O LEVEL

MATHEMATICS
REVISION KIT

PREPARED BY:
AHMED SAYA
 Contents
TOPIC NAME PAGE NO.

• PREFACE 1
• ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2
• Type of numbers 3
1. Profit and loss 5
2. Simple Interest and Compound Interest 6
3. Scales and Maps 7
4. Significant figures and Standard forms 8
5. Number patterns and sequences 9
6. Mensuration 9
7. Basic Algebra 12
8. Indices 13
9. Simultaneous equations 14
10. Functions 15
11. Graphs of quadratic, cubic and other functions 16
12. Shifting of Graphs 17
13. Linear Inequalities 18
14. Coordinate Geometry 19
15. Direct and inverse variations 20
16. Kinematics 21
17. Angle properties with parallel lines 22
18. Angle properties of polygon 23
19. Geometrical properties of a circle 24
20. Lines of symmetry and rotational symmetry in polygons 28
21. Similar and congruent triangles 29
22. Loci 30
23. Trigonometry 31
24. Statistics 34
25. Sets and Venn diagrams 37
26. Probabilities 40
27. Vectors 42
28. Matrices 44
29. Matrix transformation 45
30. Scatter diagrams/ plots 51
31. Pictograms 55
32. Nets of solids 58
 PREFACE
Teaching O level mathematics students made me realize the need for a book consisting of all
the concepts and formulae which students require when preparing for their exams or more
importantly a quick reference guide. A book they can go through immediately before the exam
to refresh their concepts and revise the steps or formulae for solving particular questions.

Keeping this in mind, I started writing this book, which I thought would be beneficial for the
students appearing for the O level mathematics paper.

This book does not contain any questions; it contains concepts, formulae, steps, tricks and tips
for solving examination focused questions. This book is aimed at refreshing he concepts of
students and simultaneously providing them an easy approach to solve particular questions.

I sincerely hope this book is a source of benefit for the students using it.

Best of Luck!

Ahmed Saya

0300-2387464

0333-3265090

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank Almighty who gave me the strength to write this book to help the students
appearing for the O levels mathematics paper. I would like to thank my parents, teachers and
my best friends who were always there by my side and whose continuous help and support
encouraged me to write this book. Thank you all. May Allah bless you!

2
 TYPES OF NUMBERS
There are fourteen types of numbers in math.

1. Natural numbers are all those numbers which exist in Math except 0 and includes 1 to
infinity.
2. Whole numbers are those numbers that don’t include any fractions or decimal but they
include 0.
3. Integers are all whole numbers divided into two parts. Positive integers and negative.
Positive integers include 1 to infinity. Negative integers include -1 to negative infinity.
4. Even numbers are all those numbers which are divisible by 2. For example 2, 4, 6,8,10
and so on.
5. Odd numbers are all those numbers which are not divisible by 2. For example 3, 5,
7,9,11 and so on.
Note: 0 is an even number because every alternate number is an even number.
6. Prime numbers are all those numbers which are divisible by 1 and themselves. For
example 2,3,5,7,11,13,17 and so on.
7. Perfect squares are those numbers whose square root is a whole number. For example
1, 4,9,16,25,36,49 and so on.
8. Composite numbers are all those numbers which are not prime numbers. For example
4,6,8,10,15.
9. Rational numbers are those numbers which can be converted into fractions or whole
1 4 1
numbers. For example 0.2 = , 0.8 = , 0.3333333 = .
5 5 3
10. Irrational numbers are those numbers which can never be converted into fractions. For
example 𝜋 or√2.
Note: 22/7 is not the exact value of 𝝅. It is approximately equal to 𝝅. Hence 𝝅
=3.141593264 which is an irrational number.
4 7 1
11. Fractions are a proportion or part of a whole number. For example6, 8, 6. Fractions are
divided into two categories, proper fractions and improper fractions.
Proper fractions are those fractions whose numerator is less than its denominator. For
3 5 7
example 6 , 6, 8.
Improper fractions are those fractions whose numerator is greater than its
5 13
denominator. For example , .
2 7
All improper fractions can be changed into mixed numbers.
12. Mixed numbers are those numbers which comprise of a whole number and a proper
4 5
fraction. For example 26, 86.

13. Real numbers are all those numbers which do exist. All above mentioned numbers are
real numbers. All real numbers can be expressed on a number line.

3
 Irrational numbers Real numbers

Rational numbers

Whole Integers
Natural numbers
numbers

Imaginary numbers

14. Imaginary numbers are those numbers which cannot be expressed on a number line
because they do not exist. They are also called complex numbers. All numbers which are
NOT real numbers are imaginary numbers.
For example any negative number within a root. Such as √−2 , √−5 .
Any number with a denominator 0 is also an imaginary number.

4
 Topic 1
Profit and loss
Profit/Loss= selling price-cost price

If the cost price is greater than the selling price, the answer would be negative i.e. a loss. And if
the selling price is greater than the cost price, the answer would be positive i.e. a profit.

The formula can even be rearranged:

Selling price= cost price +profit

Cost price= selling price-profit

To find the percentage profit or loss, we can use the following formula:

𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐞 − 𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐞

𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐈𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐞

On the other hand if percentage is given and we have to find the values corresponding to the
given percentages, we can use the following formula:
𝐔𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭
𝐗 𝐊𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
𝐊𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭

In the above formula any percentage that does not have corresponding value will be considered
unknown percentage where as any percentage that has a corresponding value are considered
as known percent and known value respectively.

For example:
Selling price= 100%
Profit= 20%
Cost price=?
To find the percentage of cost price, we will just use the original formula i.e.
Cost price= selling price – profit
Cost price=100%-20%=80%

Now suppose if the cost price is equal to $6400and we have to find the selling price, we will use
𝐔𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭
the formula: 𝐗 𝐊𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
𝐊𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭
As the value of selling price is unknown, we will consider percentage of selling price as
unknown and as cost price and its corresponding percentage is known, they will be considered
as known value and known percentage respectively.
100%⁄80% X 6400 = 8000
Therefore selling price = $8000.

5
 Topic 2
Simple Interest and Compound Interest
The formula to calculate simple interest is:

𝑃𝑅𝑇
𝐼 = 100
Where;
I= Interest
P= Principle
R= Rate
T= Time

The above formula is used when time is in years and it can be rearranged as follows:
100 𝐼
𝑃=
𝑅𝑇

100 𝐼
𝑅=
𝑃𝑇

100 𝐼
𝑇=
𝑃𝑅

When the time is in months the formula is changed to:

𝑃𝑅𝑇
𝐼=
100 𝑥 12

1200 𝐼
𝑃=
𝑅𝑇

1200 𝐼
𝑅=
𝑃𝑇

1200 𝐼
𝑇=
𝑃𝑅

6
The formula to calculate compound interest is:

𝑰 = 𝑷 (𝟏 + 𝒓) 𝒕
Where,
I = Interest
P = Principal
t = time

If the compounding is done monthly, quarterly or semi-annually, the formula to calculate

compound interest is:

𝒓 𝒏×𝒕
𝑰 = 𝑷 (𝟏 + )
𝒏
Where,
I = Interest
P = Principal
t = time
n = number of times compounding is done in a year

Practice Questions

1. There is 60% increase in an amount in 6 years at simple interest. What will be

compound interest of Rs. 12,000 after 3 years at the same rate?

2. The compound interest on Rs. 30,000 at 7% per annum is Rs. 4347. The period (in years)
is?

3. What will be the compound interest on a sum of Rs. 25,000 after 3 years at the rate of
1% per annum?

4. At what rate of compound interest per annum will a sum of Rs. 1,200 become Rs.
1348.32 in years?

5. Albert invested an amount of Rs.8,000 in a fixed deposit scheme for 2 years at

compound interest rate 5 percent per annum. How much amount will Albert get on
maturity of the fixed deposit?

