ON NUMBERS AND GAMES SECOND EDITION J. H. CONWAY Mathematics, y AK Peters, Ltd, [Natck, Massachasents‘ori Sl and Coro Seis Oe Ak Per Ls ‘Conyah 2001.4 Pes, i ‘Ales seed No pr of te esl rote ye cope soc may beeper wie ina form, conto tbe nag occ. ty nr gn wo Libary of Congres Capa Pion Date Inc hgh eters nd ide Bun ise? 24 (ak es) : 1 Namberthny 2 Came ry Lite ‘ax2a 9 200 Sisa-aeat noun? Prologue Jt vera quarter of centr ao fr seven conseete days st ow and ‘ype fom 3:0 am ul mig wih us a ou for nc, and eve since "Not enrly Bonet tease there were Too ends sl 0 be id py ant ‘chapter 6 wae wan jt before the Book spre wile Cape 13 was Target opie fom a pape, “ackenbash, Water and Prue" ht ad oes ‘wes a ea crer But ao ao eatiely dsooest ‘Why the ash? Becane ONAG she books amar known, mas get In the way of writing ming Ws (WW). Now hat both books ae ply ‘ing epstisedby AK Petes, Ones (oe aloo means "Wil ASS") ‘ate ti jut how ica abut belo they sender hemes pre esr ("Ona meat etre). "A fo jar previously, Ey Behan, Richard Guy and had agreed res book on mathematical games, by which a at ine we mea be Win ie thery developed independently ty Roland Sprague ad Pete Michel ‘Grundy fo sue of impart gamet—tove for which he ceo plspets have ‘acl the une legal ove, Thad long intend to sex what mould Become ofthe theory when his etc tion was Srppe et oly board Yo ding so when te then Bish Go (Champion bese a mambet of he Canbeige Unversity Pare Mathematics Depart Asonishingy asthe sang ners to ndertand "Go that Iedto he covery ofthe Sorel Numbers! This happened bese he pial "enamel num of games ine ene ths Book, mang ear har ths nouon was worthy of xp stay in ts own right The Sue Numbers thn emerge ste simplest oman o which apie! However tsi hor apy burgebad in ways tae napeope | forth book hat ar bene Wining Wis. Ay tem was ppoaeing. an Its that his "wunstne” mater jest a tobe got out oth wy befire Tinie sateif Wining is was vero pblaed Soa down fat ‘ak and wrote his bok nd then confssd theft oy co-atboes"The mort suprising imine elt was tre of sl ation from Eley Beda! But sometow we mst hv patna, bcs bth ONAG td WW speared inthe nt fw years and we remain god tends Tait Sure! Nombre rot ere ONA spears pry hough ny 1970 lectures a Cambge and Cal Tesh, tut mv huagh th wide ‘eatin of Donald Kaus ile bok, rea! Numbers Iam ery raf {o Keuh fer isvenng his ete original eon of ONAG sai “Beease ofthe generally of tis Clas, we sal simply Gree ts member ates, ‘idout ding oy testing aijecve™ “Sues Nanber is mach bt "Tam very apy and pratt AK Petershave seed publish ileal sine of bo hs book snd Wining Way, ‘Avie Stee an Kathryn Mle were espe fr hang tbe change ‘is eden This sao te pace to okoowdge Richard ays cones onarbuens oth iia eon Inpaclr be Gsgnod an ow a uber ‘ofthe erga fies ed computel oct sever oe le have eid he Prologue rather thin Prete erase iis aly under sod ia the Pea a aero of bok hold conta a dseption of the changes nthe bok and ts subject sac nt ein, Some ofthese fincton at dred nthe Elec Preface Thisbook was writen to bring to light relation between oot auth favounte ject he theo of tance members and mathemat times. A few conection between tne be ben known for sme but appears to be 2 ew observation tht oe obtain theory ato Simple tnd more extensive tap Dedekis's theory of the real nuk Just by defining numbers asthe strengtn of posuoas i cating ‘When we