Crowther, Nigel, B. “The Ancient Olympic Games.” Sport in Ancient Times. Norman: University of Oldahoma Press, 2007, 45-56. Six ‘The Ancient Olympic Games Par froin belng an easly accessible site ith first-class sporting facilities, Olympia was Tthad no inhabitants on ‘permanent basis, as it was not a community, or pols, and possessed little more than a sanctuary and a few areas for sport that were primitive even by Greek standards. ‘Using modern enters, one could hardly find x mare inap- ‘dopminepeneturomentpneniionsemnesntNBWOAD et of ie many indent Grek influences on modern imes,the Olympic Garacs are probably the best known, POPULARITY “Accosiling to ancient sources such as the lyric poet Pindar in his first pmo Oe, ee wat no penta esa inthe Grek wold than ym researcher are rlfenente eacly why each a cate flict os Pina trned ut tobeso impottantforepor Sigua howev ste fat hat twas Zeus Olgmopiog th uprems Grek god yo gavehis ane ‘thease oradeat Olympia hed constdeehle fae inthenlent est (atwuphiess than theone Deli) Moreover, recuse lov tied aboutooventy las of eer odein he aes including Arto, Agi ‘ls, Det an Gla ho robb vest esta ies ‘the sanctuary a major place for pilgrims to visit. As we shall see, reli- fenced porta Opi Bahrmae sue fom in een tty secompand Grek colonise as thoy Jepered for new home ina ‘Row southern Italy. These er its to the west, like other Greeks, often seed ymin asasmting place rade an clos. ome scholarbe- leve that the insignificance of the the isolation, and the conservatism contbuten ot euccess Whatever ino eson,eovral smal festvals it to enhance the prestige of their4 Syato ints icibaemnenioaeeoa ‘THE BEGINNINGS OF THE GAMES 3, one of the most fa- ‘mous dates in Greek history, but historians no longer consider this a firm date. At best, this was the yeat when the officials first recorded the Games, ‘the approximate tine of the introduction of writing into Greece. Modern re. ‘searchers vary In thels opinions on the origin of the Olympic Games, Some ‘date it to the ninth century n.c. on the evidence Others ‘propose that the Olympic Games began about 700 v.c.s, noting an increase In the number of wells for drinking water at that time. Yet others suggest the date was about 600 ac.e, as there is an absence of inscriptions concerning the Olympic Games before that date. ‘Several myths associate not only Zeus, but also Pelops, Horacles, and other figures with the founding ofthe Oanpic Games but thse stares Wee perplexing ven to the anclents like the historian Suabo, who states that one Shoule pute trust in then iegan whether rom oneal ont ore ostuce by Cece oan tathetedto worship te godsin the sanctus, or eeniniatio ies tor boys Philostratus, in his work on Greek athletics known as th GimiWasHe, states ‘that the archetype for the firet recorded event in the stadium at Olympia, a footrace (or sade) of about 220 yard, wes a ace tothe akar of Zeus inte ‘sanctuarywhere the winnie sated fr, fet although eligon predated footrceeat Olymplaby several hundred yearsandhadetong inks wit eth {eties thee, fw sholars today believe tat spore actually originated from religion. ELIGIBILITY. ‘The anclent Olymples hed eetgentiregulations regarding ty. ‘We can dedice from the texts that throughout the more than 1,000 yea of the games, the rules stipilated thatthey be for Greeksionly. The Greeks even excluded some fellow Greek from corapetion, fox Philosrats states that ‘he games, therefor, were national in concept and, at lest in theo, rigorously txcluded non-Grecks, although there were notable exceptions expecially in ‘thelater years ofthe festival when the differences between Greeks and non Greoks became less distinct Some espzing competitors gained admission‘TheAncientOlympteGames 47 of the Olympics as international, although many would like to see them that g ‘At Olympia, the officals eld separate events for boys. Although the evi- dence is not entirely certain (because sizo may also have been a criterion), it seems that boys as young as 12 could compete; those 18 years and older ‘were obliged to enter the ments category. n the absence of bith certificates, or identification cares, one wonders how the adjudicators could accurately tellthe age of competitors. Yet there areino records of serious disputes. Ages ‘As far as we knaw, athletes did not have to meet definite sporting stan- dards, but they swore an oath that they had been in Gling fOrs0months ‘before the gaines. Most significantly, they had to attend the: pesiod before the festival, which would weed out inferior competitors, We ‘may add that, unlike in the madera world, contestants themnselves applied to compete in the Olympic