Assessment Task 2 - SHE3001

Empirical Task Report

An Investigation into Melanoma Statistics

in Australia
Claudia Bartolo s4559540

What is the sociology of health and why is social patterning important? 1

What is the purpose and method of this investigation? 2
Data and Statistics: 3
Why are certain demographics over-represented? 4
References: 5
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What is the sociology of health and why is social patterning important?

The sociology of health asks you to look beyond medical options and focus on how health,
illness, and the healthcare system are by-products of how society is organised (Germov 2019). It
examines how social factors, institutions and structures influence health and healthcare, explores the
interplay between society and health, and considers how social inequalities, cultural norms and social
relationships impact individuals’ health and well-being. Key concepts from Germov’s (2019)
‘Introduction to Health Sociology’ help us to understand why examining social patterning is important,
including:

❖ Social Determinants of Health: Socio-economic Status (SES), education, employment, housing,

and access to healthcare.
❖ Social Inequalities: Systematic and unequal distribution of health outcomes across different social
groups. Germov’s (2019) work emphasises that individuals’ health status often heavily depends
on class, race, gender, and other social categories. When social patterns are analysed, health
disparities and inequalities are identified (Baum & Fisher 2014).
❖ Structural and cultural influences: It is recognised that both structural factors (policies and
institutions) and cultural factors (beliefs and norms) play crucial roles in shaping health (O’Brien,
Hunt & Hart 2009). For example, the availability of healthcare facilities is a structural influence,
and behaviours and attitudes toward illness are a cultural influence.
❖ Medicalisation and Social Construction of Illness: The examination of how certain conditions or
behaviours become medicalised or pathologised in society (Link et al. 2008). This involves
defining what ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’ are and carry significant consequences for individuals’
health experiences.
❖ Healthcare Systems and Social Policy: The sociology of health considers the organisation and
function of healthcare systems and looks into issues like healthcare access, insurance and delivery
models. The analysis of these social patterns helps to identify where policy interventions are
required to reduce disparities (Link et al. 2008).

In summary, the sociology of health examines the complex interplay between social factors and health
outcomes. The analysis of social patterning sheds light on how social inequalities, cultural norms, and
structural factors impact health and healthcare, fundamentally contributing to efforts to improve public
health and promote social justice.
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What is the purpose and method of this investigation?

This investigation aims to explore the social patterning of melanoma incidence in Australia,
examining how factors such as socioeconomic status, geographic location, and ethnicity may contribute to
disparities in melanoma rates among different population groups. By analyzing these patterns, we seek to
better understand the influence of social determinants on melanoma risk and identify areas for targeted
public health interventions.

To holistically and comprehensively accommodate years of data and statistics, every effort was made to
avoid relying on too many different studies, reports and organisations. Ultimately, it was decided that the
bulk of data and information used came from the Australian Institute of Health and Well-Being, the
Cancer Council, and Torrens University Australia, with a focus on current Australian data collected from
longitudinal studies.

Locating data appertaining to the rate of mortality and incidence was fairly simple, as most of that data
was readily available on the Cancer Council’s (2022) reports. These reports were specific and
comprehensive regarding ethnicity, stating that non-Indigenous individuals are twice as likely (65.5 cases
per 100,000) to develop melanoma in their lifetime and nearly three times as likely (5.1 deaths per
100,000) to die from it when compared to Indigenous Australians.

The AHIW (2016) reports showed that geographic location had an influence on the rates of prevalence,
with those living in inner regional areas (62 cases per 100,000) having the most cases reported, and very
remote areas reporting the lowest number of cases (33.9 cases per 100,000).

It was evident from Torrens University Australia’s data (PHIDU 2023) that there was a strong correlation
between high SES and the prevalence of melanoma (males = 2067 per 100,000 and females = 1524 per
100,000), as the rate of prevalence among the low SES were well below the number of cases recorded for
those from a higher SES (males = 1325 per 100,000 and females = 994 per 100,000).

The Cancer Council’s (2022) statistics showed that the greatest factors affecting the rate of incidence and
mortality among non-Indigenous Australians were gender and age, with men having a 1 in 14 chance, and
women having a 1 in 21 chance of being diagnosed before the age of 85. Once diagnosed, men had a 1 in
166 chance and women had a 1 in 368 chance of dying by age 85.