dots theusal properties of ores andthe arithmetic oper follow almost ineditel from defitions that ze natural speed that twas gute an amusing exercise to wrt the seat pax of ts boo ie thew dafsions bad stsen nsené fom an attempt to peer Dedekind’ contraction! lowever, we suspect that there will be many senders who Are ‘interested in playing gumes than phlosophising about numbers, Fo ‘ender we ole the following words of advice. Siar reading Chapa ‘on playing cover umes t once, and nd an need fend with Whoa playa Tew peso he domino game dexribed there. nti is easy see why] and give Le on and two moves advantage respective ‘when you feel you vaguely understand why A, ‘Bives him just half 0 ove Sadatge Jos nih ised hae wichepamn how Sep ume Yan eo ay Of ebook hoa owing ny mare how bn ha hat" Stencil aly ne) wo ue tha Abo ‘Sung myn mae Swe sapl se i ection lay ace tle et ie hi tk, ton toe sare cei ove th opal eit Bye Beaty at Hi Sint an caret peng wr ened nm ‘ite per whch hou ep ones se prs Te oad trapped wit eee pee ig a am Anson Welt oA anh ldo“he most upisiog mediate res wa heat oflagl ation fom El etlamp Bu somehow ne mest ate patie hs py cess tts ONG. sed WW appre inthe ote Yeas, and we ema ood ends. eft te SrelNember rad elore ONAG apes, pay eh ry 197 lots at Cabege and Cal Tsk, bat aly ough te we ‘Seaton of Donal Kaus tl bool, Sarel Mumbers Tam very gael "Kath oriveng tis name rg! version of ONAG sid “Bocas the geveraity of hs Clas, we shal simpy describe amo at amber Srthou ding ny resting ae” "Sureal Numbers is much bees” an very py and rfl at AK. Peters hve agreed to pubis ile eins of bth he bok sd Wining Wy. ‘Avi ate and Katy Maier were response fr handing te changes © ‘sen, Tis is al he pace wo acknowledge Richard y's oni nerblGeasto the rig Ipc be designed and re sumer ‘fe egal gue and compe, econ sever ofthe aes. Tv called hiss Polgae rater than Preface becasue sod tthe Preface ot eliton ofa bok should conan adesripen of the changes the bok ad is subject snes stein. Some of thee fnetone ae adeeseé nthe Epilogue. Sohn Conway Preface ‘Tisbook was writento bring tight eltion between tr fits author's fovourite satgacte—the theoie of tenfeite numbers and thera {EumsrA fw connections between thse have Been Know fr sometime, thr appeas toe a ew obseaton tht oe obain a Uheory a onc ple and mote extensive than Dedein’'s theory of the real numbers Jt by doing nsrobere se the strengths of potions sx certain game. ‘When wedo th the ural properties of near abd th arte opeations {lo almost immedi om detitins tat are nary suggested 0 that it ws uit a assing exer to rie th rth pat ote bok 3s ‘Per dofinions had arisen insend fom a0 alempt to geeralse Dedkind’s construction! owever, we espact that tere will be many readers who are more lngrered in playing pres th pulsopsng aboot numbers. Fo thee ‘ender ne ofr the following word of sie. Start eeadlng Chapter 7, ‘on pling sever ppm onc, a ad an interested fiend with whom 0 ‘ly few guns ofthe domino ame ceverbed there: In ts i's easy to anny aa get on ano mae avn one wen you fel you vagy derstand why CIT gies hi tal of Tbove'sadvntage You mig Hk to read Chapter, which eps how the ‘Splet umbets are, You shoal hen Sods icy reading theres ‘ofthe book without knowing ay more abot numbers tan that “oda” trea cern Kin of onal aie) whol numer, and th the Abort Stange onan wich ake Nena epi leer for erin ¥ry lage nine