Gaines. The Greek city-states dld not preselect athletes and took comparatively little interest in the participants until they were victorious. ‘TE ORGANIZERS OF THE GAMES itmay come as a surprise to the modern reader that local committee of lected officials ran the prestigious Olympic Games. This underscores the ‘nonglobel nature of the festival form Intemational Olympici Committe, ar even a Nail Commitee, existed as we know them today. Nor ct he officials come from Olympia itself {as it was not e city), but from the com. ‘unity that happened to be in charge of the Olympic sanctuary atthe time, In the early days, the city of Risalocated closeitorthersanctuarysmanager ese two cities fought frequently during the carly years fo maintain (orregai) control of Olympia, because the game “The controling city al complete power over the festival, a least in theory, being able to admit ‘reject from the sanctuary and games whomever itpleased, although other Greek communities could sen: {tera inl ciysiates of Pisa and ls, however, were lays at \emerey of superior military powers such as Sparta, which usually, but not ‘lways, allowed the organizers fee rein. These fe tures were key components of a city-state in the ancient world and signified that Olympia was an important part, if not the very heart, of the state of Bis. The atrong connection between sanctuary and controlling city is also: 4 Sportin Anclent Times evident inthe Blean chins that depicted an image of Zeus Olympos, and in the si-centuryinscriptions found a Olymmpi, many of which late to po- Iieal and social matters of lis, rather than the Olympic Games themselves ‘The two-day procession from isto Olympla of alees, officals, and others i (afterthe mandatory taining period was over) associate in avioal way city and sanctuary. roncaly the ety thatan the Olympic Games for olonghas | _few archaeological remains of any note and is rely on the modem tourist, ‘map, although most vistors to Olympia pss within afew ros ofits it. : i ‘isin OveNPIA ‘Every four year, ral fom Elisannolced 10 the Greskpeople that whlch fell in July or August of the modem ealendne. Upwards of 40,000 people traveled to Olyrmpia to witness the greatest sin i ‘ge attraction of any kind in the Greck world. This was an enormous, time- | ‘consuming, and dangerous undertaking, even-though the famous Olymple ‘truce (ekecheirla) eliminated many potential hazards for travelers. Before | every major sporting festival in Greece, offalalsiguaranteed salelpassage | test Opin nf patge aly ted thee mon Tome .j worked with few exceptons, although i did not entail a complete cessation fall warfare in Greece. If one broke tho Olympe truce, His exchded that i : city fom the games until paid the appropriate fin; Sparta was excluded forscvera Olympiads after 420 uc, fortis reason. E "Many visitors would wallthe whale distance to Olympia. From Athens, i forexampeit took five or sicdays in each diection. thets would travel on donkeys or mules dhores being impractical on te rough erain). The more fffuent woul ride ina primitive catiage, or ea, with no springs or shock ; absorbers of any kind. Roads were rough, or nonexistent, especially to such : jnclated places a Olympia, Robbers ware a constant threat. The best way to | travel wae probably by boat, although there were no passenger ferries with ! regular schedules, and dere was te constant danger of prey or thipwzock. ven eter arcvingat Olympia, speetaons feed elfestsatwere hardly i IGRUHOWS Lucian, a writer of dialogs, maintains that he had difficulty In ob- i taining transportation at the games, a problem not unknown atthe mod- j ! ‘on Olympics, Tho ancients had to endure the eifing hea of summer, the sarmsoffles,thenoise,thestench, the whipsof officls maintaining crowd _ contol, overcrowded conditions, the absence of seats fo spectators in the stadium ane the ever-present danger of open fires for cooking. They lived in small tents or wooden hts inthe eanctary, ofthe overflow shelters out ' ‘side the site. Olympia during the festival became atenteity. Over time, how- ever, conditions did improve, as officials added food pavilions and similar attractions, bu It tock many hundreds of years before they constricted an slaborate water system that provided adequate dicking supple, elaborate ‘baths and even watershed lntrines.TheAncient OlympleCames 49 me went not once, but many times. A baker fom, lacedonia in the north of Greece journeyed to Olympia on no fewer than 12 occasions over 40 years, or for most of his adult life. Many endured the harsh conditions forthe Ozhers went for nonsporting rea sons to participate in trade or listen to great writers and