6. If the simple interest on a sum of money for 2 years at 5% per annum is Rs. 50, what is
the compound interest on the same at the same rate and for the same rate?

7. Find the compound interest on Rs. 16,000 at 20% per annum for 9 months,
compounded quarterly.

7
 Topic 3
Scales and Maps

Steps to remember when solving questions regarding scales and Maps involving the lengths.

Step 1: Find the scale.

Step 2: See the requirement of the question; do we have to go from map to actual ground or
from actual ground to map.

Step 3: If we have to go from map to actual ground, multiply the length on map by the scale.

Step 4: If we have to go from the actual ground to map, divide the length of the actual ground
by the scale.

Step 5: Convert the answer into the units as per the requirement of the question (e.g. from
meters to centimeters and so on).

Steps to remember when solving questions regarding scales and Maps involving the areas.

Step 1: Find the scale.

Step 2: Square the scale (as the unit of area is square, we have to square the scale).

Step 3: see the requirement of the question; do we have to go from map to actual ground or
from actual ground to map.

Step 4: If we have to go from map to actual ground, multiply the length on map by the new
squared scale.

Step 5: If we have to go from actual ground to map, divide the length of the actual ground by
the new squared scale.

Step 6: Convert the answer into the units as per the requirement of the question (e.g. from
meters to centimeters and so on).

NOTE: In this case, the conversion has to be squared as well because we are dealing with
everything as the square power since we are dealing with Area.

8
 Topic 4
Significant figures and Standard forms

Significant figures:
To round off a number correct to a given number of significant figures, the following steps have
to be followed:

Step 1: Consider the place values of the number from left to right, starting with the first non-
zero term.
Step 2: Consider one extra figure than the required to round off correct to given number of
figures (e.g. if we have to give answer correct to 3 significant figures, consider the fourth figure
as well).
Step 3: If the extra figure is less than 5, then drop this extra figure along with all other
remaining digits on the right side of the extra figure.
Step 4: If the extra figure is greater than 5, add 1 to the previous digit and then drop this extra
digit along with all the digits on the right side of the extra digit.
Step 5: Use zeros to keep the place value if necessary.

To find out the number of significant figures in given figure the following are to be considered:

• All non-zero figures

• All zeros between significant figures
• All zeros at the end of the decimal

The following figures are not significant in a number.

• All zeros at the beginning of the decimal which is less than 1
• All zeros at the end of the number may or may not be significant

Note: If a question is silent as to how many significant figures are required in the question,
then refer to the instructions at the beginning of the question. Usually as per the instructions
where the question is silent, the answers have to be given to 3 significant figures.

Standard forms:
Standard form or a scientific notation is a method of expressing very large and very small
numbers in convenient way, by making the number definite. The significant numbers are
expressed as follows:

A X 10𝑛
Where;
A is a number such that 1 ≤A<10
and n is an integer. (The value of n depends on the number of decimal places that have been
shifted).

9
 Topic 5
Number patterns and sequences
Whenever solving questions regarding the number patterns and sequences, it is advised to
consider two things. First check whether the numbers have a common difference (i.e. 2, 5,
8….The common difference in this case is 3). Second check whether the numbers are in a
common ratio (i.e. 2, 4, 6, 8, 16…..The common ratio in this case is 2).

If the numbers in the sequence have a common difference we can use the following formula:

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

Where:
𝑇𝑛 = the term we are finding
a= first term
n= number of term
d= common difference

If the numbers in the sequence have a common ratio we can use the following formula:

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

Where:
𝑇𝑛 =the term we are finding
a= first term
n= number of term
r= common ratio

Topic 6
Mensuration

Formulas for two-dimensional figures:

Square:
Area= side X side
Perimeter= 4 X side or (S+S+S+S)

Rectangle:
Area= length X breadth = 1 X b
Perimeter= 2(l + b)

10
Triangle:
1
Area= 2 X base X height
1
= 2 ab sin c
Perimeter= sum of all three sides (a+b+c)

Trapezium:
1
Area= 2 X (sum of parallel sides)X height
Perimeter= sum of all sides

Rhombus:
Area= base X height
1
X diagonal X diagonal
2
Perimeter= sum of all sides

Parallelogram:
Area= base X height
Perimeter= sum of all sides

Circle:
A = πr 2
Circumference= 2πr

Semi Circle:
πr2
Area= 2
Circumference = πr

Sector:
θ
Arc length = 360 X 2πr (if θ is in degrees)
S= rθ ( if θ is in radians)

θ
Area= 360 X 𝜋𝑟2 (if θ is in degrees)
1 1
= 𝑟 2 θ of rS ( if θ is in radians)
2 2
θ
Perimeter= 360 X 2πr + 2r ( if θ is in degrees)

= S+ 2r ( if θ is in radians)

Segment:
Area= area of sector – area of triangle
θ 1
= 360 X πr 2 - 2 ab sin θ

11
Formulas for three- dimensional figures:

Cube:
Volume= S X S X S
Surface area= 6 𝑆 2

Cuboid:
Volume= l X b X h
Surface Area= 2(l X b) + 2(l X h) +2(b X h)

Cylinder:
Volume= πr 2 h
Curved surface area = 2πrh
Surface area of open cylinder= 2πrh + πr 2
Surface area of closed cylinder= 2πrh + 2πr 2

Cone:
1
Volume= 3 πr 2 h
Curved surface area= πrl
Total surface area= πrl + πr 2

Sphere:
4
Volume= 𝜋𝑟 3
3
Surface area= 4 πr 2

Hemisphere:
2
Volume= 3 𝜋𝑟 3
Surface area= 2 πr 2

Pyramid:
1
Volume= 3 X base area X height
Surface area= base area + area of 4 triangles

Prism:
Volume= area of cross section X height

Note 1: To find the volume of any other geometrical figure, all we have to do is to find the
area of its cross section and multiply it by its length / height.

Note 2: The length of side of any figure will always be denoted as a unitary power.
The area of any figure will always be denoted as a squared power.
The volume of any figure will always be denoted as a cubic power.

12
 Topic 7
Basic Algebra
Algebraic expression
Some basic rules to remember when expanding algebraic expression:
(𝐚 + 𝐛)𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐 + 𝟐𝐚𝐛 + 𝐛𝟐

(𝐚 − 𝐛)𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐 − 𝟐𝐚𝐛 + 𝐛𝟐

𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 = (𝒂 + 𝒃)(𝒂 − 𝒃)

NOTE: Many students make a common mistake of writing (a + b)2 as 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and (a − b)2 as
𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 , which is wrong!! And this will cause the students to lose marks. Make sure you expand
all the algebraic expressions correctly.

Quadratic equations and expressions

A quadratic expression is denoted by 𝐚𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐛𝐱 + 𝐜
A quadratic equation can be solved using three ways:
a) By factorization
b) By completing the square
c) By using quadratic formula

Factorization:
Steps to remember when factorizing:
Step 1: Multiply the coefficient of 𝑥 2 with the term independent of x.
Step 2: Break the middle term (i.e. the term with the variable x with the power of 1) in such a
way that when multiplied the result is same as that of step 1, and when added the result is
same as the original term.
Step 3: Simplify and find the value/s of x.

Completing the square:

Steps to remember when completing the square:
Step 1: Change the coefficient of 𝑥 2 to 1, by dividing the whole quadratic equation by the
coefficient of 𝑥 2 .
Step 2: Take the term independent of x to the other side of the equation (i.e. after the equals to
sign).
Step 3: Add a new term to the left hand side of the equation, so that it becomes a perfect
square, and add the same term to the right hand side of the equation so that the equation
balances. (This term will be found out by dividing the coefficient of x by 2 and then squaring this
term).
Step 4: Factorize and simplify.