Hospitalisation rates that were reported for melanoma were not reported in accordance with the social
factors that were investigated in this report, but rather according to sex. The most recent data found was
from the years 2013-2014 from the AIHW’s (2016) ‘Skin Cancer in Australia’ report, stating that men had
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a higher rate of hospitalisation than women (14,925 compared to 8,512) with a total of 23,437 cases of
hospitalisations for melanoma.

Data and Statistics:

Disease: Socio-Economic Status Ethnicity Geographic Location

Melanoma
High Low Indigenous Non-Indigenous

Prevalence: Male: Male: Male: 30 Male: 65.5 Inner regional: 62 per

2,067 per 1,325 per per year per 100,000 100,000
100,000 100,000 Female: 22 Female: 44.3 Outer regional: 57.3 per
Female: Female: per year per 100,000 100,000
1,524 per 994 per Major cities: 47.9 per
100,000 100,000 100,000
Remote: 50.3 per 100,000
Very remote: 33.9 per
100,000

Mortality: 1,087 1,175 2.2 per 5.1 per Inner regional: 5.8 per
deaths deaths 100,000 100,000 100,000
annually annually Outer regional: 5.5 per
5.8 per 5.9 per 100,000
100,000 100,000 Major cities: 4.4 per
100,000
Remote: 5.1 per 100,000
Very remote: 4.9 per
100,000

Hospitalisations: Male: 14,925 - 12.3 per 100,000

Female: 8,512 - 6.5 per 100,000
Total: 23,437 annually
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Why are certain demographics over-represented?

Certain demographic groups are over-represented in the data that has been investigated, such as the
Caucasian demographic, as fair-skinned individuals are at a higher risk of developing melanoma (Cancel
Council 2022). This is due to the malignant transformation of melanocytes (pigment-producing cells) and
with less melanin, Caucasian people have less protection from the harmful UV radiation of the sun, thus
having more risk of developing skin cancer.

Many factors contribute to the over-representation of Caucasian individuals in this data:

❖ UV exposure patterns: Geographic locations, such as living by the beach, more leisure time in the
sun and those that don't adequately utilise sun protection are predominantly fair-skinned, and
from a high socio-economic status (as represented by the table above).
❖ Geographic location: Melanoma incidence rates in Australia are the highest in the world (State of
the Nation 2022) due to higher levels of sunlight. Also being a predominantly fair-skinned
population due to colonisation and dispossession, the over-representation of Caucasians is more
pronounced.
❖ Screening & awareness: As a country that is highly aware of the incidence and dangers of
melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers (NMSC) (AIHW 2016), Australia strongly advertises
and advocates for regular and thorough mole-mapping and screening services at easily accessible
healthcare clinics. Higher awareness, regular screening, and access to affordable healthcare lead
to more frequent and earlier diagnoses, contributing to the over-representation of melanoma
statistics among the Caucasian demographic.
❖ Colonisation: The ‘deliberate and calculated’ manner which aimed to ‘displace and distance
people from their land and resources’ (Sinclair 2004; Sherwood 2013). The colonisation of
Australia in the late 18th century led to an increased population of fair-skinned individuals, and
with them came European cultural practices that involved outdoor activities and sports,
contributing to increased sun exposure without adequate sun protection.
❖ Racism: Indirectly influencing the disparities evident in the data and statistics, racism has an
effect on healthcare access, with marginalised or minority populations facing barriers to receiving
timely diagnosis and quality treatment (Haas & Rohlfsen 2009). This ultimately impacts the
severity of melanoma and reduces survival rates. Health education is also impacted, as public
health campaigns are not effectively spread through all regions, leading to variations in health
education and awareness. These minority populations then may not have adequate information
regarding the dangers of UV radiation and the importance of skin protection.
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In conclusion, the over-representation of Caucasian individuals in melanoma statistics can be attributed to

a complex interplay of factors, including skin pigmentation, UV exposure patterns, geographic location,
awareness and screening practices, historical factors like colonization, and the indirect influence of racism
on healthcare access and health education. Understanding these multifaceted dynamics is crucial for
addressing melanoma disparities and developing comprehensive strategies for prevention, early detection,
and equitable healthcare access for all population groups.