colons ‘Many fends have spat me to write this book, often without beng avare te fac. [owe at pei dt © Eh Beam and Richard Gey, with whom Lam corenty preparing a moe extended book on mathe ‘aa games whch souls overiap ths coe in seve plas. The book ‘ould never ave appeal without he repeated peal prods hat came Tom Anthony Waltiwon of Acsdenie Pres it woul have conned‘Some sl‘ print sober sa, No. ‘Some sid‘ might do good other sad No.” ae 3) a ° ye) 2 t ( om PORT Te, a Pronisice. Te we of numer, nd the positon of some games.Bel 0. Alloumbes ga and sl Dependence of Chapt (Not on oath) Contents Zeroth Part ...On Numbers Capter 0: Al! Numbers Great and Saal CGhnpter |: The Cas Non Fiske CGoaper2: The Real and Ordinal Numbers First Part ... and Games ‘Guupter 16: The Long andthe Short and the Sail Eallgte pendix TeeZEROTH PART ON NUMBERS . . . Ye and came af wee the Cen one ind he Pre hse “inl poasvnare Te Mart tg‘CHAPTER © All Numbers Great and Small hace mt bien pmo J.G-F nn Soe, Walt Lager “This bookie two = (eo, one} part. In tht arth part, or topic ‘isthe notion of mmber_ AS examples we have the fine numbers 1,2 Si joy, nite nombers sch to (te Bt lite ordinal and ls nisin sume such aon If we were fo adopt axiom of ‘hoc thn teint cardinal suber ie Ny oul be ened with the least corresponding ordinal umber, so that we can Teer the 00 at ‘at font sytem ltbough the athe feces be sytem of Surreal Nembe We shal every saber hat o8n igus nme ad propre and many emake nomi, ch yorn-E sypeaz But the number" ~ 1 wil nt are ia the same way those ‘Re eit in Chapter 8 sine tere no prope enjoyed by which at Shared by ~ Tac we reply to question boat "the square rot of =I" ‘simply asking each which square root of ~1 mean Lat ts sce how thow who were good st conoing somber bare approached this prob in the past ‘adetnd (ad before hin te athor—thoupht 9 be Esdonae—o the sh book of Buc) contracted the ral nombes tom the atonal Hs ‘method wa to divide te raoaale to two set La Rin och @ way thal Bo uber of was rete than any numberof, and wet eton” 0 efit pew number {L|R) a the cave tht per Loe R had an ete prio. "is method prodoc ¢ lgeally sound colton of el numbers (fe lgnore some objetons on the grounds ef ncotity,ete), Bot as ean cele on several counts Pttp the mot inp tt he raina te supposed ove bee already consrocted sme other Wa, 2b Jeae Yooonatrctd” a certain cel umbers. Te dsntion between the ‘Sand "aor rations sems rial ut esti ‘Cantor consricted the infnte ordinal numbers. Supposing the ites 1.23. gen be cbse that the ordereypeo a ew and infinite) somber peter than a of them. Then the orders9pe of (1.2.5.0 8 Su gretraumer oI, and 9 ab on abd on The smi cbjetons to Cantor's procedure bas already Ben mtb von Nevrana, who ober {Bacith eanecemay #0 soppise 12,8... given and that i ata 0 fae O vate han 1, He to tas each ord as the cet (ater thas tbe order tye of lr prevoor ones. Thus foc You Nana, Os the empty eh that (0), 2 the et (0 the at (1,2), a8 9008 ts chgte we hl sow ito mato ae po singe abd snore gone! ene by which we can contac be ver age Cass No of "Su real Numbers” whic glues bo he el mubers andthe el num [cn aswel sober lite tov mestoned stove. lsd his book we tall ruiy omic ajectve “hel cose by Doss Kath, ansipy ell ‘he ings numbers” tars ot tat No it Bel, a fld whose ‘Somain ins per Cless)—in general we bal apie the nal eer of fy hig” ence on the grovde tat proper lapses, like proper 983, ‘Senerve apa ets So, forintance, he word Group wll mex ay E007 Show domains proper clas. Re - CONSTRUCTION UL Rareany two sts of amber, andng member of Lit > any member ofthe rena mabe (LTR) All ausbers are consractd in this way. CONVENTION x= [E|R} we write 2 forthe spel memBie of Land 2 i the ‘yp member of Fr isle ten wit (334) Mra fabercitef.