of sound in air and f is its true frequency. When both source and observer are at rest, the distance occupied by f waves is v per second. Suppose source moves with velocity u, away from stationary observer O. Therefore, distance occupied by f waves sent out towards O in one second is v + uy. Thus, the wavelength increases as i vtus Mining ” d ’ 2 The apparent frequency is given by, , 35 yelocity of sound wave relative toO i FFA Vis f=~Wwavelength of wave reaching to O v Vv v <—— vu, ————_> PVN “Veu, vtu my 5 oO f Since, (v+u.)>v > f' of reflection are proved on the basis of wave theory.Ifthe point P lies very near to, then r= AP =D. Since, phase difference = 22. (path uifference) 2x (x ‘ -2@) . ary s path difference (BP ark fringes depeneting upon the path «ff @ interference) ths is integral multipl nt may be bright oF m constructive in the two pal The p Case (1): Bright fringes (oF C When the path difference betwee! ight fringes are obtained: Path differences nai where n= 1) 2-3/: le of wavelength 0.) th ndin= 1.2.3.4 rien = 0; glves the zero onder which indicates central bright fringe Pies the 1, 264,39. order bright fringes ancl s0 0% 2D Thus, for ap 2D fon | 022 a=" a) aD for Ne 3, Oa m2D and for, =m Xe" og =rhe stance Letween the tire consecutive bright fringes called fringe width (3), given Py 2D psa -4P Case (II): Dark fringes (or Destructive interference) Crees ie path diffgvonce beeween two paths 1s half of odd integral af wavelength, then \t yoann: «8 - GS). This equation gives the distance of the dark fringes from the point C for, 1 =0, for, on-1, y for, n=2, for, on=n ‘The distance between two consecutive dark fringes called fringe width (), is given by eos “Thus, both dark and bright fringes are of equal width. | This shows that the fringe width B is: ‘4. Directly proportional to the wavelength of the light used. ie, Bx & Directly proportional to the distance between the screen from the coherent sources. ie. PxD wersely proportional to the distance between he slits. ‘gat t Bag tof the order of the fringes. So, all the interference fringes are of equal width2m Distinguish between a plane polarized and unpolarized light. (4 ‘Show that: Tan @p =" n= refractive index of the medium. ~ @p=angle of polarization or polarizing angle. +s Difference between un-polarized and polarized light_ és [5s Unrpolarized light Polarized light a @. The vibration of light is possible | a. The vibration of light is confined to one | in all directions equally. plane only. iinet. | [boot is represented by star and |b. It is represented by short vertical arrowhead as given below: double arrow or dots as shown in sisiend Szevew br figure. Polarized light scovered the polarization of light by reflection from the that when an ordinary (i.e., un-polarized) light wave incident on he i ected Beaih is partially plane polarized: ‘The intensity of a upon the angle of incident and refractive index oF the mectium. Ata + of incidence, the reflected beam of light is completely plane polarized called! | ‘or Brewster's angle, In figure, 0, is the polarization angle. he tangent of polarizing angle is equal to the (relative) refractive index of Peetransparent medium on which light is incident.” If 0, is the polarizing angle and 1 is the refractive index of the medium, then 41 = tan Op Proof: Suppose a beam of un-polarized light AB incident with polarizing angle 0, on the surface of a transparent surface XY of a transparent medium of refractive index 41, The beam AB is reflected along BC (plane polarized) and refracted along BD (un-polarized or partially plane polarized), When the reflected beam is completely plane Reflected lig polarized, the corresponding incident angle 0) is Fee ee Artinay ght called polarizing angle. Let r be the angle of Ad . From Snell's law, sini y sin t for polarizing angle, i = 0), the reflected ray ae refracted ray are perpendicular to each other. Lid ‘sin 6, sint -@ rays BC and BD are perpendicular to each other, Hr = 90° i = 9 = 0, ‘ th this value, equation (i) becomes Pallstney-s0taoct J sind, _ sin oy H t in (90° - 0,) ~ cos0,, I kyl tan 0), s veto esialog e index of a transparet nt medium is equal to the tangent of angle of polari im.i4 2. Describe Michelson's method for the determination of speed of light. = Meagdrement of velocity of light by Michelson’s Method: The experimental arrangement of Michelson's ‘experiment for determination of velocity of light S°M* 57 consists of an octagonal mirror M,, a bright Octagonal —}— 5}j source §, a concave mirror Mz, a plane mirror — Mirror We Mx a telescope T, These apparatus are arranged i as shown in figure. A collimated beam of light from