References:

Australian Institute of Health & Wellbeing (AIHW) 2016, Skin Cancer in Australia, AIHW, Australian
Government, viewed 4 October 2023,
https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/0368fb8b-10ef-4631-aa14-cb6d55043e4b/18197.pdf?v=20230605165
347&inline=true

Australian Institute of Health & Wellbeing (AIHW) 2019, Cancer in Australia 2019, AIHW, Australian
Government, viewed 4 October 2023,
https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/cancer/cancer-in-australia-2019/summary

Baum, F & Fisher, M 2014, ‘Why behavioural health promotion endures despite its failure to reduce
health inequities’, Sociology of Health & Illness, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 213-225,
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.12112

Cancer Council 2022, Skin Cancer Incidence and Mortality, Cancer Council, viewed 4 October 2023,
https://www.cancer.org.au/about-us/policy-and-advocacy/prevention-policy/national-cancer-prevention-po
licy/skin-cancer-statistics-and-issues/skin-cancer-incidence-and-mortality

Germov, J 2019, ‘Imagining health problems as social issues’, Second Opinion: An introduction to health
sociology, 6th edn, pp. 2-23, Oxford University Press.

Haas, S & Rohlfsen, L 2009, ‘Life course determinants of racial and ethnic disparities in functional health
trajectories’, Social Science & Medicine, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 240-250,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.10.003

Link, BG, Winter, AS, Fountain, C, Cheslack-Postava, K, Bearmana, PS, Montez, JK, Hernandez, EM,
Vuolo, M, Frizzell, LC, Kelly, BC, Sheehan, CM, Hoebel, J, Kuntz, B, Kroll, LE, Finger, JD, Zeiher, J,
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Lange, C, Lampert, T, Walsemann, KM & Pampel, FC 2008, ‘Epidemiological Sociology and the Social
Shaping of Population Health’, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 367-384,
https://doi.org/27638766

National Cancer Control Indicators (NCCI) 2019, Relative survival by stage at diagnosis 2011–2016, a
snapshot in time, NCCI, Australian Government: Cancer Australia, viewed 4 October 2023,
https://ncci.canceraustralia.gov.au/features/relative-survival-stage-diagnosis-2011%E2%80%932016-snap
shot-time

PHIDU 2018, ‘Monitoring Inequality in Australia - by Quintile of place of residence, Torrens University
Australia, viewed 5 October 2023,
https://phidu.torrens.edu.au/current/graphs/sha-aust/quintiles/aust/cancer-incidence-persons.html

PHIDU 2023, ‘Notes on the Data’, Social Health Atlas of Australia, Torrens University Australia, viewed
5 October 2023, https://phidu.torrens.edu.au/current/data/sha-aust/notes/phidu_data_sources_notes.pdf

O’Brien, R, Hunt, K & Hart, G 2009, ‘The average Scottish man has a cigarette hanging out of his mouth,
lying there with a portion of chips’: prospects for change in Scottish men’s constructions of masculinity
and their health-related beliefs and behaviours’, Critical Public Health, vol. 19, no. 3-4, pp. 363-381,
https://doi.org/10.1080/09581590902939774

Sherwood, J 2013, ‘Colonisation - it’s bad for your health: the context of Aboriginal health’,
Contemporary Nurse, vol 46, no. 1, pg. 28-40, https://doi.org/10.5172/conu.2013.46.1.28

Sinclair, R 2004, ‘Decolonising pedagogy for the seventh generation’, First Peoples Child & Family
Review: A Journal on Innovation & Best Practices in Aboriginal Child Welfare Administration, Research,
Policy & Practices, vol. 1, no. 1, pg. 49-61.

State of the Nation 2022, ‘Final Report - February 2022’, A Report into Melanoma - A National Health
Priority, Melanoma Institute Australia, viewed 5 October 2023,
https://melanoma.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/MIA-and-MPA_SoN-Report_Final-Report_28-Mar
ch-2022.pdf