MAU3681 Agriculture Education Module 1

STUDY GUIDE
Agriculture Education 1
B.Ed. (Upper Primary) Hons
MAU3681
Centre for Innovation in Learning and Teaching
Learning Design Unit

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Acknowledgements
The Centre for Innovation in Learning and Teaching's Learning Design Unit wishes to thank
those below for their contribution to this study guide:
Percy M Mashebe Author(s)
E. Karipi Content Editor(s)
G.Murangi Instructional Designer
I. /Uiseb Quality Controller

Contents
About this study guide 1
How this study guide is structured .................................................................................... 1
Course overview 4
Welcome to Agriculture Education 1 MAU3681 .............................................................. 4
Agriculture Education 1 MAU3681—is this course for you? ........................................... 4
Exit Learning Outcomes .................................................................................................... 4
Timeframe ......................................................................................................................... 5
Study skills ........................................................................................................................ 6
Need help? ......................................................................................................................... 7
Assignments ...................................................................................................................... 7
Assessments ....................................................................................................................... 7
Getting around this study guide 8

Margin icons ...................................................................................................................... 8
Unit 1 10
General Agriculture ......................................................................................................... 10
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 10
1. Meaning of agriculture ....................................................................................... 12
2. Sustainable Agriculture ...................................................................................... 13
3. The importance of Agriculture in Namibia ........................................................ 14
4. The importance of teaching agriculture in Namibian schools ........................... 21
6. Major components / Branches of agriculture ..................................................... 22
5. Organizational structure / Career opportunities ................................................. 22
Agriculture offers career opportunities ............................................................................ 23
Unit summary .................................................................................................................. 24
References ....................................................................................................................... 24
Unit 2 26
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES ................ 26
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 26
1. Environmental Factors affecting Agriculture .................................................. 28
2. The effects of climate on plant........................................................................... 33

3. Water cycle ........................................................................................................ 34
Unit Summary ................................................................................................................. 36
References ....................................................................................................................... 37
Unit 3 38
PRINCIPLES OF LAND TENURE SYSTEM ............................................................... 38
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 38
1. Community or communal farming system ...................................................... 40
2. Different types of land tenure system ............................................................. 42
3. Farming systems in Namibia ........................................................................... 43
Intercropping.................................................................................................................... 48
Unit summary .................................................................................................................. 52
References ....................................................................................................................... 53
Unit 4 54
SOIL FORMATION ....................................................................................................... 54
Introduction ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. Functions of soil .............................................................................................. 56
2. The Process of Soil Formation ........................................................................ 56
2. Soil Types .......................................................................................................... 60
Unit summary .................................................................................................................. 68
References ....................................................................................................................... 68
SOIL FERTILITY ........................................................................................................... 69
Introduction...................................................................................................................... 69
1. Plant Nutrients ........................................................................................... 72
2. Macro and Micronutrients ............................................................................... 73
3. Organic fertilizers .............................................................................................. 74
4. The procedure to follow in calculating the rate of fertilizer to be applied to the
soil .......................................................................................................................... 83
5. Methods of Fertilizer Application ...................................................................... 84
6. Overuse of fertilizer ........................................................................................... 88
7. Nitrogen Cycle .................................................................................................. 89
Nitrogen is made available in the soil through different ways ............................................ 90
8. Soil pH ............................................................................................................... 92
Relation of soil pH to soil type and plant growth ................................................................ 94
Unit summary .................................................................................................................. 97
References ....................................................................................................................... 98
SOIL ZONES/TYPES OF NAMIBIA ............................................................................ 99
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 99
1. Namibia Agro-Ecological Zones ..................................................................... 101
2. Agro-Ecological Zones of Namibia ................................................................. 102
3. Different soil zones available in Namibia and their characteristics ................. 104
Unit summary ................................................................................................................ 114
References ..................................................................................................................... 115
About this study guide

Agriculture Education 1MAU3681] has been produced by the Centre
for Innovation in Learning and Teaching. All study guides produced by
the Centre for Innovation in Learning and Teaching are structured in the
same way, as outlined below.
How this study guide is structured

The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the

course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course assignments and assessments.
 Activity icons.
 Units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before
1
About this study guide General Agriculture
starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes.
 New terminology.
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning

activities.
 A unit summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
 Answers to Assignment and/or assessment, as applicable
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this study guide; these may be
books, articles or web sites.
Your comments
After completing Agriculture Education 1we would appreciate it if you
would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this
course. Your feedback might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
2
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

course.
3
4 Course overview General Agriculture
Course overview
Welcome to Agriculture Education