-) means tat x (L|R), whee abc. a so pia tomes of and ef tbe pial mee of DEFINITIONS. Defniion ofx > 259 ™ Welny > yifloo xy and x< soy! and x yi 3 x Ween gy tomesn that y doe 10D Defation ix = x > Hx <3: gayle yand’y 0h 5 > yi > yond y $8 persons 5 Defion of + skye Gb we te ptea e Define. “reel, Detaton a ag ty ap — stp ay 4 at — | Tey apt aby tat — a8) 1 remarkable that ths few Hows akeady dene a realcloned Fld vith a vey ric site, "We now comment on the deins A mot important comment whose toga fle wl be dst ater eta he notion of equally dad ‘elaron Ts apparent diflereatdtsiins wil pod he same number, nd we must dsingish between the form [L[B) of a Rube and the ‘ber el, "A te eftons ae inductive 0 that to dai for istans, wher sy me must considr a number of imi questons aoe! the pais 3% fad pba thee poblme re al sine than he given one It pethape for que o obvious tat te lnditions require no ax since imately ‘te te aden o problems abou seb te emp set In gener! when we wish to etublih a proposition A fora umber ‘we wl prow ndosiey by dodalag Ps om the tt fale prope Sons Fs and Pe!) We rep th pave "al amber are constructed in ths way” Justin the estima ef ts procedyre When proving ropestons (9 avlvng two vanbles wey uo double ction Sotoane Pos) om the tra of all propostos of te form Ps, Peon PIAL Ps) (andy ocessary. POA, Ps Py POR A let Such mule nducton canbe aid i the sol waynes of cepented single inductions. “Wala culver towccersiexesins [LR] hata st sunbes, sine they dont xt the conio that 0 member of sal b> ay ember Sth In gent we may wate Gown ny expansion (C1) ad even dics ‘teqalisesbevocn uch expressions blr esate ey we umber, ‘ee wal soc an expan orp a mae west esas he ‘Solon on adhe more ener! ny developed ie next pat te ook we show tht when te condion on Land cited we obtain the mre penal ion of game ‘Our oer comin concen the motives for thew patcla fitions. [Now its ous intention tht each new amber aba le even tbe numbers 2 othe and (ote igh abd hat y=, ety sll hae thei ‘eu properie So hata) y'> some 2¥ we wot no ave ft6 sc gunmen omar AND LL then x3 Silay, we cold st allow => yf << some So we Boe 2 Sots aes Cs conor eh ot mot ta bs ‘Senare ta aunties asta otro) Fol he dlaions io a wat wo kom aay by he nme ‘spl gus) abet te ober lg dete a ake SUT NG Er tate Th ions obese propris SOAPT'E twee and 2 andy bwegn 9 and 7 ten we oe Strath sy mse twas to sy and 2 9 fon tee) TESTES ene ah wh yi the eon of + Shey 2s wile een on Geant 2 (othe a wich Sites ace “= eee Tet men ey tid eat what we “aed” kaoy abot. re nig scm fr esto tat we ino tay Hes between yan 7 {ene and yan on ther wc woul ls on B= blir", Dat tifa neo wae Fy ht we “ener” ee sometine ae Peale nea so Seen ces When His eed t (Ce Scena itreattn e “ulead Enomoto ou Saesanaae teen ss ‘ker at el ef upto dt core fnon wih comes fram te sbervaon hat (incom = sO and y= Fe > 0 utter eo sy ovat vo tat we men fave 2y> Hy Se Tap Sn be roaches one an er ead asia es pieces’ dent dacs we can Weds oegsaly sea esas ica