JMG 211

GEOGRAFI MANUSIA

(SIDANG AKADEMIK 2013/2014)

SOCIOLOGY THEORY

By

xxxx

Pusat Pengajian Pendidikan Jarak Jauh

11800 Universiti Sains Malaysia

xxx@usm.my @ 04-6533934

DECEMBER 2014
CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION

2.0 THE EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL THEORY CONCEPT

3.0 LAW OF THREE STAGES

3.1 Theological Stage

3.2 Metaphysical Stage

3.3 Scientific Stage

4.0 CONCLUSION

REFERENCES
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION

Social theories are frameworks of empirical evidence used to study and interpret social

phenomena (Wikipedia 2015). A tool used by social scientists understanding sociality of

human races to historical debates over the most valid and reliable. Certain social theories

attempt to remain strictly scientific, descriptive, and objective cause for certain rule to ensure

reliability of normal phenomena in society.

Theory is a system of generalized statements or propositions about phenomena. However,

there are two additional features that, together, distinguish scientific theories from other idea

systems, such as those found in religion or philosophy. A sociologists seek to develop or

refine general statements about some aspect of social life. Abstract proposition that can be

tested in any society once the key concepts making up the theory, “modern” and “religion,”

are defined and observable measures are specified. Social theory as a distinct discipline

emerged in the 20th century and was largely equated with an attitude of critical thinking,

based on rationality, logic and objectivity, and the desire for knowledge through a posterior

methods of discovery, rather than a priori methods of tradition.

A difference between sociological theories and those found in other scientific disciplines

stems from the nature of their respective subjects. Societies are always in the process of

change, while the changes themselves can be spurred by any number of causes, including

internal conflicts, wars with other countries, scientific or technological advances, or through

the expansion of economic markets that in turn spreads foreign cultures and goods. As a

result, it is more difficult to fashion universal laws to explain societal dynamics. Moreover,

we must also bear in mind that humans, unlike most other animals or naturally occurring

elements in the physical world, are motivated to act by a complex array of social and

psychological forces.
 Sociological theories share certain characteristics with theories developed in other

branches of science. However, there are significant differences between social and other

scientific theories as well. First, sociological theories tend to be more evaluative and critical

than theories in the natural sciences. Sociological theories are often rooted in implicit moral

assumptions, which contrast with traditional notions of scientific objectivity. In other words,

it is often supposed that the pursuit of scientific knowledge should be free from value

judgments or moral assessments; that is, the first and foremost concern of science is to

uncover what is, not what ought to be. Indeed, such objectivity is often cast as a defining

feature of science, one that separates it from other forms of knowledge based on tradition,

religion, or philosophy. While some sociologists adopt this model of scientific inquiry, others

tend to be interested not only in an objective understanding of the workings of society but

also in realizing a more just or equitable social order. The work of many theorists is shaped in

important respects by their own moral sensibilities regarding the condition of modern

societies and what the future may bring. Thus, sociological theorizing at times falls short of

the “ideal” science practiced more closely (though still imperfectly) by “hard” sciences like

physics, biology, or chemistry.

Sociological theories should be used as guidelines for evaluation, helping us to understand

the impact of social interventions and to focus on the important influencing factors. As an

example for the use of sociological theory for evaluation, this paper will present a concept for

ex-post-evaluations of political programs and projects, developed by Reinhard Stockmann in

the early 90s (Stockmann 1997). Originally used for vocational training projects in the

framework of development aid programmes, it has been proved as a useful tool in several

countries in four of the five continents on earth and successfully adapted to different other
topics. Among others, this evaluation concept has been applied for evaluating environmental

communication programmes in the Federal Republic of Germany (Stockmann et al. 2001;

Meyer 2002a, b).

These two aspects of sociological theory are responsible, in part, for the form in which

much sociological theory is written. While some theorists construct formal propositions or

laws to explain and predict social events and individual actions, more often theories are

developed through story like narratives. Thus, few of the original readings included in this

volume contain explicitly stated propositions. One of the intellectual challenges you will face

in studying the selections is to uncover the general propositions that are embedded in the

texts.

2.0 THE EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL THEORY CONCEPT

Theory-driven evaluations (Chen & Rossi 1980) have two main advantages: on one

hand, theories guide the evaluation process by telling evaluators which questions should be

asked, which causal linkages should be identified, and how the findings can be ordered and

classified. On the other hand, evaluation results help social scientists to clear cut common

research questions, to test thesis logically derived from basic theories, and to verify general

formulated classification systems for its usability. Stockman’s evaluation concept, as

mentioned before, is based on three interrelated theoretical models. These models are widely

recognised and acknowledged not only in sociology but also in various other disciplines of

social sciences and its theoretical assumptions are proved by an impressive amount of

empirical research.

The evaluation framework presented here is steady in its basic elements, but always

changing in its specific details not only because of the need for adaptation to a broad range of

evaluation topics. Comte believed that the new scientific industrial society will become the
society of all mankind. The positive or scientific stage is the ultimate stage in a series of

successive transformations the human race goes through and each stage is superior to the

previous one. The new system is built upon the destruction of the old, and with evolution

comes progress and the emancipation of the human mind. Thus, Comte theory of progress

often referred to as the un-linear theory of evolution involved development of the individual

mind, the human mind and the human society in an ultimate state of positivism. Comte stated

that human history is the history of a simple people because the progress of the human mind

gives unity to the entire history of society.