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
Using quadratic formula: 2𝑎

13
Insert the values of a, b and c from the quadratic equation (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) and find the values
of x.

Making subject of the formula:

Whenever making a variable, subject of the formula, it as to be written separately independent
of other variables on one side of the equation and rest of the variables should be on the other
side of the equation.

Steps to make the subject of the formula:

Step 1: bring all the terms, containing the variable that is to be made the subject of the formula
on left hand side of the equation.
Step 2: Keep all other terms on the right hand side of the equation.
Step 3: Take the variable that has to be made subject of the formula, common.
Step 4: Keep the subject of the formula, on the left hand side of the equation and shift all other
terms or variables on the right hand side, by the means of cross multiplication.

Topic 8
Indices
Laws of indices

1) ax X ay = ax+y
When the bases are same and there is multiplication sign in between, we add the powers.

𝑎𝑥
2) 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥−𝑦
When the bases are same and there is division sign in between, we subtract the powers.

3) (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
When the base has a power and there is a common power outside the bracket, both powers
are to be multiplied.

4) 𝑎 𝑥 𝑋 𝑏 𝑥 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑥
When the bases are different but power is same and there is multiplication sign in between,
we multiply the bases and take power as common.

𝑎𝑥 𝑥
5) 𝑏𝑥 = (𝑎⁄𝑏)
When the bases are different but power is same and there is division sign in between, we
divide the bases and take power as common.

14
 6) 𝑎0 = 1
Anything raise to the power of zero is 1.

7) 𝑎1 = 𝑎
Any base raise to the power of one is base itself.

1
8) 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎−𝑚
Whenever the number is to be reciprocated, the sign of the power is changed.
1
𝑥
9) 𝑎𝑥 = √𝑎
𝑦
𝑥
10) 𝑎 𝑥 = √𝑎 𝑦

Whenever the power is in fraction, the denominator is taken as the root of the number,
while numerator is taken as power.

Topic 9
Simultaneous equations
Simultaneous equations can be solved using three methods:

a) Elimination method
b) Substitution method
c) Graphical method

Elimination method:
When using elimination method, the two equations are added or subtracted with each other
after making the coefficients of either x or y equal, so that one variable is eliminated from the
equation and value of other variable is found out. After the value of one variable is found it is
substituted in either of the two equations and hence the value of other variable is also found.

Substitution method:
When using substitution method, one variable in one of the equation is made the subject of the
formula and is substituted in the other equation in such a way that other variable is eliminated
from the equation. The value of this variable is found out and then substituted in either of the
equation to find the value of other variable.

Graphical method:
When using the graphical method, the two equations are plotted and drawn on a piece of
graph paper. The point where these two lines intersect is the solution of the simultaneous
equations.

15
 Topic 10
Functions
A function is a relationship between two sets or two variables.

A function can be one to one function i.e. every object has only one image.
A function can be many to one function i.e. many objects can have same image.
But a function cannot be one to many function i.e. one object cannot have more than one
image.

To solve a function all that is to be done is to replace the value of the variable with its given
value e.g. if the value of x=3 and the function is as follows

f:x 3x + 2
f(x)= 3x + 2
f(3)= 3(3) + 2
f(3)=11

Inverse functions:
Inverse of a function is denoted by 𝑓 −1 (x)
Steps to solve inverse of a function:
Step 1: Replace f(x) by y.
Step 2: Make x the subject of the formula.
Step 3: Replace x by 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and y by x.
E.g. if we are required to find the inverse of the function f : x 3x + 2, the following will be
done;

f(x) = 3x + 2
y = 3x + 2( as per step 1, f(x) is replaced by y)
3x = y-2
𝑦−2
x= 3 (as per step 2, x is made the subject of the formula)
𝑥−2
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = (as per step 3, x is replaced by 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and y replaced by x).
3

Compound function:
A compound function is one in which two functions are put into each other.
e.g. if f : x 3x + 2 and g : x 2x then fg(x) is a compound function and will be solved in the
following way:

fg(x) since g(x) is after f(x), therefore we will put g(x) into f(x).
f(g(x)) = 3(g(x)) + 2
fg(x) = 3 (2x) + 2
fg(x) = 6x + 2

16
 Topic 11
Graphs of quadratic, cubic and other functions
Solutions to the graphs vary from requirement to requirement of the questions. Below are
some techniques to solve the most common requirements of the questions.

To find out the missing figures from the table, all we have to do is put the values of
independent variable in the equation of the curve and find the corresponding value of the
dependant variable. If no table is given and instead the range of the independent variable is
given then we have to find all the relevant corresponding values of the dependant variables.
Only after finding these unknown values, we can plot the graph.

Another requirement of the question is to use the graph to find the corresponding values of the
given variables. This can be found by drawing a straight line from the point on the axis of the
given variable to the curve.

Another requirement can be to draw straight line or a curve using the given equation. This can
be done, by comparing the given equation with the equation of the curve; the difference
between the two equations is basically the equation of the line or the curve that is required to
be drawn.

The question can ask for the tangent. A tangent is a straight line that touches the curve, just
once, and the tangent represents the gradient of the curve at that particular point. Make sure
the line drawn as a tangent cuts the curve just once and in such a way that they should never
intersect, no matter how far they are stretched.

The question sometimes asks to find the area under the curve between certain limits. This can
be done, by breaking the limit into small geometrical figures such as rectangles, triangles,
trapeziums and squares. This way estimated area under the curve could be found. (Note: the
question requires estimated area).

NOTE: Whenever plotting curves make sure that the curve, both the axis and any other lines
or curves are labeled correctly. Do not forget to write the scale that has been taken in
plotting the curve.

17
 Topic 12
Shifting of Graphs
Some RULES to remember when making and shifting graphs

No. Graph of: x-coordinate y-coordinate

(a) f(x) + a No change Add a in each value of

y
(b) f(x) – a No change Subtract a from each
value of y
(c) a f(x) No change Multiply a with each
value of y
(d) 1 No change Divide a by each value
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎 of y
(e) f(x + a) Subtract a from each No change
value of x
(f) f(x – a) Add a to each value of No change
x
(g) f (ax) Divide a from each No change
value of x
𝑥
(h) f(𝑎) Multiply a with each No change
value of x
(i) 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) Value of x is replaced Value of y is replaced
by y by x
𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) is basically reflection along line y = x.

(j) |f(x)| No change All negative values of

y becomes positive

For modulus f(x) or |f(x)|the portion of the graph below the x axis is reflected along x-axis.

(k) f|(x)| Step 1: Remove the Step 2: Reflect the

graph which is on the remaining graph
negative side of x axis along y axis.

NOTE: These rules can be used while making or shifting graphs of trigonometric, logarithmetic,
exponential, linear, quadratic, cubic or any other functions.

18
 Topic 13
Linear Inequalities
The following are the signs of inequalities:
>Represents greater than
< Represents less than
≤Represents less than or equal to
≥Represents greater than or equals to
= Represents equal to
≠Represents not equal to

Any inequality is solved in the same manner as any algebraic expression. The only difference is
we have to take care of inequality signs. The variable is kept on the left hand side of the
equation, while the thing with which it is being compared is kept on the right hand side of the
equation.

Note: Whenever a minus sign is multiplied to an inequality, the inequality sign has to be
changed.

Graphs of linear inequalities:

The following diagrams are to be considered when making the graphs of linear inequalities.

Greater

Lesser
Lesser Greater Greater

Greater Lesser

Lesser

The above graphs shows, which side of the lines shows the greater or the lesser regions.

Note:
➢ Unwanted regions should be shaded.
➢ A broken line is used to show that the points on the line are not included, this is done in
the case where the inequality is either less than or greater than (>, <).
➢ Continuous line is used to show that the points on the line are included, this is done in
the case where the inequality is either less than or equals to or greater than or equals to
(<, >).