source via slit falls on the first face of the octagonal mirror at an angle of 45°. This beam of light reflects by mirrors Mj, Mz and Mg and again returned back on face 3 of the octagonal mirror M; again at an angle of 45°. The light reflected by this face is then collected by a telescope T and the eye at the position. At this rest position of the mirror Mi, fan image of the light source can be observed in 4 —— the telescope Ifthe mirror M, is rotated, the light returning to it from the mirror Mz will not be incident at nd hence will not enter the telescope. When the speed of rotation of mirror exactly the same position as was occupied ,) during this time light travels from M; to an angle of 45 Mi, is so adjusted that the face 2 of mirror occupi by face 3 earlier (in 1/8th revolution, of mirror } M; and back to M,, then the image of source will reappear continuously If dis the distance between the mirror M, and M; and c be the speed of light, then the time taken by the light to travel from M) to M2 and back to Mi is t= € If nis the number of revolutions per second of mirror M; and m is the number of faces of this ‘mirror, then the angle rotated by the mirror during the time t is 2x 0 O=— and t="; « isangular velocity of rotating mirror Mr 2n 1 psf Fenn tin A) ( 2) eieet mina * ¢=2mnd This is required formula to calculate speed of light by using Michelson’s method. In his original experiment, the speed of the motor was about 500 rev/s and d was about 35 km. He obtained a value of 2.99775*108 ms“ for speed of light in vacuum. ine the speed of light. Write advantages of ‘ Bt] vantage of Michelson's Method This is a null method and so, there is no measurement of the displacement of the image. ‘The image is very bright and so its position can be located with accuracy. ii, The appearance and disappearance of the image is quite abrupt so that it coincides with the cross wires in the telescope only for a particular constant speed of the mirror.d in parallel with v i bh coil to convert the }5h 5059 G.No. 11. What is drift velocity of an electron? Derive a relation between the current through a getallic conductor and the drift velocity in terms of the number of free electrons per unit volume of e conductor. (1#3] = Baaakciy . In metals, conduction of electricity is due to randomly moving electrons. In an isolated conductor, the average velocity of the electrons in the absence of electric field is zero. When an electric field is applied in the conductor, the electron acquired velocity opposite to the direction of applied field. The average velocity of free electrons with which they drift in the direction opposite to the field is called drift velocity. It is denoted by va. + Let us consider a metallic conductor, cylindrical in shape with (ioe ay cross-sectional area A and length ‘I’. If 'n' be the number of I electrons per unit volume and e be the charge of each electron. Total free charge in a volume is, (Q) = volume of conductor < eed) total number of electrons x electronic charge ‘ a - -. Q=Alne [V=Ax]] <—/——> Let I be the current flowing through the conductor, the free electrons drift in the direction ¢ ¢ to the direction of the applied electric field is as shown in figure. Let va be the drift velocity of the free electrons. If t be the time required to drift total charge through length ‘!, x is given by ? ee neAl L = neAt =neA va = val ent flowing per unit crossectional area is called current density. It is denoted by J 1 _vaenA eK oe a . + < d are vector quantities, so 4p = neva, which is the required expression ofand explain O Let 'V' be the potential difference across two ends of a conductor and I be the current flowing through it. Then according to Ohm's law: (A) V al V=IR il , ts Cone Be (i) where 'R' is a constant called resistance eh the conductor. Its unit is Ohm (Q). Lacie= ae 4 What is a potentiometer? Explain how you compare the emfs of two mer a _ A potentionelter is a sensitive electrical’ device used to measure emf of céll, find resistance of cell and to compare the emfs of two cells. ag principle of potentiometer: When a constant current is passed through ay area of cross-section of potentiometer, the potential drop across any p directly propo al to the length of that portion. Let us consider a wire having uniform cross sectional area 'A' length ‘and t VeIR=Ipq fy R=pyl ee Mal forconstantAandh ‘This is the principle of potentiometer. wun Dea ane erent uke Out Woe og eRe agi ae ton 1 ethan quebillilip- ej ‘Comparison the ells using to. compare the emfs shan E is driving cell whose emf must be larger than p.d, across the whole The positive terminal of E; and E2 are connected on