BCSE205L - Computer Architecture and Organization

L T PC
3 0 0 3

Dr. M. Bhuvaneswari
Assistant Professor Senior Gr.2
School of Computer Science and Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
m.bhuvaneswari@vit.ac.in
 BCSE205L - Computer Architecture and Organization
• Syllabus

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 Introduction
• Memory is one of the most important functional units of a computer.
• Used to store both instructions and data.
• Stores as bits (0’s and 1’s), usually organized in terms of bytes.
• How are the data stored in memory accessed?
• Every memory location has a unique address.
• A memory is said to be byte addressable, if every byte of data has
a unique address.
• Some memory systems are word addressable also (every addressed
locations consists of multiple bytes, say 32 bits or 4 bytes)

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 Introduction
• Programmers want unlimited amount of memory with very low latency.
• Fast memory technology is more expensive per bit than slower memory.
• SRAM is more expensive than DRAM, DRAM is more expensive than
disk.
• Possible solution for having large size of memory with average latency in
affordable cost?
• Organize the memory system in several levels, called memory
hierarchy.
• Exploit temporal and spatial locality on computer programs.
• Try to keep the commonly accessed segments of program / data in the
faster memories.
• Results in faster access times on the average.
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Memory Location
Memory Location and Addresses
Byte Addressable Memory
 Big-Endian and Little-Endian Assignments
• Big-Endian: lower byte addresses are used for the most significant
bytes of the word
• Little-Endian: opposite ordering. lower byte addresses are used for
the less significant bytes of the word
 Memory Hierarchy
• The memory system is organized in several levels, using
progressively faster technologies as we move towards the processor.
• The entire addressable memory space is available in the largest
(but slowest) memory (typically, magnetic disk or flash storage).
• We incrementally add smaller (but faster) memories, each
containing a subset of the data stored in the memory below it.
• We proceed in steps towards the processor.
 Memory Hierarchy
• Typical hierarchy (starting with closest to the processor):
• Processor registers
• Level-1 cache (typically divided into separate instruction and
data cache)
• Level-2
• Level-3
• Main memory
• Secondary memory (magnetic disk / flash drive)
• As we move away from the processor:
• Size increases
• Cost decreases
• Speed decreases
Memory Hierarchy
Memory Hierarchy Comparison
 Characteristics of Memories
Location Access methods
CPU Capacity
Sequential access Word size
Internal(main) Direct access
External (secondary) Random access Number of words
Associative access

Performance
Access time Physical characteristics
Cycle time
Transfer rate Based on different aspects Erasable/non erasable
Volatile/non volatile

Physical type Memory Technology

Unit of Transfer
Semiconductor SRAM
Magnetic surface Word
DRAM
Optical Block
Flash Memory
Magnetic disk
 Location
• With most visible aspect of memory, the memories are located in
three areas of the computer.
• CPU - In the form of CPU registers, which are used by CPU as its
local memory.
• Internal (main) - .The internal memory is often equated with main
memory.
• External (secondary) - The external memory consists of peripheral
device, such as disk and tape that are accessible to CPU via I/O
controllers.
 Capacity
Word size
The capacity of the internal memory is typically
expressed in terms of bytes or words.
Number of words
This capacity also depends on number of word in
memory.
Unit of Transfer
For the internal memory, the unit of transfer is equal to the
number of data lines into and out of the main memory
module (word Length).
Word The common word lengths are 8,16, and 32 bits.
Block For external memory, the data often transferred in
much longer units than a word, and these are
referred to as Blocks.
 Access Methods
• Random-access versus Direct/Sequential access:
• A memory is said to be random-access when the read/write time is
independent of the memory location being accessed.
– Examples: CMOS memory (RAM and ROM).
• A memory is said to be sequential access when the stored data can only
be accessed sequentially in a particular order.
– Examples: Magnetic tape, Punched paper tape
 Access Methods
• A memory is said to be direct or semi-random access when part of the
access is sequential and part is random.
– Example: Magnetic disk.
– We can directly go to a track after which access will be sequential.
Associative access
• A memory is said to be associative access when a word is retrieved
based on a portion of its contents rather than its address
– Example: Cache memories
 Performance
• There are three parameters are used to measure the performance of the
computer
• Access time - The time required to read/write the data from /into desired
record. It depends on amount of data to be read/write in the desired
record.
– If the amount data is uniform for all records then the access time is
same for all records.
• Latency - The time it takes to access a particular location
• Cycle time - Combination access time plus time required to access
particular location.
– Random access method - memory cycle time is same for all
records.
– Sequential access and direct access - memory cycle time is
different.
 Performance
• Transfer rate/Throughput - The rate at which the data can be
transferred into or out of a memory unit.
• For random access memory it is equal to 1/cycle time.
• For non random access memory the following relationship holds:
Tn =Ta +(N/R )
Where
Tn = Average time to read or write N bits
Ta =Average access time
N = Number of bits
R = Transfer rate ,in bits per second (BPS)
 Physical Type
Semiconductor - uses semiconductor-based integrated circuits to
store information.
Magnetic surface
Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on
a magnetically coated surface to store information.
Example:
Magnetic disk, Floppy disk (used for off-line storage)
Hard disk drive (used for secondary storage)
Optical
The typical optical disc, stores information in deformities on the
surface of a circular disc and reads this information by
illuminating the surface with a laser diode and observing the
reflection.
 Physical characteristics
Erasable/non erasable
Erase the stored information by writing new information
Magnetic storage is erasable.
Unable to erase the stored information - CD-R
Read-only Memory (ROM) is one where data once stored in permanent or
semi-permanent.
Data written (programmed) during manufacture or in the laboratory.
Examples: ROM, PROM,EPROM, EEPROM.
 Physical characteristics
• Volatile versus Non-volatile
• A volatile memory system is one where the stored data is lost when
the power is switched off.
• Examples: CMOS static memory, CMOS dynamic memory.
• Dynamic memory in addition requires periodic refreshing.
• A non-volatile memory system is one where the stored data is
retained even when the power is switched off.
• Examples: Read-only memory, Magnetic disk, CDROM/DVD, Flash
memory, Resistive memory
 Memory Technology
• Static RAM
• Very fast but expensive memory technology (requires 6 transistors /
bit). Packing density is limited.
• Dynamic RAM:
• Significantly slower than SRAM, but much less expensive (1
transistor / bit). Requires periodic refreshing.
 Memory Technology
• Flash memory
• Non-volatile memory technology that uses floating-gate MOS
transistors.
• Slower than DRAM, but higher packing density, and lower cost per
bit.
• Magnetic disk:
• Provides large amount of storage, with very low cost per bit.
• Much slower than DRAM, and also flash memory
• Requires mechanical moving parts, and uses magnetic recording
technology