19
 Topic 14
Coordinate Geometry
The linear equation or the equation of a straight line is denoted by y= mx + c.
Where m = gradient and c = y intercept

There are certain formulas that are to be learned in order to solve questions regarding
coordinate geometry.

Gradient (denoted by m) :
𝑦 2 −𝑦 1
m=𝑥 2 −𝑥 1

Midpoint of two coordinates:

𝑥 1 +𝑥 2 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2
, 2
2
Distance or length between two coordinates:
√(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

Equation of a straight line:

Whenever finding the equation of a straight line either of the two things should be given in the
question:
a) Two coordinates
b) One coordinate and the gradient
To find the equation of a straight line all we have to do is insert the missing figures into its basic
equation i.e. y = mx + c
Insert the value of gradient in place of m, the y intercept in place of c (i.e. the point at which the
line intersects the y axis).

Incase y intercept is not given, it can be found by inserting the gradient and one coordinate (i.e.
both the values of x coordinate and y coordinate) into the equation of the line and find C or the
y intercept.

Parallel lines:
When the two lines are parallel, their gradients are equal and the parallel lines never intersect
with each other.
So whenever in the question it is stated that the two lines are parallel and the gradient of one
of the lines is missing then make it equal to the gradient of its parallel lines.

NOTE: If the two lines are parallel they cannot be solved simultaneously, since it would result in
no solution, as the parallel line cannot intersect.

20
Perpendicular lines:
When the two lines are perpendicular, their gradients are negative reciprocal of each other
1
(i.e. if the gradient of one line is 2, the gradient of other will be − 2. If the gradient of one line is
1
–m, the gradient of other would be , so on and so forth) and the perpendicular lines
𝑚
intersects at right angles (i.e.900 ).

So whenever in the question it is stated that the two lines are perpendicular to each other and
the gradient of one of the lines is missing than make it negative reciprocal to its perpendicular
line.
The formula to prove that the two lines are perpendicular or they intersect at right angles is:
m1 X m2 = −1
If the gradients of two lines, when multiplied, results in negative 1, shows that the two lines are
perpendicular.

Perpendicular bisector:
The two lines are considered to be perpendicular bisectors of each other if they intersect at
right angles, their gradients are negative reciprocal of each other and they intersect at
midpoint.

If two coordinates are given and we have to find the equation of the perpendicular bisector, all
we have to do is find the midpoint of the two coordinates and negative reciprocate their
gradients. With the help of the midpoint and this negative reciprocated gradient, find the
equation of the perpendicular bisector.

Topic 15
Direct and inverse variations
Direct variations:
When the two variables are directly proportionate they are denoted by
y α x (y is directly proportionate to x).
To solve this and to remove the proportionate sign, the following steps are to be considered:

Step 1: Remove the direct proportion sign by multiplying constant K to right hand side of the
equation (y= kx)
Step 2: Insert the values of the two variables and find the value of the constant K.
Step 3: Write down the formula in terms of the two variables.
Step 4: Using this new formula, find the corresponding value of one variable against the given
value of other variable.

Inverse variations:
1
When the two variables are inversely proportionate, they are denoted by y α 𝑥 (y is inversely
proportionate to x).
To solve this and to remove the proportionate sign, the following steps are to be considered:

21
Step 1: Remove the inverse proportion sign by multiplying constant K to right hand side of the
𝑘
equation (y=𝑥 )
Step 2: Insert the values of the two variables and find the value of the constant K.
Step 3: Write down the formula in terms of the two variables.
Step 4: Using this new formula, find the corresponding value of one variable against the given
value of other variable.

Topic 16
Kinematics
Kinematics is all about distance, speed and acceleration.

Distance time graphs:

The distance time graph shows the distance travelled by a particle or an object in a certain
time, the time the particle was at rest and the time when the journey was started, resumed and
finished.

The rate of change of distance with respect to time is the speed; therefore the gradient of the
distance time graph is speed.
Points to remember:
➢ A straight line in a distance time graph indicates constant speed.
➢ A curve in a distance time graph indicates the varying speed.
➢ The horizontal line indicates that the object or the particle is at rest.

Speed time graphs:

The speed time graph of a particle or object represents speed of the particle at a particular
instant.
Since acceleration is the rate of change of speed with respect to time, therefore the gradient of
the speed time graph is the acceleration.
The acceleration of the speed time graph can either be positive, negative or constant.
Positive acceleration represents increasing speed.
Negative acceleration, also denoted by retardation or deceleration, represents decreasing
speed.
If acceleration is zero, it indicates that the object or particle is moving at the constant speed,
indicated by a horizontal line in the speed time graph.

Area under the speed time graph represents distance traveled by the particle.

Average speed in both distance time graph and speed time graph is calculated as follows:

Total distance
Average speed = Total time

22
 Topic 17
Angle properties with parallel lines

d b

e a

The above diagram tends to explain all angle properties made with parallel lines.
With reference to the diagram, the following concept is conveyed.

Angle a + Angle b =1800 . (Interior angles)

Angle a + Angle e =1800 . (Adjacent angles or angles on straight lines)

Angle b = Angle c (Vertically opposite angles)

Angle e = Angle c (Corresponding angles)

Angle a = Angle d (Alternate angles)

Angle e = Angle b (Alternate angles)

Note:
➢ When the two lines are parallel, their interior angles are supplementary i.e. 1800 .
➢ Sum of adjacent angles on a straight line are always supplementary i.e. 1800 .
➢ Whenever two lines intersect, they form vertically opposite angles. Vertically opposite
angles are always equal.
➢ When the two lines are parallel, alternate angles are equal.
➢ When the two lines are parallel, corresponding angles are always equal.

23
 Topic 18
Angle properties of polygon

A polygon is any figure that has 3 or more sides.

Names of some polygons are stated below.

Name of figure Name of sides

Triangle 3
Quadrilateral 4
Pentagon 5
Hexagon 6
Heptagon 7
Octagon 8
Nonagon 9
Decagon 10

Interior angles of a polygon:

The formula for the sum of all interior angles of any polygon is :
(n-2) x 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 , where n is equals to the number of sides.

The formula for each interior angle of a regular polygon is:

𝐧−𝟐
𝐱 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 , where n is equals to the number of sides.
𝐧

Exterior angle of a polygon:

The sum of all exterior angles of any polygon will always be 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 .
The formula for each exterior angle of a regular polygon is:
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
, where n is equals to the number of sides.
𝐧
E.g. if we are required to find the sum of exterior and interior angle of a regular hexagon as well
as each exterior and interior angle of a regular hexagon, all we have to do is insert the value of
n in the formula.
As hexagon has 6 sides, therefore replace n by 6:

Sum of all interior angles = (6-2) x 1800 = 720 0 .

7200
Each interior angle = = 1200 .
6

Sum of all exterior angle= 3600 .

3600
Each exterior angle= = 600 .
6

24
 Topic 19
Geometrical properties of a circle

A B

Any line that drops from the center of the circle to the chord makes a 𝟗𝟎𝟎 angle with the
chord and divides the chord into 2 equal parts.

C D

If the chords are equidistant from the center of the circle, the chords are equal.

x x

x x

Angles subtended by the same arc, produced at the circumference of the circle are always
equal.

25
 X

2x

A B

Angle at the center is twice the angle at the circumference, when produced by the same arc.
Or conversely, angle at the circumference is half the angle at the center, when produced by
the same arc. 2x

A B

Angles subtended by the diameter are always 𝟗𝟎 𝟎 when produced at the circumference of
the circle.
2x

Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary i.e. 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 .

Angle x + angle y(as shown in the diagram)= 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 .
A cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral that is inside a circle.