the same end Aw the driving, cell is connected. Negative terminals are connected by N Galvanometer is connected im the common terminal. At first, key terminal of cell E), The jockey: is adjusted to touch the wire at a P deflection in galvanometer, Let the balancing length is li, then Eig: [ro E* Vy & Vy aeh) 7 “al Similarly, if key is connected! across terminal of cell E: and the balanci he seed) [P B= Vig Ve 1] : From relation (i) and (ii), we can write EB! BTk \. ILemf of one cell is known, the emf of another cell can be ev: 3B otentionreter,Gircuit alloy, ply for whiy ‘maximum. This lectrical resonance. circuit. Howeve “containing *76 RISD GNe 19 State the laws of electromagnetic induction, Derive an a sip f0F the emf induc, j moving in a magnetic field. aut sia es changes, ind iced emf is produce) or ee continues”, So, first Jaw ives SuBwINUMAGNETIC INDUCTION / 177 tod of length) ic field. of flux. density, B in, ie Perpendicular to the direction of ma; pose, this conductor is moved form X to ¥ " a distance x. Then, Beal’ “fuk ita in the change by ie Bil x f ’ Faraday's law of tree induction, d (B.I. x) % i dt Bake 1 = Bil.v: BA ee rage pnt Sn ed expression for emf induced ina156 | A COMPLETE NEB SOLUTION To PHYSICS - XII ea, Derive an expression forthe fore pet unit length between parallel conductors carrying current in the opposite direction. 4 w_ Force between two unlike parallel current ing conductors | When two parallel cuirrent carrying conductota afe placell close tegpther, they exert forces ty cas giversocesider foro dtiniely Janmsbraimonsegiors vcs, | carrying Currents 1s ang recy inthe opposite direction, Let the conduits are separated at distance rig stic field at any" point Pon the” | in conductor X ; 4‘and explain Faraday «laws of electrolysis. Hence define Faraday's constant, 4 “as Faraday gave two laws of electrolysis, theypr set FF ltrs PMG. eps 3 lectrolysis: The mass of a a Barrie crn I salir tay oropentinal to te electric charge that passes throug! rolyte ee ‘a o oy gienmeQ..-m=ZQ sere 2 is electrochemical eee (ECE). BoM AZTE by oF WO: Fe aE ate tares tbc Ee ihe Case - Be aanity of electric charge, is directly proportional to th re Sader nbs 3 nlakgne bos 2 a eat eae en e ie, m= Q which verifies the first law. Ts ARNO Copper Veltam Silver Votimeter Water Volameter erimental arrangement for the verification of Faraday's second law is as shown in are three voltameters containing CuSO, AgNO; and acidified water as tes and Cu, Ag and Pt are as respective electrodes. If be the constant current flow then in time 't’, the mass of hydrogen gas liberated, silver and copper deposited are calculated. If m), my and my are masses of copper, silver and hydrogen ted at the respective cathodes and Ej, E: and Ey are their chemical equivalents ely, then, experimentally it is found that, =f ie, aE, This verifies Faraday's second law of electrolysis. a constant (F): The quantity of charge required to liberate one-gram equivalent of a during electrolysis is called Faraday's constant, In, other, words, it can also Shige required-to liberate -onesmcle tof ae 98500 CHOP Meo, ts prod OFA iainy'e constant hte 6 = 6,023 * 10) « 1.6 10°” = 96487C ~ tis C mol!38. Find an expression for torque on rectangular coi Torque on a rectangular coil in a uniform magnetic field: us consider a rectangular coil PQRS of length | and breadth b carrying current | and ‘N number of turns is placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux density B. Suppose She Shit Rie Bn ty PP coil makes an angle 0 with the field as shown in figure. PS of length b making an angle 0 with the direction of magnetic field, then the fore if R=. Blbs in upward direction (By Fleming's left hand rule). Similarly, the force acting on face QR is Fy = Blbsin® acts Fy s downward. The force acting on face PQ carrying current I of length | is F) = BI/ [since, angle between the length of the coil and magnetic field is 90°] which acts outward from the plane of paper. Similarly the force ,acting at face RS is F; = Bll acting inward from the plane of the paper. Since, the forces F, and Fy are equal and opposite acting on a same line of action and hence vanish. The forces F, and Fy are equal and opposite acting at different line of action so produced, torque on the coil. The torque exerted on the rectangular coil is given by += force x perpendicular distance Fy ‘The perpendicular distance between forces is given by = b cos Thus, the torque exerted on the rectangular coil is given by t= BIIN xbcos 0 += BINA cos0, where A =1 x bis the area of the coil. This is required torque produced in the rectangular coil carrying currents. Special Cases: a. When ®@ = 0°, then t = BINA cos0°= BINA ie., when the plane of the coil is parallel to B, the maximum. value of the torque is acting on the coil. When 0 = 909, then t = BINA cos90° = 0 no torque acts on the coil, if the plane of the coil is perpendicular to B. a uniform magnetic field. 