we cone Seine Hy no he ete eqns etalon car i that or pve mambo 25) ee eseenen Sb Tay ey sarong tan bab oqo) >, "Wi ee summarie our ovens by sping that the dtiaons othe soc aprnons tp ons rej e senple posle ions Euro copetet wit htented proprio inte set cape we ‘Ra wet tt tae intendad opr Fal bla of ai suber, but he fischer we Sl singh er the stn o> isan Tasinpiy oc naon, bea Lites (6 8} anu eer meatutaimly wre a beeceloea al er larRy {EXAMPLES OF NUMBERS, AND SOME OF THEIR PROPERTIES ‘The pander According tothe constraton every sumber asthe fom (LR), whe asd Rare most of exter constrcind nambers So how can the rete pony gta round, mbes? “The aster, of cours i that evr before we hae any numbers we have a coriain et of numbers, namely the empy set i So the eae constr ‘omber an only be [| R} with both = R = Goin th simple note ‘don the auter{[). Thi umber we cll @ "i Oa momber)Yeq since we sro have any inequality ofthe fom (OF > OF for theres either a OF nora 01 G0 > OYes for we can hav no inequality othe form O* < Oor0 < OF So byte defniton, and hapiy, we hae 00. Wo alo ee fom the ‘etalon dat —0'~ 0-+0-—0 since there eno numberof any ofthe forms ~0F, 080" + 40 + 0,0" + 0 + OF Asighty mor complicated ‘hurtin of he ste type thats 0 sine fn every eof he ee ening xy there is a metion of oc 7% 50 that when = Ono tem i ‘endo andthe expression for =) recs to {|} = 0 So the number O has A eat some othe properties we know and lov ace lnialy thre ibe evi constuced ‘Temumber mad 1 Wecan now et es {) ed (0) fe Land, tang opty saber (|) (1), {[0, (10) Hut sine me Rave aed proved ht 30, (0[0 tne rome and we have el two ew te wh we Garr (oj and = {10} Now a sla acl ston o> 17h wit be ries he i OF with OF <1 bei) veh = 1 (here amet IF =O, 80 ont aye > IST ph Toner ules thew wi "or tha cour“ pleat be) So wee 30 eso >. yey, we ate =I < and nega “heave then we stoudbive =f 21 We ck ti Te =1 >I Thi wil Happen ene th (=I. 10 er samy (= =, Soweaauchawe “13 1 Tr > =I Thr it Sapp lew hs wih. of (1 wh (cir) Sot “Io > “la wehope Wecan gees prt of his at rut tees 20 x anno, sume. ytos voto. We fergoten ce hat > 1. Why Sot do house? Te mbes 2, and he eptines We now hivethre number =1 <.0-< 1, and 50 8 whole Bitter of(fms lovete Lh Dt nt emir boa > ay SEA UR), (e110), (=1 0.1} (111), (011), (1,011) ew ape hed a () > at) <0 som pee ie eet ied Toy eats oft SS he ae a aoe sof te i on rama tease heroes ‘Soe Gaboniaa 0c ce bata oct Comes ‘Shei! fe ek feo ty 2 VET Cty ae OS ar She ay int ig tepie' We St Roce ie sw =? We ASSET cate tent 200 x < ne onteaae ong HUsnbertloey S Soveta pty STRANGE Ser ct i slants tag eto i Spain, bets cpt rcpt eden (i-noe (== (1-203) * == (19) = (160 $x (-1]0) = (110.1) om (i= (11) (1 = tay 7 y= (ol) = (L010) T= (ol) ={-10}) 2— (11) = G11} Crht]} = (101). cout wt a yes opin La wk en SPRITE TTY SSSA agree ny it eee! WE STN eae x44 x00 sar eey Hk < nets cea teas! Teoh We le seni 2x dg on qian nenior piss qeyeme bart, Some Binoy pated la ty ween oe eur snes ° ‘This jin ll tbe oqalte in the table (We allow hoo our yo ‘elas onthe ight) $=) [inthe cate {—1|1} We oa to as the proces twice Ths since <1 0 (|), weave O= {=|} Then sine 10 = (—1]}, me dave en Tels not hand ochesk the neque mae-i<-feoc}c1<2, hich shows that a lest thee numbers have the ht onder proper, ‘What elo do we require to jos tee names? “Accordiag tothe dfation 141 (+140), sinceO isthe only 1, nd thee ino 18 So provided 0+ Land Obebave ‘sexpeiedwehuvel +1 = 2.05 wemight hope Bot povided # +0.