26
 x

y
x

Exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equals to interior opposite angle. As shown in the
diagram above; exterior angle x is equals to interior opposite angle which is also x.

A B

Whenever the radius of a circle meets the tangent, it makes a 900 .

A tangent is a line that cuts the circle or a curve at just one point.

27
 a b
X Y

c d

Whenever two tangents are drawn to the circle from a same point, then TX = TY.
Angle a =angle b and angle c = angle d. The line OT bisects angle XOY and angle XTY.

Angles in the alternate segment are equal. As shown in the diagram above angle a= angle b and
angle c= angle d.

28
 Topic 20
Lines of symmetry and rotational symmetry in polygons
A line of symmetry is a line that divides a polygon into two equal halves, so that the divided
polygon is congruent to its other half.

The rotational symmetry exists in a geometrical figure if the figure can map onto itself after
being rotated about a fixed point through a certain angle. The fixed point about which the
figure is being rotated is called the center of rotational symmetry.

Some geometrical figures along with their lines of symmetry and order of their rotational
symmetry are given below.

Figure Number of lines of Order of rotational

symmetry Symmetry
Scalene triangle 0 1
Isosceles triangle 1 1
Equilateral triangle 3 3
Trapezium 1 1
Kite 1 1
Parallelogram 0 2
Rhombus 2 2
Rectangle 2 2
Square 4 4
Irregular quadrilateral 0 1
Regular pentagon 5 5
Regular hexagon 6 6
Regular heptagon 7 7
Regular octagon 8 8
Regular nonagon 9 9
Regular decagon 10 10
n- sided polygon n N
Semi circle 1 1
Circle Infinity Infinity

29
 Topic 21
Similar and congruent triangles
Congruent Triangles:
Two triangles are considered to be congruent triangles if they are exactly same. All their angles
are sides are equal.

There are four conditions proving that the two stated triangles are congruent,

➢ SSS property: If all sides of both the given triangles are exactly same, it is proved that
the triangles are congruent based on the property of SSS (all sides are equal).

➢ SAS property: If 2 sides and angle between these 2 sides is equal in both triangles, the
triangles are considered to be congruent based on the SAS property (two sides and one
angle is equal).

➢ AAS property: If 2 angles and a side between these 2 angles is given and equal in both
triangles, the triangles are said to be congruent, based on the property of AAS (two
angles and one side is equal).

➢ RHS property: If two triangles are right angled, and their hypotenuse and any one other
side is equal, the triangles are proved congruent, based on the property of RHS.

Similar Triangles:

Two triangles are said to be similar triangles if all the angles of both triangles are equal and
their corresponding sides are in the same ratio.

If in any question, we have to prove that the triangles are similar, try to show that all the
angles in the two triangles are equal and that the sides are in ratio.

If in a question, ratio of the similar triangles are given and one of the sides of one triangle is
given and you have to find the corresponding side of the other triangle, the following formula
is to be used:

𝑳 𝟏 𝑺𝟏
=
𝑳 𝟐 𝑺𝟐

Where 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are either the given ratio or the corresponding sides of the two triangles and
𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are the other corresponding sides of the two triangles.

30
Similarly, if two triangles are similar and we are told to find the ratio of their areas, all we have
to do is, square the ratio of their sides.

(𝐋𝟏 )𝟐
(𝐋𝟐 )𝟐

Similarly, if the ratio of the areas of two solids is required, all we have to do is, square the ratio
of their sides, or heights.

(𝐋𝟏 )𝟐
(𝐋𝟐 )𝟐

Whereas, if the ratio of the volumes of two solids is required, all we have to do is, cube the
ratio of their sides, or heights

(𝐋𝟏 )𝟑
(𝐋𝟐 )𝟑

Topic 22
Loci
Loci in 2-dimension
➢ The locus of points, which are at a certain distance from a fixed point, is a circle.
➢ The locus of points, which are at a certain distance from a straight line, are parallel lines.
➢ The locus of points, equidistant from two fixed points, is perpendicular bisector.
➢ The locus of points, equidistant from two fixed lines, is angle bisector.

Loci in 3-dimension
➢ The locus of points, which are at a certain distance from a fixed point in a space, is a
sphere.
➢ The locus of points, which are at a certain distance from a straight line in a space, is a
cylinder.
➢ The locus of points, equidistant from two fixed points is a plane.

31
 Topic 23
Trigonometry
Trigonometry is related with triangles, the length of its sides, and its angles.

Pythagoras theorem:
Pythagoras theorem can only be used in a right-angled triangle.
The formula for Pythagoras theorem is:
Hypotenuse2 = Base 2 + Perpendicular 2 or c 2 = a2 + b 2

In a right-angled triangle, any side opposite to the 𝟗𝟎𝟎 is hypotenuse, any side opposite to the
given angle is opposite or perpendicular side and the side adjacent to the angle is known as
adjacent or base.

Hypotenuse

Opposite/perpendicular

Base/ adjacent

The basic trigonometric formulas used in right-angled triangles are:

Perpendicular 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
Sin x = Or
Hypotenuse 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒

Base 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
Cos x = Or
Hypotenuse 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒

Perpendicular 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
Tan x = Or
Base 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

Points to remember:
In first quadrant (00 < x <900 ) all sin, cos and tan are positive.
In second quadrant (900 < x <1800 ) only sin is positive, while cos and tan are negative.
In third quadrant (1800 < x <2700 ) only tan is positive, while sin and cos are negative.
In fourth quadrant (2700 < x <3600 ) only cos is positive, while sin and tan are negative.

32
NOTE:
sin (180 – x) = sin x
cos (180 – x) = -cos x
tan (180 – x) = -tan x

sin(90 – x)= cos x

cos(90 – x)= sin x
1
tan(90 – x)= tan 𝑥
Sine rule:
Sine rule is only applied in a non right-angled triangle.

When two sides and an angle opposite to either of these two sides is given, and we have to find
the other angle corresponding to the given side, we use sine rule.

Similarly, if two angles and a side corresponding to either of the given angles is given and we
have to find the other side, we use sine rule.

Sine rule is denoted by:

sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
= 𝑏 = 𝑐
𝑎

Cosine rule:
Cosine rule is only applied in a non right –angled triangle.

When two sides and angle between these two sides is given and we have to find the side
opposite to the given angle, we use cosine rule.

Similarly, if all three sides are given and we have to find an angle corresponding to any of the
three sides, we use cosine rule.

a2 = b2 + c 2 – 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 +c 2 – 2ac cos B
c 2 = a2 +b 2 – 2ab cos C

Bearings:
Steps to follow when solving questions regarding bearing:

Step 1: Make north at the point where it is stated “from”.

Step 2: Move in a clockwise direction.
Step 3: Move from north, till the line that joins the north and required point.
Step 4: Give your answer in 3 digits (the bearing always lies between 00 and3600 ).
E.g. If the bearing of B from A is required, then make a north at A (step 1), move in a clockwise
direction (step 2), from north till the line AB (step 3) and give your answer between 00 and
3600 but in three digits (if the answer is 300 , then write it down as 0300 ).

33
Angles of elevation and depression:

Whenever an angle from horizontal line to a positive vertical line is required, it is known as
angle of elevation. In other words whenever we are looking upwards, we are making an angle
of elevation.

Whenever an angle from a horizontal line to a negative vertical line is required, it is known as
angle of depression. In other words, whenever we are looking downwards, we are making an
angle of depression.

Note: Whenever we have to find angles of elevation or depression, we have to make right-
angled triangles to find such angles.