4n's oil drop experiment to determine the y value PRU to fetermine the charge on an electron js ut 20 cm in diameter and 15ELECTRONS AND PHOTONS / 213 te Bis supper plate A is connected to a positive of high tension battery while the lower pl The plates are arranged inside a double walled chamber h hole in the upper plate H, clock oil (a, non volatile liqitid) is sprayed by means of s These dfops get charged due to friction and carry a few electronic charges. The dow W) (not seem in figure) is used to illuminate the oil drops by, providing enough light indow Ws is used to let X-rays pass in to the space between the plates in order to ioniz fl drops in case the oil drops are not ionized by friction, The microscope is provided with jetosswire and a micrometer scale go thatthe motion of the drop can be observed and Motion of oil drop under gravity alone: Suppose the electric field is not applied. As the oil " drop falls under gravity, its velocity, goes on increasing. A stage comes when the viscous force "on the oil drop becomes equal to its resultant weight. The oil drop now moves with a constant ‘velocity vi called terminal velocity. Let r= radius of oil drop, m= mass of oil drop 4 =ZrP PE = weight of the air displaced by the drop oil drop in upward direction, F is moving with terminal velocity vi, then ib s9Bi0 Sif) se i i Mea i Pinti gs Bis ee adic fa is apliea bitween the Gikiay craig bi Learns oil drop starts moving, ‘upward and sooni), the value of charge Q on the oil drop can by smallest possible charge on 4 determined. uh f ace of Millkan's Experiment STS ee aitaaone that electronic charge is the s charged ‘Selbni ‘Sten \ “Mill ae siment has proved the quantization of charge ie, @ body can carry an a eas eee charge e. The value of is 1.6 * 10-"C. ope 12.6 find the mass of an electron. Knowing the charge of an \ ge, the mass of the electron can be determined as iti, iets 9.11 «10 kg, A Pi eee ee sn experiment to determine the specific charge of electron. charge ofan electron by JJ. Thomson Method: (4) consists of a discharge tube containing itive potential, The discharge tube is ge of the order of 10 to 15 kV is applied mm of Hg, cathode rays lindrical anode, which meets fields of equal magnitude are applied in a of electrons or cathode rays does not tcfind value of e/m, The value of e/m for an Knowing the value of V, B, d and Vo, we tron from JJ. Thomson method is 1,76x 10"'Ckg.'. icity through gases at low pressure, [4] ut aD iehaee through gases: On normal pressure, pas not conduct electricity and behaves almost like ssulator, When the pressure of gas is reduced ‘siderably by applying very high voltage near about kV/em, it starts to conduct electricity. For the study of el discharge, a gas is taken in a tube and the tube as discharge tube. harge tube is a glass tube of 50 cm length & 3.cm in diameter. The tube contains an anode A and a cathode'@ |aleeree rs idcatipund “by making respectively positive and negative terminal of see juction coil (10 kV to 15 kV). The pressure of the gas Fig. Discharge tbe le the tube can be reduced with a vacuum pump. The walls of the vacuum tube are coated wa resent net of the gas is reduced, following, results are -{ Positive column ure Of gas iS | Neaat i ches from the eee Hig lu He uminous glow€ stops at5 a.No.9 OF How is a NPN transistor formed? Discuss the Input and output characteristics of the or in CE configuration, (143 transistor: A NPN transistor is composed of two n= Semiconductors separated by avery. thin p-type Thus, in a NPN transistor, there are three different —)_ Nv p ies i: Emitter, Base and collector, iy Uimitter, pyse _/Collector jopedt and very thin fepion situate jn between emitter and collector region. Tt passes Jharges injected form emitter on ‘to the collector. And collector is a moderately ion of a transistor, which lies on the other side Of the base. It collects the charge the base, Dk ae input and output diagram of NPN transistor in CE confi is a heavily doped region and it supplies charge to the Baal fepion Basis. a characteristics of the transistor in CE configuration: The electric guration is as shown in figure below: To Fig, CE configuration i nthe input isapplied between the base and emitter terminals and output the collector-and‘emitter terminals. Here, base current Is is the input current current Icis the output current, Also, voltage source Vise 15, used to forward bias itand Vr is used to reverse bias on the output circuit. 