philosophers, for Olympla was a festival that transcended sport. For yet others it was a kind of pilgrimage, which one can compare with the Hajj of oday in which Mesloms travel to Mecca sometimes under extreme conditions: Olympia indeed was ‘the “Mecea” of the Greek world in both a religious and a metaphorical sense, In Roman times, it became part of the fouiatraite, When many viewed a Visit to Olympia a3 an educational experience. ‘THR TRAINING PERIOD ‘One ofthe major elements that made the ancient Olympic Games special tn ‘bette bye Tas tant for S0dagoart eat ses at Olympia Itself, but in the city of Blis, “he texte donot ily expan hy ene erway SetongertsObepin Gent wil te intaor neat one ea. ‘al in Neples). Researchess, however, suggest that the reason forthe training period was to Temay also have al- ‘he authorities to look for illegal substances, for although there are no recorded examples of performance-enhancing drugs, the mindset ofthe an- cient athlete was no different from thet ofthe modern competitor. Contes- tants would try anything to gain an edge, including alcohol and meat diets, although neither was illegal. Some even wrote curse tablets on which they prayed to the gods for help in secusing victory aod implored them to harm ‘thelr opponents, The offect of this lengthy training period would be high ‘andards, 6 come atiletes would withdraw who saw that they had na hope of success at Olympia where only the victors recelved a prize. ‘The oficial organized and closely regulated the taining for participants inthe various gymnasia of Bis according to their diferent events. Thoy al- Jowed the athletes themselves and the trainers who accompanied theo n0 input in the taining methods and threatened ther with flogging if they disobeyed the prescribed exercises, They enforced an expecially severe regi- ‘men for wrestles. For reasons unstated, they matched athletes in the three ‘combat events against opponents of cifforent kil, not against equals. Per~ ‘haps this was a form of seeding to weed out inferior contestants,50 Sportin Ancient Times ‘THE OLYMPICPROGRAM ‘According to tradition, the Olyrmple Games did not beghi with a full pro- gram of events. On the contrary, inthe fst recorded Olympiad of 776 nc, ‘Pausanias in his guidebook to Olympia (written in the late eecond century Gx) relates that there was only one contest, the sade. Sines this race on the rough Olympic track would have lasted less thar. 30 seconds, itis unlikely that at this time athletics was a major part of the festival, even allowing for heats before the final. Sport, however, gradually became more prominent, when in 724 and 720 nc, the Hleans added two other footraces, the diau- Jus of about 440 yards and the dolichus of about three miles. For more than '50 years there hid been but a single event, Things moved slowly at conserva- tive Olympia, The pentathlon and wrestling became part of the program in ‘708; boxingin 680; hefirst ofthe equestrian events fonr-horsechariot acing) in 680; the horse race and the pancration (a “no holds barred” contest) in (645; the first of the boye' events (the stade and wrestling} in 632; boys’ pen- ‘athlon in 628, which was discontinued thereafter; boys’ boxing in 616; the footrace in armor in 520; the mule cart race Jn 500, which was discontinued in 444; a race for mares in 496, which was also discontinued in 444; the two- horse chariot race in 408; competitions for trumpeters and heralds in 396 (with the victors performing duties atthe other events); the chariot race for four foals in 364; the chariat race for two foals in 264; the race fr foals in 256: and finally the pancration for boys in 200 ‘One can see, therefore, that compared with the modern Olympics the an- lent program was narrow, In all, there were just 23 contests, with no more ‘than 20 at any one Olymplad. Of these, eight were equestrian events. There ce also fout footraces for inen, three combat events for men, and five nts for boys, (gramnjoverfiveWays) On the frst day as part of the ceremony, athletes and tralners swore the oath to Zeus that they would not transgress the rules of the Olympic Games. On the second day, the equestrian events and pentath- Jon took place. The third day witnessed the sacrifice to Zeus of a hundred ‘oxen (known #s a hecatomb), when the stench and blood soust beve added to the discomfort of the spectators, On the fourth day, there were running and combat events. On the finel day, the victors celebrated with a banquet in the prytaneion, There was no closing ceremony for all ates as in the ‘modern games, for Olympia honored only the victors. ‘TBE FACILITIES & ‘The excavations at Olympia undertaken by the German