34
 Topic 24
Statistics
Pie chart:
A pie chart is a representation of numerical data, by inserting sectors of different angles into
the circle corresponding to the data.
E.g. if there are red 10 balls amongst 50 balls, then the angle of sector representing red balls
10
will be: 50 x 3600 = 720
Similarly, if we have to find the number of balls representing the sector of 1800 :
180
x 50 = 25.
360

Blue Red

Green Black

Bar chart:
A bar chart is a representation of numeric data, by making vertical or horizontal bars
corresponding to the given data.
Frequency
D

Blue

White

Black
Red

Green

Colors

Histogram:
A histogram is similar to bar chart, the only difference is that while bar charts have gaps
between the bars, in histogram there are no gaps between the bars. If the class width does not
have equal intervals, frequency density diagram is to be made. In a frequency density diagram,
the vertical axis represents frequency density, while horizontal axis represents the
commodity about which the data is plotted.
Frequency density is calculated in the following way:
𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
Frequency density = 𝑪𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉

35
 Frequency density

Class width

Frequency polygon:
A frequency polygon is obtained by joining the midpoints of each bar in a histogram or
frequency density graphs. A point before and after the histogram is taken to achieve the
starting and ending point of frequency polygon.
Frequency

Class width

Mean:

Mean is the average of the data available.

For ungrouped data, mean is calculated in the following way:

Sum of all numbers 𝚺𝐧
Or
n 𝑛

For grouped data, mean is calculated in the following.

𝚺 𝐟𝐱
f
Where f stands for frequency and f x stands for frequency multiplied by the midpoint of class
width.

36
Median:
Median is the middle term of the whole data, when the data is arranged in the ascending order.
For both grouped and ungrouped data, the formula to find the median term is:
n+1
2
Where n is the total number of terms.

If n is an odd number, the median term itself is median, but if n is an even number, then the
median is average of the two middle terms.

Mode or Modal class:

Mode is the most popular, most frequent or the most repeated term in an ungrouped data.

Modal class is that class width which has the highest frequency.

Cumulative frequency:
To draw a cumulative frequency curve, we have to add the frequency after every class interval
or as its name suggests, we have to accumulate the total frequency after every class interval.
Then we plot the cumulative frequencies against the upper limit of the class widths, by taking
cumulative frequency on vertical axis, and the thing about which the data is plotted, on
horizontal axis.

➢ Median in this case is the corresponding value of 50% of the total cumulative frequency.
➢ Upper quartile is the corresponding value of 75% of the total cumulative frequency.
➢ Lower quartile is the corresponding value of 25% of the total cumulative frequency.
➢ Inter quartile range is the difference between upper quartile and lower quartile.

37
 Topic 25
Sets and Venn diagrams
Sets:
A set is a collection of objects or elements, represented in curly brackets e.g. {1, 2, 3}.

Types of sets:

Universal set is denoted by ε. A universal set is one, which contains total number of elements.
It contains all available elements for a particular question.

Finite set is one, in which there are finite or limited numbers of elements e.g. {1, 2, 3….10}.

Infinite set is one, which contains infinite numbers of elements e.g. {all even numbers}.

Equal sets: Sets are considered to be equal sets if they have exactly same elements.
E.g. A {2, 4, 6, 8}, B {all positive even numbers less than 10}, therefore A and B are equal sets.

Null set: A null set is an empty set. A null set does not contain any element. They are denoted
by curly empty brackets i.e. { }.

Subset: A subset is divided into two categories; proper subset and finite subset. If every
element of set A is also an element of set B, while set B contains some other elements too, then
A is a finite subset of B and is written as A ⊆ B, whereas if set A contains some elements of set B
but A≠B, then A is called a proper subset of B and is written as A⊂B.

Intersection: The intersections of two or more sets are the common elements in those sets.
Intersection is denoted by ∩ e.g. A {1, 2, 3} and B {2, 3, 5}, then A∩B = {2, 3}.

Union: The union of two or more sets represents all the elements that are present in the sets
without repetition. Union is denoted by ∪. E.g. if A {1, 2, 3} and B {2, 3, 5}, then A ∪ B= {1, 2,
3, 5}.

Compliment: Compliment of any set are the elements that are not present in that set but are
present in that universal set. Compliment is denoted by ’ . Therefore, if compliment of A is
required, it will be denoted by A’. A’ will contain all the elements that are present in universal
set, except those that are present in A.

Disjoint sets: When the sets have no common element present in their sets, or the intersection
of their sets is zero, then these sets are known as disjoint sets. Disjoint sets are denoted by ɸ.
A∩B = ɸ.

38
Number of elements: If in any set, number of elements is required rather than the elements
itself, it is denoted by n before the set notation. E.g. if we are required to find n (A∩B), it means
we are required to find the number of elements in A intersection B rather than the elements of
A ∩ B.

Some formulas to remember:

n (ɸ) = 0

n (A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A∩B)

n (A∩B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∪ B)

n (A’) = n(ε) – n(A)

Venn Diagrams:
Venn diagrams are the diagrams that are made to represent the information given in sets.
Some of the important Venn diagrams are given below.
Note: Whenever making Venn diagrams, always remember to draw the set notation in the
brackets first, and then the notations outside the brackets.

ε ε
A B A B

A∩B A∪B

ε ε

A
A
B

A⊆B A’

39
A B ε ε

A’∩ B A’∪ B

ε
ε ε ε

(A∪B)’ (A∩B)’

ε A
A B

Disjoint sets A∩B=ɸ B

Disjoint sets A∩B = ɸ A∩B∩C

A A

B C

A∪(B∩C) A∩(B∪C)

40
 Topic 26
Probabilities
Probability is a chance of occurring of an event. Probability can either be in fractions or decimal,
but the probability should always lie between zero and one. 0 ≤ probability ≤ 1.

𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐚𝐯𝐨𝐫𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬

Formula for probability = 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

➢ Any event that can surely not happen will have a probability of zero. E.g. if in a basket,
there are red and green balls and we are asked to find the probability of blue ball, then
the probability of blue ball will be zero as there are no blue balls in the basket and thus
blue balls cannot be taken out of basket for sure.

➢ Any event that will surely happen will have a probability of one. E.g. if in a basket
there are just red balls and we are asked to find the probability of red balls, then the
probability will definitely be one as all the balls are red so no matter what happens ,
the ball that will come out will surely be red.

➢ If we want to find the probability of non- occurrence of an event or the probability of an

event that will not occur, then the following steps should be followed:

Step 1: Find the probability of the event.

Step 2: Subtract the probability obtained, from 1(since 1 denotes the maximum
probability) i.e.
Probability of non-occurrence of the event = 1- probability of the event.

➢ Whenever events are chosen at a random, without replacement or the events are
continuous one after the other, it is advised to draw a tree diagram. A tree diagram
is one which states the probabilities of events one after the other and how the
probability of first event affects the probability of the next event and so on. E.g. if there
are 4 red balls and 3 green balls, the tree diagram will be:

3
RED
6
4
RED
7
3
GREEN
6

3 4
GREEN RED
7 6

2
GREEN
6

41
Note: Whenever event occurs randomly one after another without replacement, then with
each successive event, the total number of events are reduced by 1. As in the above example,
initially, total number of events are 7, but when second ball is chosen, the total number of
events are reduced by 1 to 6. This is because when 1 ball is taken out, and if not replaced, the
remaining number of balls will be 6.

➢ Whenever the sum, difference or the product of the two dice in the probability question
is required, we have to make possibility diagram. The possibility diagram shows all the
possible outcomes when the score on the two dice is added, subtracted or multiplied,
thus making it easy to calculate the probability. The example is shown below:

Sum of two dice Product of two dice

+ 1 2 3 4 5 6
X 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 2 4 6 8 10 12
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3 3 6 9 12 15 18
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4 4 8 12 16 20 24
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
5 5 10 15 20 25 30
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
6 6 12 18 24 30 36
E.g. if we are required to find the probability that the sum of the two dice is 6, all we have to do
is count how many times 6 has occurred in the possibility diagram of sum of two dice. As can be
seen above in the possibility diagram that 6 occurs five times out of thirty-six out comes,
5
therefore the probability that the sum of 2 dice is 6 is 36 .