1,00) yrmations can be obtained from the input ee s the knee voltage, the current Ip. increased to a value greater than Ve Vol) current Ig increases sharply. Ttis similar acterisesffurtion diode te characteristic curve at a given fixed point gives the value of the input a 3 eerie nh paints pilav police ae Active regionSa rr foes ano. What do you understand by Zener diode? How can this be used as voltage Fegulatorg {is a properly doped crystal diode having sharp on perate in reverse breakdown region without damage. |, sass tdlew T ode as voltage regulator Wa Paes s it (or device) sie to regis jected oe filter and load resistor of a power e current through the circuit and is ‘operation, the input voltage must bv it zener diode operates in re I; is the load current and I; is the zener current. When the input voltage is less than the breakdown voltage, the all input goes through the load resistor. If the input voltage the zener breakdown voltage, some voltage is dropped in to the series resistance R, and mt divides into I, and Jz. In this case the zener current increases keeping the load I. constant. Hence, the the output voltage or load voltage Vi = I, remains constant.A sere ar eer ee eee What is a p-n a junction diode? Explain the characteristics of it in the forward Teversed biased condition. 4] Junction Diode: It is a semiconductor device in which P-type miconductor is in contact with a N-type semiconductor. It has » ” 9 terminals namely anode and cathode. The anode refers to the e region and cathode refers to the N-type region. Its symbol n figure. ristics of a p-n junction diode: proper supply of external voltage to a PN junction diode to get it ready for operation is the biasing of a PN diode. There are two types of biasing of diode; forward biasing and d biasing. When positive terminal of a battery is connected to the P-region and a terminal is connected to the N-region then it is called forward biasing, of the diode. g this biasing, diode properly works. itive terminal of a battery is Connected to the N-region and negative terminal is mected to the P-region then it is called reverse biasing of the diode. During this biasing, e does not work. tru) When a junction diode is joined in forward biased, a large amount of current flows o-4" through it, But, when it is connected in the rel reverse biased, practically no current flows. rere The variation of current through a diode — with the applied external voltage’ can be” et represented by drawing a graph. This graph ei aitase ea is called characteristic curve. Such a graph is Jong the x-axis and) drawn by taking voltage along, cis an the current along the y-axis. In order to determine the characteristics _ of semiconductor diode, a circuit arrangement is made as shown ifthe figure.) © When the external voltage applied is zero, the potential barrier at the junction does not _ permit the flow of current. Thus, the circuit current is zero as depicted by point O in the characteristic curves. ‘When the forward voltage is gradually ineréased in’ steps and corresponding, milli-ammetey reading shows that no current flows until the barrier voltage is overcome. Once the external voltage exceed the barrier potential, the current increases rapidly. The forward voltage beyond which the digde current increases rapidly is known as knee voltage V), When the reverse biasing voltage is gradually increased in steps and corresponding mici ammeter reading shows that the small current flows over a long range, increasing slightly with increasing bias voltage as shown in figure. If the reverse bias voltage is gradually increased, at one point the current suddenly rises. This voltage where the reverse curren! __ suddenly increases sharply is called reverse break down voltage Vs. knee voltage Reversed © biased, lk QsA)se xt 260 ) A COMPLETE NEB SOLUTION TO PHYSIC: hala 2 ee fine Moth * NDE (n°1,2.3,...), att ht on meyane ene ES fj (ii) A Equation (ii) + (i), we get uit My =n re? feat ie = nn = n2ag = pee emus Me ae me Fey “Here, e9 = 8.85% 10° C2N'm? = 662x104), ies itp t 3A, of hydrogen atom. i.c., putting n=1 ius of second orbit (r2) & so on ? Confirm with experiment the wave nature of X-rays. a] ve th shorier wavelength ranging from 1A (0 ‘on a target metal of high atomic number, the 3 The X-rays have the following rence, diffraction & polarization flesh, wood, paper ete. s developed. Many concentric spots «1 ‘plate. The spots obtained in the shows that X-rays are diffracted! ie waves of very shot!G58 G.No, 9 Derive Bragg's law and explain how