School of Archaeology, beginning with Gurtius in 1875, have revealed the remains of fan impressive array of religious buildings in the sanctuary. These include the ruins of the huge marble temple of Zeus, although the colossal statue‘The Anclent OlympleGarnes 6) {god that became one of the Seven Wonders of the World hias long since disappeared. The athletic facilities, howrever, were much less striking, especially in the early days of the festival when there was simply an ‘open area near the altar of Zeus for the stadium, and a largér area close to the Alpheus River that served as the hippodrome. The rectangular stadium ‘was far from being en imposing sports arena in the modern style: it was simply a flat piece ofland atthe foot ofthe hill of Cronus (the father of Zeus) that in the early days was located. within the sanctuary. Hence, athletes ‘ompetediontsacred grountl Later, the officials moved the stadium a short distance out of tho sanctuary to aceommodate about 40,000 people. Bven {his now stadium that archaeologists have restored tots formet appearance ‘wes primitive with a rough sandy track and grassy embankments on four sides (Figure 6.1). Itfeatured a judges’ box with marble seats and an altar of ‘the goddess Demeter, bit had no seats for spectators. The hippodrome was merely a farmer's field with embankments for the crows, although it did contain an elaborate wooden starting device that officials probably hid to rebuild every Olympiad. It was more than 400 years before officlals provided permanent train- ing facilities at Olympia that inchuded a palaestra and a gymnasium. The palaestra, a square building with tooms around the outside, had a sandy Figure 61 Later stadium at Olympia locking toward the Senetuary. Author photo52 Sportin Anctestimes area in the center where athletes practiced combat sports, The actual com. petition for these events took place in the stadium where more spectators ‘could see them. The gymnasium consisted of two tracks for ranners, one open and one covered as a protection against the elements. The texts de scribe an open-air bath, or plunge pool, where athletes cooled off, but over ‘ime this tummbied into the Cladens RiversSeverabelaborate indoor Ramah baths with hot water and excellent facilities for bathing replaced the eatty ‘nipbaths and buckets of cold water from attendants. From nearby hills, an aqueduct brought Olympia copious supplies of water that cisculated in channels around the track in the stadiura. One bullding in the sanctanay, known as the Leonidaion, served as the guesthouse, but could accommo. date no more than 80 people. This would house only part ofthe athlotes at Olympia, where we can estimate that there would be about 300 competitors at ts helght, a number comparable to that ofthe first modern Olymples in Athens in 1686, ‘tug oceMerc ommiciats The Olymplcoficaljor Reliant, came from neighboring Pisa inthe early day and ater rom the more lstant ty of whlch elected theby tot They eventually numbered 10, o equal the numb of bes in the cy ‘The name given to them, Hellanodikai, meaning "fUagesTONGrseCe}" prob- ably refles thelr rowing importance not only t Olympl, but als trough tut Greece where they monitored both the Olympic tuce and brlelly the Panhellenic trae that attempted ta bring peace tothe Greek world, iy or 10 months beore tach Olympic Games they resided ina spectel buldig in Bist lear tel ‘raf. They condacted the taining period in Els and overcaw the manage- ment of the Olympic festival, although they were subservient to the Guard- lens ofthe Laws Together with otherimportant offal they lonehad eats in te stadium They ha the power to accept (or exude) athlete, expel them from the games, judge the competitions, fine those who infringed the rales, and even fog competiors who eotmitted fouls punishment tat ‘he Grecks usually reserved for slaves. Uaeseijudges’also'penalized:those They mandat eaters erect expensive statues of Zeus, known as Zanes, which formed a veritable “Hall of Shame" that all athletes and spectators walked past on their way fromthe sanctuary to the stadium. ‘The Hellariodikal believed that they judged the events at Olympia fmn- partially and even took an oath that they would examine the boys and foals. without taking bribes and would keep secret what they had learned about an athlote, whether they accepted hin or not. Yet despite their high reputation, some ancient waiters occasionally crieSzed them fos thelr “hometown” deci- slons and for abusing their power. The judges sometimes placed themselves in compromising situations, because for many years they too competed in‘ThoAnclent OlympieGames 53 ‘events, We may also note