Note: In the possibility diagram of an unbiased dice, the total number of outcomes will always
be 36.

42
 Topic 27
Vectors
In mathematics, there are 2 types of quantities; scalar quantity and vector quantity.

A scalar quantity is one in which just the magnitude is specified, without any concern for the
direction, whereas in a vector quantity, both magnitude as well as direction is specified.

Any vector that starts from the origin (0, 0) is written as a position vector.

A vector can be written in three forms; coordinate form, Cartesian form and column vector
form (matrix form).

Magnitude:

The magnitude of the vector is denoted by e.g. | AB |, which represents the distance of vector
AB.
The magnitude can be found using the distance formula or √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 .

Zero vectors:

Any vector that has the magnitude of zero is called a zero vector and is denoted by 0.

Equal vectors:

Two vectors are considered equal vectors, if their magnitude as well as their direction is exactly
same.

Negative vectors:

Two vectors are considered to be negative vectors if they are in opposite direction but their
magnitudes are same. E.g. PQ and QP will be negative vectors, since their magnitudes will be
same, but they will be in opposite direction.

Parallel vectors:

Two vectors are considered to be parallel vectors if there direction is same but their
magnitudes are in proportion to each other.

Collinear vectors:

If the two vectors are parallel and they have a common point e.g. AB is parallel to BC, B is the
common point in two vectors, which shows that ABC lies on the same line and thus are
collinear.

43
Unit vector:
A vector is considered to be unit vector if its magnitude is equal to 1. In other words, to find the
unit vector of any vector, that vector should be divided by its magnitude e.g. unit vector of
𝑎
vector ‘a’ will be |𝑎| .

Addition of a vector:
To find the vector AB, we will add in the following way:

AB = AO + OB

Note: Whenever we have to find any vector, we will move in accordance with the direction. If
negative direction is being used, then a negative sign will be showed with the vector.

Multiplication of vector with scalar quantity:

If a vector is being multiplied with the scalar quantity, then the direction remains the same if
the scalar quantity, k is positive, but if the scalar quantity k is negative, then the vector has the
opposite direction but in both cases, the magnitude is k times the magnitude of the vector.

NOTE: In exams, the examiner frequently asks the candidate to find a certain vector in terms of
a scalar quantity, e.g. k and the same vector in terms of some other scalar quantity, e.g. h. Then
the examiner asks candidates to find the value of h and k. To solve such questions, the
following steps are to be considered:

Step 1: Find the vector in terms of one scalar quantity e.g. AX = 3kp + 2kq +q.
Step 2: Find the vector in terms of second scalar quantity e.g. AX = hp + 3hq.
Step 3: Equate the two equations that we obtained from step 1 and step 2. E.g.
3kp + 2kq + q = hp + 3hq
Step 4: Bring all values, containing one type of vector on one side, and all values containing
other side of vector, on other side. In other words, bring all values containing p on one side of
the equation and bring all values containing q on the other side of the equation.
E.g. 3kp – hp = 3hq – 2kq – q
Step 5: State that since p and q are non-parallel vectors, eliminate p and q from the equation
and make 2 sides of equations, 2 different equations. E.g.:
3k-h = 0 (eqs 1)
3h – 2k – 1 = 0 (eqs 2)
Step 6: Solve the two equations simultaneously and hence find the value of h and k.

44
 Topic 28
Matrices
A matrix is rectangular representation of numbers. A matrix is represented in the form of rows
X columns, e.g.
(a b) is a 1 X 2 matrix.

a
[ ] is a 2 X 1 matrix
b

a b
[ ] is a 2 X 2 matrix
c d

a b c
[ ] is a 2 X 3 matrix….And so on
d e f

Identity matrix:
Any matrix whose diagonal elements are all equal to one and all other elements are zero is
called identity matrix, denoted by I. e.g.

1 0
[ ]
0 1

1 0 0
[0 1 0]
0 0 1

Zero matrix:
A matrix whose all elements are zero is known as a zero matrix.

Addition and subtraction of matrices:

Addition and subtraction of matrices can only be done amongst the matrix whose rows and
columns are the same. Incase of different rows or columns, we will state no possible solutions.

Addition of matrices is done in the following way:

a b e f a+e b+f
[ ]+[ ]= [ ]
c d g h c+g d+h

Subtraction of matrices is done in the following way:

a b e f a−e b−f
[ ]−[ ]=[ ]
c d g h c−g d−h

45
 Topic 29
Matrix transformation
A transformation is a process whereby a point or the whole figure is shifted or transformed to
other point, figure and sometimes, even changes its shape.

The six types of transformations are stated below:

Translation:
Translation is movement or transformation of a point, or all points of the figure caused by the
translation factor. A translation is usually given in the form of column vector. A translation does
not change the shape or size of the figure; it just causes its position to change.

The following formula should be used while solving questions relating to translation:

O+T=I
Where,
O = coordinates of Object.
T = coordinates of Translation factor.
I = coordinate of Image.

If we are required to find any of the above three coordinates, we can find it by using the above
formula.

Reflection:
Reflection is a transformation of a point or a figure through a line of reflection (also known as
mirror line). The line of reflection can be any line stated in the question. E.g. x-axis, y-axis,
line y = x, line x = 2 and so on.
➢ The line of reflection acts as a perpendicular bisector between all points of the original
figure and the reflected figure.
➢ Any point on the mirror line undergoes no change, and these points are known as
invariant.
➢ Under a reflection, the figure and its images are congruent.

Some key tips for reflection under certain lines are given below:

Reflection under x-axis:

When reflecting along x-axis, the x coordinate of the image remains same as the object and the
sign of y coordinate is changed.

Reflection under y axis:

When reflecting along y-axis, the y coordinate of the image remains same as the object and the
sign of x coordinate is changed.

46
Scalar multiplication of matrix:
If matrix is being multiplied by a constant h, then:

𝑎 𝑏 𝑎ℎ 𝑏ℎ
h[ ]= [ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐ℎ 𝑑ℎ

Multiplication of matrices:
If the 2 matrices are being multiplied, it will be done in the following way:

a b e f ae + bg af + bh
[ ][ ]=[ ]
c d g h ce + dg cf + dh

Determinant of matrix:

𝐚 𝐛
To find the determinant of the matrix[ ], we will find the difference of ad and bc.
𝐜 𝐝

Determinant= ad-bc

Inverse of the matrix:

To find the inverse of a matrix, we have to switch the places of a and d, and change the sign of
b and c and multiply this matrix by the reciprocal of the determinant.

1 d −b
[ ]
det −c a

If we are finding inverse of a matrix A, the inverse will be denoted by A−1.

Note:
➢ Any matrix multiplied by identity matrix will be equal to the same matrix.
E.g. AI = A

➢ Any matrix multiplied by its inverse will be equal to identity matrix.

E.g. AA−1 = I

47
Reflection under line y = x:
When reflecting along y = x, the x coordinate of the object becomes y coordinate of the image
and y coordinate of the object becomes the x coordinate of the image. In other words, the
coordinates are interchanged.

Note: Whenever reflecting a point or a figure, always remember that whatever is the object
distance from the line of reflection, the same distance should be present between the image
and the line of reflection.

Rotation:
Rotation is a transformation, which rotates a point or any figure about a fixed point, which is a
center of rotation, through a given angle in either clockwise direction or anti-clockwise
direction, known as angle of rotation.