this law is used to determine the crystal plane different layers of crystal is an integral multiple of Wavelength’ of X-rays, intensity of the ed beam at a certain angle will be maximum. i, the'iittensity of reflected beam will be um, when path difference=nA — (n=1,2,3,4..,.) Derivation: Let us.consider AB & CD are ch fall on the layers AB & CD at a glancing 6 and are reflected along FK & HL from F & H respectively as shown in the FM perpendicular to GH and FN ficular to HL are drawn so that “angles between two lines Since for maximum intensity, path difference =n X (n=1,2,3,...) Hence, 2d sin =n X f This equation is the mathematical expressi For first order reflection, n=1, bs If0; is the corresponding grazing ee Lae A= 2d sin’; = d= F555, Thus, by knowing the wavel incident, crystal plane s| age's iat ie is called Bragg's equation. 's equation & grazing angle (0;) at which X-rays arc ! of the crystal can | be alculated. rays usribe the He-Ne laser [ey beam of radiation of light The following rg haa ‘shows the basic features of He-Ne laser. The laser tube is about 05 y Jong and 5 mm in diameter. The tube is filled with a mixture of helium and neon gas in ¢h | ratio 5 : 1 ata total pressure of about 1 torr. The ends of the tube are cut in Brewster's angle as shown in figure. The tube has two parallel mirrors at its two ends. One of the mirrors ‘transparent and 99% reflecting while other is completely reflecting. The spacing mirrors is equal to an integral number of half wave length of the laser light. There are electrodes connected to power supply to.create discharge in the gas. The mixture of the gas s | ionized by passing clectric current through it, following figure shows an energy. level wm for the system. Heliuny atoms are excited efficiently by electron impact into the 2s level the neon atoms are much less readily excited the electrons, Helium atoms with an electron ypclandads xcited to a 2S state with energy 20.61 eV has a rea life time and the energy of the 55 level is 2066 eV in neon. Similarly, the energy of 3P ‘energy level of Ne is 18,70 eV. When the excited He atoms collide the Ne atoms, their energy is Wadlsceless Aransferred into the Ne atoms. The excited Ne analog atoms in the 5S energy state undergo stimulated transition to 3P state giving rise to laser light of |. (IS): 2P wavelength 6328 nm. He Ne Photons travelling parallel to the tube ate Ground tate Ground state reflecting back and forth between the. mirrors e dat the ends, and rapidly build up into yhich escape through the end with 20.610 Laser transition | 20 6eV 632.8nm | 18.70eV Fig: Energy level diagram of He - Ne Laser a large number of applications. Some of them are given below: eris used in radio communication in outer space. n holography. sed in piercing holes in metals, a lin detecting and ranging objects at great distances, in welding. s cine. Tkis used in scientific research,ige from 10-”? m to 10, of high atomic ic. a Number, ¢. m Coolidge, in 191) idge tube or modern Ht mitted from ~ Due to the strons arrive at er increased by yped. Nearly jing, energy the target as shownipa oie eee Oe 30. State and explain Einstein's mass energy relation with example. a " mw According to Einstein, mass and energy are inter-convertible. Ina ooo of initial rest mass is not equal to the final rest mass after reaction. The di ers oe Spleen the rest’ masses is equal to the nuclear energy released. According. to apstein 8 equation expressing the equivalence of mass and energy is given as E=Amc where Am is the mass difference between the sum of the masses of the nucleons and the mass of single nucleus and © be the velocity of light, If the sum of the final rest mass exceeds the sum to the’ initial rest Masses, the energy is absorbed in the reaction. Similarly, if the sum is less an the initial sum, then the energy is released as K.E. of the final particles. Thus, Einstein's mass, energy equivalence relation views as the law of energy conservation and mass conservation are no more independent laws but single law called law of mass-energy conservation. For example: Nuclear fusion: Combing two or more lighter nuclei into a heavy nucleus with release of energy is called nuclear fusion. As an example, consider a fusion reaction in which a proton . 2, e ~ GH!) and a neutron (on!) combines to form a deuterium (;H’). That is Hi + on’ > \He+ y ; ; AR gee 3 Herm eae ay a Here, the mass of |H! = 1.007825 amu ~The mass of on! = 1.008665 amu ~The mass of 1H” = 2.014102 amu | The mass defect (Am) = (1.007825+1.008665-2.014102) amu , i = 0,002388 amu re, he energy released is given by ; m uu) x 931 MeV = 0.002388 x 931 MeV = 2.22MeV.