— Sod r0m she have 240m (40st +0) = (tla ae and similaly 0+ x = x Since me already know 0 + 0 = ths shows hat T'S 0m 04 1 =1, swe wantd forte proof ef +1 = 2 but in oe ives wan inductive proof hat x +00 4 = x fr all, temic bade to show tat} + = 1 ustying te name of From the desition upposing tat x+y = yx for al xy, which i quite ‘yt prove nda we eo tha $+4- 614), we wea ing fae teporc tae orb Te} + fp Teunew fo} +f 0.08 my me baeto dtne fet Lat pete wh 5 Ye erent soe a ee + 1402101 $b Lopd +47 Yau unen (npg) oO sone +) Bat sce ocprdretueds jepson} siot Néwishetim le goon “elageir te there Heol cogadh nee 4 = inom fo erp and hve ity teach the 0 thatthe as nove fa |? Whe hp a eet, thr lf ny spe abe inten wih oo hen i (Eppa weomaae = (iT10 ce womens eat HD BLL 6x > 07 Yeu less 2< 0 (a) or < some 0 fale) Soin ti case webies > 0 {nO 2 Yes ans some OF x (fale) or 0 —1 (ae Soin fat a0 * More gee, the argument proves that if every x<0 and every athens =f ofortnstane (1, —312,3) =, ‘Bot whee we ane eid 2 abd 7m bal ang decide aout (| 17) Ast Boss might be hi ean, 9 ts we ave js een that he sneun ce does ot aye Bo, hs bss ugly. A cle gen i he Thrmof he preceding argumentsne me must ac the questions “sx = 9 forte vars poutbley inorder of Simply, te answer, poud be the ‘Sholay tue lot petted Thi ale wl te eaabihed in Chaps 2 dit np onstage that (2417) = 008 11) = 5 “The mambers 3,19, 3, and soon ‘Once me ave settle al the trvalitesike x > fr al wich we ave begun to take for granted, we cam proceed a ile faster, For instance if {Land Rare sets of nambers chose fom tose we already ave, then singe -we rapes thes numbers ar tally ordre in any expression x =. (x44) Wwe ocel only conider th greatest x any) andthe Teast = (toh. This {Bier u foe the nest “day only the mbes : 9 < (Oly 3) tens out tobe the same asthe number} = (10 tha the da raion ‘ete en ayn rete emo” a those rented befor. ‘hao sate sce hat Castors ordinal names (es moe by Yon ‘Neuman toothy to our sytem Ths We have Oa (I. LHL. 2= Oo = ON2I—L) a> eal) rexnns or woamns B here Yoo Neuman at a0, 12, 2 OM CH BL, an P< Baier words. hotel number wesc ne cian eign at tte sc be copy We my sy nt Catr was nly reed a oving ever ‘ahah, hrs Deed poe a gape so ha ws as ‘for Car, never enpy for Deeks ema tht yoring these esticsions ne ota hry tats oh ve eter and oe yt ork wit (Compare hay developed nthe ot caper wi be sea {banda fr el unr a wich we mt fics or state he “ra umber? en aos equeece clas of ore pi hen reals a section of onal wih egive nobus blag iodnced a ome Sgeln tbe process) Sone more sombers ‘Mer the amber (01,233...) = 0 + Tne come a 0 sap, but perhaps the aumbee 0,23. -o} wl This umber cal = Should sastyn << fo al fine integers nother words, should tea inte uber lo than the “ee” int umber cr Adding! 10% se find the momber (4.2, 3..p310 #1) = yay. Har slnce x < and 0 + 1 $c we se that y =o forthe new ene x ‘onthe eb end + onthe pit have made wo dference So x41 = ‘Check tht we get te same reso on subrtng fom e. In sae way, we Bad races tha 0-26 (4L23..]@~ Thane ARAL. |O- Ho —2s@— FD Pay th eset coniet £=(0123.l0=1e—2..) = (leah. 1 shoud not take the reader to ong to verily that x= of When he as loge this and defined of, oat wel be should be in 8 ponton to ‘eine of or instance and overly ou aston tht (01.23...JeRoisar..