Comte developed social physics, or what in 1822 he called sociology, to combat the

negative philosophies which in his view pervaded French society. The use of the term social

physics made it clear that Comte sought to model sociology after the hard sciences. This new

science (sociology) in Comte view would ultimately become the dominant science. The new

science of society (sociology) was concerned with both social statics and social dynamics.

Both involved the search for laws of social life, Comte felt that social dynamics was more

important than social statics.

3.0 LAW OF THREE STAGES

Comte considered the law of three stages based on the belief of social evolution to

be important societies develops from primitive religion to more advanced philosophical

idealism to modern scientific mentalities.

3.1 Theological Stage: This stage is characterized by the fact that feeling and imagination

dominate in man’s search for the nature, causes and end of things. Explanations take the form

of myths concerning spirits and supernatural beings. In this stage, Comte discussed three
levels of development. In the theological stage, social organization is predominantly of a

military nature. It is military power which provides the basis of social stability and conquest

was common. Once society experienced the philosophical tendencies leading to monotheism,

society moved to the second stage of critical thought which is transitional.

3.2 Metaphysical Stage: In this stage men pursue meaning and explanation of the world in

terms of essences, ideals, forms in short, in conceptions of some ultimate reality. The

institutional changes correlated with this stage of thought are chiefly. The development of

defensive militarism and the extension of established law which lays down a move secure

basis for cooperation. This stage is dominated by the military, churchmen and lawyer, a stage

in which mind presupposes abstract forces.

3.3 Scientific Stage: The nineteenth century marked the beginning of the positive stage in

which “observation predominates over imagination” and all theoretical concepts become

positive. This stage is dominated by industrial administrators and scientists. The nature of

human mind has given up the vain search for Absolute notions and origins but seeks to

establish scientific principles governing phenomena.

Corresponding to the three stages of mental progress there are three stages of society.

The theological and metaphysical stages are dominated by military values; however, the

former is characterized by conquest and the latter by Defence. The former is characterized by

the predominance of theological thinking and military activity.

Priests were endowed with intellectual and spiritual power while the military

exercised temporal authority. In the scientific industrial society, priest was replaced by
scientists who represent the new moral and intellectual power. With the growth of scientific

thinking, the industrialists dominated the major activities of society.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In summary, the life-course of a project can be roughly divided into three primary

phases: in donor-supported planning and implementation phases during the period of

assistance, and lastly in the period following completion of donor, when the project is

continued under the exclusive direction of the implementation agency.

The problem for the new social sciences which began to emerge in the early to mid-

nineteenth century was therefore to propose a proper object of study and a means of studying

this which was not based on ideas about ‘human nature’

REFERENCES

Abraham, F. and Morgan, J. (1985), Sociological Thought, Macmillan India Ltd.

Barnard, C. J. (1938), The Functions of the Executive. Cambridge, Mass.

Becker, J., D. M. Hartmann, S. Huth & M. Möhle (2001), Diffusion und Globalisierung.

Chen, H. (1990), Theory-Driven Evaluations, Newbury Park : Sage.

Chen, H. & P.H. Rossi (1980), The Multi-Goal, Theory-Driven Approach to Evaluation: A

Chisholm, D. (1989), Coordination without Hierarchy. Informal Structures in

Davis, N. (1996) Europe, a History, Oxford OUP.

Delancy, T. 2005 Contemporary Social Theory, New Delhi, Pearson.

Fletcher, R. (2000), The Making of Sociology Vol. I Jaipur and Delhi, Rawat Publications.

Model Linking Basic and Applied Social Science. In: Social Forces, 59, pp. 106-122.

Multiorganisational Systems, Berkley et al.: University of Carlifornia Press.

Kieser, A. (1992), Lebenszyklus von Organisationen, in: Gaugler, E. & W. Weber (eds.),

Handwörterbuch des Personalwesens, Stuttgart.

Kieser, A. (ed., 1993) Organisationstheorien, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

Lane, C. & R. Bachmann (eds., 1998), Trust within and between Organizations. Conceptional

Issues and Empirical Applications, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Marin, B. & R. Mayntz (ed., 1991), Policy Networks. Empirical Evidence and Theoretical

Considerations, Frankfurt/Bolder, Col: Campus/Westview Press.

Meyer, W. (2002a), Building Bridges to Ecology: the impact of environmental

communication programs in German business. In: Greening of Industry Network (eds.),

Proceedings of the 2002 Conference Corporate Social Responsibility. Governance for

Sustainability, Gothenburg, June 2002 (forthcoming; available at:

http://www.informtrycket.se/gin2002sql/pdf/010073Meyer.pdf).

Meyer, W. (2002b), Regulating Environmental Action of Non-Governmental Actors. The

impact of communication support programs in Germany. In: Biermann, F., Brohm, R. &

Mohr, H.W. (1977), Bestimmungsgründe für die Verbreitung von neuen Technologien,

Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.

Rogers, E. M. (1995), Diffusion of Innovations. New York: The Free Press (4th edition).

Schmidheiny, S. (1992), Kurswechsel. Globale unternehmerische Perspektive für

Entwicklung und Umwelt, Munich: Artemis & Winkler.

Stockmann, R. (1996), Die Wirksamkeit der Entwicklungshilfe. Eine Evaluation der

Stockmann, R. (1997), The Sustainability of Development Cooperation, Baden-Baden:

Nomos.

Stockmann, R. & R. Leicht (1997), Implementationsbedingungen eines kooperativen

Ausbildungssystems in Ägypten, Berlin: Overall-Verlag.