that their city ofPlis won more victories at Olympia ‘than any other city, even more than Sparta, PRIZES AND OTHER REWARDS ‘Athletes in the ancient Olympics competed for-the crown of wild olive ‘made from the sacred tree of Zous inthe sanctuary. They also received other Hevapfonbeweoncermacere most honorable way tp win was ‘without dust’-(akonif), when an out- standing athlete did not actually compete in an event, because his potential ‘opponents withdrew. In this respect, the purpose of the Games at Olympia ‘where It was important to crown the best athlete, not necessarily see him ‘in competition, was difteren from that ofthe modem Olyrapies. Spectators ‘apparently did not fel cheated ifan athlete won a contest by a walkover, but \were happy to proclalm the vitor. Olympic officials had no sponsors or tele- vision netvrorks to fear if Uhey had to cancel important events. The concept of amateurism, for solong a fundamental tenet ofthe mod cern Olympics, mained unknown in the ancient Greek world, Even though Olympia itself provided no monetary prizes, victorious athletes expected their home cities to reward them substantially, although there is litle ev- dence that athletes were subsidized before they became successful Jn the slath century 6:8, for instance, Olmapl champions fronvAiensiresived fumzofmoney that were large evea by modem standaris, They could expect fetime exemptions from taxes, seats of honor at civic functions, andl other prestigious rewards. They had the privilege of erecting bronze or marble stat- ues of themselves in the sanctuary at Olympia, making ita sort of “Hall of Fame. Pausanias records that he saw more than 200 such statues. The victor in the stade received the privilege of heving an Olympiad named after him, Successful (and wealthy) athletes could cotnmission famous posts to-write ‘verses about thém, which offered them the hope of immortality. The anclent Olyrnpics with their hawkers and souvenir sellers were as commercialized in ‘their own way as the modern Olympic Games. ‘THEPARTIGIPANTS The first competitors at Olympia wore probably inhabitants from the axea, or pilgrims to the sanewary who pactiiprted onan imprompit: bas ‘Wemay compare the informality of te rt modecn Olymples of 196, when 8 British (ours in Athens entered the tennis tourasment and was vitor ous. In theory, members of ll classes were eligible to partcpate inthe an- cleat Oiympe Games, bu itis doubtful thatthe poorer members of society had the same opportunities as dhe more afften, who certainly dominated te expensive equestrian contests. For about 200 years, ancfent Olympia hhad a monopoly on major sporting festivals, tnt the Greeks insitted or54 Sportin Ancient Times reestablished other Crown Games (the Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemear). in the sixth century s.cx. the athletic circuit (or periodos) commenced, when, athletes became more specialized and were able (atleast in theory) to make a worthwhile career from sport, ‘THE LATER DAYS OP THE GAMES ‘There was no single “Golden Age” af Olympia, but rather periods of bril- liance and decline, depending on economic and political conditions. It is a lite surprising to realize that the lst 500 years or so.of the Olympic Games, ‘or almost halftheir entire existence, took placeunderthe rule ofthe Romans, ‘who had conqueted Greece and made it into « Roman provinee in 146 3.0.2, ‘This takeover had profound implictions for Olympia, which nov depended not only on the host city of lis, but also on the goodwill and financial sup. port of Rome, Some notable Roman individuals treated Olympia badly. The general Sulla pillaged the site for precious objects and, in the ffst century Bea, moved most of the events to Rome for one Olympiad. Almost a cen tary-and-a-half later, the emperor Nero made a mockery of the games by postponing the festival for his own purpose and competing in events not ‘on the official program, The authorities in turn annulled.the results ofthis Olympiad of 67 c.v. Most emperors, however, showed respect to Olympis, by Lnnproving fuclites,seting up statics, and even having coinsstruck with the image of Zeus, thereby symbolically linking Grovee and Rome. ‘No single causé ended the ancient Gates. Their decline was a slow pro: cess hat resulted a part from eocal and economic conltion,EaeRORA ‘The site suffered from the ravages of earthquakes, floods, and invasions of (Germanietibes though recently publahed insripdons show tat the fes val was stil flourishing in the late fourth century c.x, Olympia experienced internal problems of decay but did not collapse within itself External fectors such as Christianity and new philosophies