} Isa square root of.ter en exes ae | | fab Ebse}-2 bb }S fe en mee 1 miemiey pele artes saiatats ot | SSEMSET eT oeaca Pee as Eat artnet { Sextertbeenbeermn cet sama pasar yaar ecient ‘The Class No is a Field Any, ye Go hal ean re mate for» “ender Pope, “The rc ate some Ue tefoe we ore 30 ay parla sums mentioned I i in a the third chapter, we shall produce a “canonical form” for numbers, see teow to map es il mor fey a ia he proce } {ioe eat how pneral out clas of numbers teas Ou fo be eraaday comune ‘There re wo poems tht mis inthe esse reatnent which ned spe cial comes. The fist that tis ecesry to have an expesion (L1 ‘tng even before me have red th is umber. The Sead conces the fat tat eqelisy t+ dain relatos, which must inal be ds anes. The constreton for numbers generalon lamedltly to the felony consvacion fr what we allares Contraction If Land Rar any wo sts of games then there is ine {L]R}. All gamer are consret i this ‘Aitough games re propel the ebjet of he i part ofthis book where the nie wil betes loi’ necesar to itodoce tea before ‘umber, Order relations and athmetc operations on gant ae defied by the sie defationr at for numbers. Te mot emprtem dsinton bowen aumbere aod general gamer that numbers ae tually onde, Dut pes ae not thre et fumes x andy Tr which we hve mete of ‘orow that game x = (xt| 3") sa number, we mos show sly tat alfarthe games fe are oumbers and secondly tht there inequality otthetorm > IDENTITY AND EQUALITY esa cal games x andy intial (x = 9) the let nd gt stare icencal-that Sy every anil 1 Some every = enti,6 ‘cuss N08 A FELD some and vise vere: Recall hat and y ae deed to be pul = 3) iPad nly ie bave bots x > y and y > = The dnton use 20 {rest problems wnt we cone fo moltpicaon, where the toute stat {here can eri equal umes and Yor which x and ae unequal. Bat ll {go wel ong ar we esti oorehes fo the mulipieaton of number ‘ial, we note tat almost al our roo are inductive, 90 that fe instance in proving something about te pal (9) me can suppone that thing eay Known about all pis eh (he 2h (7) Afra tine sn feel fn to nuppren all tlerenom to thse inactive hypotheses. We ‘nmin the reader again that sine ultimately we are edoeed to qustions shout members ofthe empty set, no one of our inductions wil require = ‘sas The games 0 wl balled the Le, Right option ox PROPERTIES OF ORDER AND EQUALITY. Recall that x > yif we hae a inequality of fom 6 y or x 6 7 “Tmon 0 For ll games x we have Ox . ay he Ginza dane Prof) Taking y a2 the dfn of > and using the inductively tes relations 20% wes that we cant have >). Gh issn. (i) Taking ya we now know that we have nox y and x 6 n0 vhece => Uh) fom x> x and x< = we deduce x =x ‘Timon 1 fe > yand y > thnx > Prog Siac x'> yw annot have x¥« yan so by induction we cant ave! = Simiaty we cannot hve 3< “and so we mast hae x >= Suroary We now kxow tht > i paral order ration oe games and that = bes thet properties Gor instance x= y und <7 py 7 <2 “Trae 2 For ny mb x we hae 3 < x » Frog Slack we know x 32, suis to prove a > x This wil be ‘noe unless some 3h <= of xt < rome 2! Bu the Conner dive ors An ” imple x < x88 < x contains the ter is probit by the ‘definition of number. id (G) The soquiy y imps eter some 3 =x 9.0 Me sould have some (+ —F <0 trie! reese + —x 0 Bat hve area, ise we have by indvstion #3 a OSE OO Swmar. With equality rater than dey ation commutative