If two figures are given and their center of rotation and the angle of rotation is required, the
following steps are to be followed:
Step 1: Join all objects with their respective images.
Step 2: Construct a perpendicular bisector for each line, joining objects and image.
Step 3: The point where all perpendicular bisectors meet is the center of rotation.
Step 4: Join any one object and its respective image with the center of rotation and measure
the angle. This angle is the angle of rotation.

Enlargement:
An enlargement is a transformation that enlarges or shrinks a figure, depending on the scale
factor of enlargement, from a fixed center of enlargement. If enlargement factor is greater than
1, the figure would enlarge, whereas, if the enlargement factor is greater than zero but less
than 1, the figure would shrink.

Moreover, if the scale factor of enlargement is positive, then the object as well as the enlarged
figure will be on the same side of the center of enlargement, whereas, if the scale factor of
enlargement is negative, the object and its image (i.e. the enlarged figure) will be on the
opposite side of the center of enlargement.

The scale factor of enlargement is determined with the following formula:

Image distance from the center of enlargement

Scale factor = Object distance from the center of enlargement

By using the above formula, we can even find the enlarged figure, with the help of scale factor
and distance of object from the center of enlargement.

If in a question, the figure before and after enlargement is given while center of enlargement is
not given, and we are required to find it, the following steps are to be followed:

48
Step 1: Join all the corresponding points on the object with their respective image.
Step 2: Extend the joined lines.
Step 3: The point where all these lines intersect, is the center of enlargement.

If we are required to find the ratio of areas of the original figure and enlarged figure, we can
simply square the ratio of the sides, since the enlarged figure is similar to the original figure.
Or in other words, we can square the scale factor of enlargement to find the ratio of the areas
of enlarged figure with respect to original figure.

To find the actual area of the image: (scale factor)2 X (area of original figure)

Any point on the center on enlargement is invariant point and it does not move.

The table below shows matrices corresponding to their transformations, which should be learnt
by the students.

Transformations Matrices

Translation ℎ
[ ]
𝑘
Reflection in x-axis 1 0
[ ]
0 −1
Reflection in y-axis −1 0
[ ]
0 1
Reflection in line y = x 0 1
[ ]
1 0
Reflection in line y = -x 0 −1
[ ]
−1 0
Rotation 900 anti-clockwise about origin [
0 −1
]
1 0
Rotation 900 clockwise about origin [
0 1
]
−1 0
Rotation 180 about origin −1 0
[ ]
0 −1
Enlargement with scale factor k 𝑘 0
[ ]
0 𝑘

49
 Scatter Diagrams/ Plots

Scatter diagrams are used to investigate possible relationships between two variables affecting
the same data (called bivariate data).

You do not join up the points on a scatter diagrams.

If the variables increase together, there is positive correlation.
If one variable decreases when the other increase, there is negative correlation.
If there is correlation between the variables, you can draw a line of best fit through the points.
This is a straight line that represents the data.
The word ‘correlation’ describes the relationship between the values of the two variables.

A strong positive correlation A weak positive correlation.

between the variables x and y. Although there is direction to the way the
The points lie very close to the line of points are lying, they are not tightly packed
best fit. around the line of best fit.
As x increases, so does y. As x increases, y tends to increase too.

y x x
x x y x x
x x x x
x x x

x x

A strong negative correlation. A weak negative correlation.

The points lie close around the The points are not tightly packed around the
line of best fit. the line of best fit.
As x increases, y decreases. As x increases, y tends to decrease.

y x x y x x
x x x x
x x x x
x
x x

No correlation.
As there is no pattern to the way in which x x x
the points are lying, there is no correlation x
between the variables x and y. As a result, x x x x
there can be no line of best fit. x x

50
 PICTOGRAMS
1. The pictogram shows the number of loaves of bread made by Miss Smith, Mr Jones and
Mrs Gray.

Miss Smith
Mr Jones
Mrs Gray
Ms Shah
Mr Khan
Represents 20 loaves of bread

a) Write down the number of loaves of bread made by Mr. Jones.

(1)

b) Write down the number of loaves of bread made by Mrs. Gray.

(1)
Ms Shah made 60 loaves of bread.
Mr Khan made 90 loaves of bread.

c) Use this information to complete the pictogram. (2)

(Total 4 marks)

51
 2. The pictogram gives information about the number of goals scored in a local football
league in each of 3 weeks.

First week

Second week
Third week
Fourth week
Fifth week

Key : represents 4 goals

a) Find the number of goals scored in the first week.

(1)

b) Find the number of goals scored in the third week.

(1)
8 goals were scored in the fourth week.
5 goals were scored in the fifth week.
c) Complete the pictogram.
(2)
(Total 4 marks)

52
3. The pictogram shows the number of plates sold by a shop on Monday, Tuesday,
Wednesday and Thursday of one week.

Monday
Tuesday
Key: represents 10 plates
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday

a) Work out the number of plates sold on Monday.

(1)

b) Work out the number of plates sold on Tuesday.

(1)

The shop sold 40 plates on Friday.

The shop sold 25 plates on Saturday.
c) Use this information to complete the pictogram.
(2)
(Total 4 marks)

53
4. The pictogram shows the number of books sold on Wednesday, Thursday and Friday.

Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday

Key:

represents 8

books

a) Write down the number of books sold on Wednesday.

(1)

b) Write down the number of books sold on Friday.

(1)

20 books were sold on Saturday.

c) Use this information to complete the pictogram.
(1)
(Total 3 marks)

54
 5. The pictogram shows the number of hours of sunshine on Monday, Tuesday and
Wednesday of one week.
Monday

Tuesday Key: represents 2

hours
Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

a) Write down the number of hours of sunshine on:

i) Monday,
hours

ii) Wednesday.

hours

(2)

On Thursday, there were 4 hours of sunshine.

b) Show this on the pictogram.
(1)

On Friday, there were 7 hours of sunshine.

c) Show this on the pictogram. (1)
(Total 4 marks)

55
6. The pictogram shows the number of zips sold in a shop on Monday, on Tuesday and on
Wednesday.

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Key: represents 4 zips

a) Write down the number of zips sold on Monday.

(1)

b) Write down the number of zips sold on Wednesday.

(1)

9 zips were sold on Thursday.

c) Complete the pictogram.

(1)

(Total 3 marks)

56
 7. The tally chart shows information about the number of text messages sent by some
students last week.

Name of student Tally Frequency

Anna IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII 24

Bhavini IIII IIII II 12

Cassie IIII IIII IIII

David IIII IIII

i) Complete the frequency column.

The pictogram shows the number of text messages sent by Anna and Cassie.

Anna

Bhavini

Cassie

David

Key:

ii) Complete the pictogram and the key.

(Total 5 marks)

57
 NETS OF SOLIDS
Exercise

1. The diagram represents a cuboid.

a) How many edges does the cuboid have?
b) Name two edges of the cuboid that are
parallel to the edge BC.
c) Name two edges of the cuboid that are
perpendicular to the edge BC.

2. The diagram shows the net of a solid.

a) What type of solid is this?
b) How many faces does the solid have?
c) How many edges does the solid have?
d) In an accurate drawn net, which of the
Lengths PQ, QR, RS, ST must be equal?

3. This diagram represents a solid with 8 faces.

Each face is an equilateral triangle.
(The solid is a rectangular octahedron.)
a) How many edges does the solid have?
b) How many vertices does the solid have?
c) Draw a net of the solid.

4. When the net is drawn accurately,

a) why must PB and PA each be 50 mm long?
b) what special type of triangle will ADS be?
c) what will be the size of the
angle marked x?
d) how many faces, edges and
vertices does the solid have?

5. The diagram represents a small box.

Each of the faces is a rectangle.
a) Give the mathematical name for
the shape of the box.
b) How many faces, edges and
vertices does the box have?
c) Draw an accurate net for the box.
d) How many of these boxes would
fit into a carton 8cm by 9cm by 11cm?

58