that believed in an afterlife con- {licted with the pagan cults of Olympia, but did not dlreetly cause its down- fall, Some scholars date the end of the Games to 993 c.2, when the emperor ‘Theodosius I declared that all pagan cults be closed, but his decree contains no specific reference to Olympia. Others believe that the Olympic Games ‘ended in 426 cx., when his successor, Theodosius Il, ordered the destruc- tion of all Greek temples. CONCLUSION ‘Ancient Olympia, ort, The modern Olympics, too, have become the world's largest sporting attraction (together‘TheAnclont Olympletames 55 ‘with the World Cup of soccer), Olympia developed into a kind of World's Bair that foreigners attended, although they could not compete, It became a ‘meeting place and showcase for those interested in trade, polities, fine arts, ‘and moze. Similarly, the International Olympic Committee (OC) celebrated the Olympie Games in Paris in 1900 and St. Louis in 1904 in conjunetion with ‘World's Fairs and still promotes arts festivals and other forms of eulture. The ancients faced many ofthe problems that plague the modern Olympics. The texts ecount stories ofpolitical interference, cheating (especially bribing fel- lowathletes}, intimidation, “home-town’ decisions, and conflicts of interest. once, the anciont Games were hardly part of Utopian culture, as Victorian scholare and others have romanticized. ‘There are, however, substantial differences between the ancient and modern Olympics. The ancient Hlean officials did not relocate the Games ‘each Olympiad to a luxuriously appointed and sanitized venue newly cze- ated for the purpose. Olympia remained a primitive place ofblood, brutality, and stench, Moreover, Greece was a sexist society that did not allow women {in the Games, butkept them strictly apart at thelr owm Olympic festival for girls, the Herala. We can only speculate whether the founder of the raodexn Olympic movement, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, was following ancient radi- ‘ton, or the chauvialsm oF the nineteenth cent ry, when he did not permit ‘Saran ete Ors The lence af entertainment in the modern Olympies makes Uiem closer tothe Rowan concept of sport than to the Greek, in 1982, the IOC inaugurated an Olympic {nce under the auspices ofthe Unlted Nations, fr the “peaceful settlement ofall intemitignal confcts” Thisis variation ofthe Greskekzcheirias but Di ecient iapsthemajordifference between the Olympic Gamesofoldandthose of today is the modera sprit of Oympism, a concent so dearto the heart of Coubestin. Although iis dificult to interpret this philosophy precisely, because it has changed much over the years/itSpitG#RO/SUCHICONSpIsaS ‘moral education, fr play, internatfonal understanding, brotherhood, epa- tation ofsport and poles peace, equal opportnity,jy ofpartiipation, in- ‘elgotual andartisic qualities and exeellenes, The ancient Olympics, on the therhand, did not advocate moral education the senso ofsportmiandip and character building, nor was fair play an ancient concept. The Olympic ‘bensfit ofthe Greeks es awhole, and certainly not for foreigners, once, the politics ofthe city of Bis became a driving force for the Olympics, however * much the organizers bellaved that they wese conducting the games impar- ‘ally and in the interests ofall Greeks. Olympla itself did not promote the splrt of Panhellenism, even though some philosophers may have gathered there fo espouse its cause. Although believed ‘n equal training of body and mind, recent scholarship has shown thatthe56 Sportindnctent mes Olympia al. ‘ways sought to find the best athletes, without encouraging equal oppottu- nity or simple participation, Consequently, it ffered only a single prize, for victory was everything (soe Chapter 7). Furthermore, the Greeks called the Olympics rotthe Olympic Games, but the Olympic Contests (Aganes), an in- portant distinction. On the victory table at Olympia stood a sthall statue of ‘AgGn, the god of competition, next toa statue of Ares, the god of war. Indeed, ‘dedications by the Greek city-states in the sanctuary suggest that Olympia ‘was more associated with war than with peace, The ancients, however, be lioved in the concept of excellence, or arete. They also would have related to the niodern aim of winning at all costs, the. interest in records, and the Olympfe motto, ius altius, forttus—"tastr, higher, stronger.” are modern inventions. The torch relay took place at many Greek festivals, but not the Olympic Games. The sacred flame burnt inthe spiritual center, ox prytaneion, of every Greek community, including Olympia, s0 that twas indeed a Greek concept, but not unique to the Olympics.