Cosoup operation, wh 0 for sar, and = fr the patie of A thi toe foe gneal pms. [PROPERTIES OF ADDITION AND ORDER ‘Twcone 5 Wehazey D2 Te 4 7 3x45 Proof Het y 3 + 5 wecannt have xaylextrore ty ex ttt and sy induction we cannot have < #0» oso that ‘Now soppoung sy x + 2 wemos have of of Dayenn TAREE Rm EEYSEAE KEYS EEE andi fuer spose y > 2 He deduce one of dteysnty xepPexty xtredten sheath ail of which imply contradictions by cansiation, "Theor tophes i patel that we bave y= 2 WT 4 y= x42 justin relacmen by equals sedition, “Toren 6 (90s mumbo, (i) fx tsanber 05%, fin 7 any are aber 2 x + Prof) wenn Baye OF OF sine there ests nite a nora (From senor aod xi ot numbers, we inductively dee we ee ee and xh a mmbers. Ga) We Seduce inductively that each of ayaa yee ty 0 Fn stopeter py 3) 3 #2, and hat IG, we can Godue y= 3 fom PROPERTIES OF DIVISION We hive ust shown tht if thr is any number y such ay the yisunlgecl termine by x and ¢ provides tat x 0. We mst now ow dow to prodace rus a. Tues to show tat for postive there i Dmber each hat xy 1. We irs pt into vor of stad form, ropens ce Devon a 1 ah tisha fre ch Woe ef han ey eh Proof Let yobs rm xy inserting a new Lf cpio, deleting sa ete La opts The ey tk ty mb and ‘We write x = (0.24 in this section, a restr se of he srbol stig mae Lek opto oe tie oe ly peal) "Now ne shal dt @ number explain the dtition, and prove that y ies mber and that xy = 1 Defaition ya ful te - [Note that expesions involving y* and 7 appear a the deion of y. [eis ti that requis o “expla” he detain, The explanation is tht retard thes part ofthe dito a ding pew options for yn ers ‘held cnet. So een the dition ofthis yan inductive one (TH it ‘ton othe “other” indstion by whi we suppose that Inverse forthe ‘and 2 have leedy bom found} Lett ay 1 Otay" jot ar) ‘rsouns 10. We ave) oF <1 Th pl fom of opton Say Sp sy wilh beware ny 9 ts Shove in ond hi tn rove Fo 9 tee fee'tat t= syne eh oa 0 (aes = = ade as tric Beeanee thn 2 lino ot €1,a04s <0 ete = Oana {pono ead 00% vothat ined = 1 wma The Ct No al ue fe lof Fe Clive Bch hs funn eon fr he an on seg nba = Be tes aye eee denn fat DE en Ghee cere iret andre omega aad wontons Sfychmens hat ons ee escin We sa ie {othe ender teeny inductive prot tat his core ‘Marin Kral hs potted ou tht the options fx canbe writen in where th denominator x cancels formal, the dente postive options of, Sd the product au be emp)-This a Lf option fe just when an eve. ‘numberof the ae Let options of x Thee is simar-clged fr for Bass dition of (CHAPTER 2 ‘The Real and Ordinal Numbers BO iy ei yu wh may le Golih, “Te God Nate Maw ‘The flloming theorem pve usa vary eat way of evtuting part ber Wecalit the simply theorem. Toone 1. Suppose for x =(o!|x4) that some mamber x stigis E52 fx forall ba than option sti he same conditon inmate Not ths old even when oly sven tobe pe] ‘Proof We have sep rules some sami # > % andsox == “Toe main sazron of he theorem that when x gen a « number it {salwaj the simplest suber jing between te ad the = where simples ‘paags oles cated, (For ifs ths spe number, te stl suber 2 camo say the same condition} Bute exact veson preset ‘owe has several advantage saci ols when x gen as a me ot ‘secealy Hnow to equal sumer, an ls prhage oot qt obvious aly what meant by "the pet suber uc hat. Tete applic ‘ons blow here reve aay probe Prac For = 0 the theorem bold, saci ase that xis the simplest