1 MAU3681
The aim of this module is to prepare teachers to teach elementary
agriculture education at upper primary school effectively. The module is
aimed at grooming student teachers to have sound theoretical knowledge
and positive attitude to care and work with animals and plants. It gives
the student teachers to teach the theoretical content and practical skills
necessary to teach upper primary school pupils. It also provides them the
different teaching methods (C6*, C8, C10, C12) and learning theories
necessary to enhance learning of elementary agriculture education at
upper primary level. The module will focus on the general agriculture
(importance of agriculture), components of agriculture education,
organizational structure of agriculture education, environmental
influences on agricultural practices, principles of land tenure system, soil
formation, soil fertility, soil zones in Namibia, soil erosion and
conservation, drainage and irrigation. Teaching methodology will form
an integral part of this module. Micro-teaching and portfolio development
in line with the faculty’s micro-teaching policy is required for this
module.
MAU3681—is this course for you?
Exit Learning Outcomes

The exit learning outcomes for this course are:
 Discuss the importance of agriculture to people,

community and the country.
 Describe the contributions of agriculture to the family,

Exit Learning Outcomes
national economy and world trade.
 State the ways in which crops and animals supply people

with sources of food clothing and income.
4
Agriculture Education 1MAU3681
 Give reasons for teaching agriculture in schools.
 Identify the different components and career

opportunities in agriculture.
 Describe the different types of farming systems.
 Define land tenure.
 Describe the freehold, state-land and communal land

tenure systems including their advantages and
disadvantages.
 Discuss soil formation, erosion, conservation, irrigation

and drainage.
 Identify the different soil zones of Namibia.
 Develop a scheme of work from the syllabus.
 Designing of teaching aids.
 Develop a lesson plan to present the selected topic.
Timeframe
Full Semester
3 period/week, 1x2 practical per week
24 weeks
How long?
5
6 Course overview General Agriculture
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities .
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.

You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.
 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time

management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.
6
Need help?
For routine enquiries please contact the Online Help Desk:
https://elearning.unam.edu.na/support/ (Help Topic: Study Material)
Help For further assistance you can go to your nearest UNAM Campus
Assignments
At least 3 assessments made up of theory and micro-teaching
components.
Please see tutorial letter for instructions on the submission of

assignments.
Assignments
Assessments
Course materials may have activities and/or self-assessment exercises to
check your own understanding of the material, but there are also tutor-
marked assignments/tests which you have to submit. Please see tutorial
letter for more details.
Assessments
7
8 Getting around this study guide General Agriculture
Getting around this study guide

Margin icons
While working through this study guide you will notice the frequent use
of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text,
a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this study guide.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Additional Answers to Assessment

reading Assessments
Assignment Audio Case study Discussion
Exit Learning Feedback Group Activity Help

Outcomes
Prescribed Recommended
Reading website
Note it!/Warning Outcomes
References Reflection Study skills Summary
8
Terminology Tip Video
9
10 Unit 1 General Agriculture
Unit 1
General Agriculture
Introduction
In this unit, we are going to describe Agriculture as the back bone of our
country. We also need to understand that without agriculture there could
be no doctors, engineers, to mention but a few. Generally speaking we
have to note that agriculture is very important to the Namibian people.
For all Namibians to achieve food security it is imperative for us to adopt
the principle of sustaining our natural resources. With the natural
resources I mean soil , water, plants and animals . By sustaining these
natural resources we are at the same time sustaining the Namibian
population. The knowledge of sustainability need to be preserved and
extended to the next generation as their livelihood will depend on
agricultural production. You have to know that the population of Namibia
is steadily increasing and this indicates that more food needs to be
produced to meet the demand for food security in our country. We can
achieve this by cultivating the soil and raring livestock and also through
hard work as our national leaders have repeatedly indicated in their
national speeches to the entire nation.
Upon completion of this unit you should be able to:
 Define the term Agriculture in detail;
 Discuss the importance of sustainable Agriculture to people and

Outcomes the economy of the country;
 Discuss the importance of Agriculture, to the family, community,

the nation and foreign exchange;
 Explain the importance of teaching Agriculture in Namibian
10
schools;
1. Chard, P. (Focus on ‘O’ Level Agriculture Book 1-4.

College Press. Harare, Zimbabwe. ISBN 0869258591
Prescribed reading 2. Mashebe, P.M. (2010). Discovering Agriculture: Namibia

Senior Secondary Certificate. Zebra Publishing. ISBN
9789994564484
3. Mashebe, P.M. (2005). Excellent JSCE Agriculture. Zebra

Publishing. ISBN 9991680438
4. Oluyemi, A. (1996). Senior Secondary Agricultural

Science. Longman. ISBN 0582003407
5. Owen, G. (1984). O- Level Agriculture. Longman. England.

ISBN 0582651032
Elliot, R.I., Stout, G.W., Dejardin, E.J., & Sithole, D. (1985).

Agriculture for Southern Africa: A practical approach up to O’
level. CollinsEducational. London. UK.
Additional reading
Agriculture: Is the cultivation and management of land for
the purposes of planting crops, rearing of

livestock for use as food for human
Terminology
consumption, feeds for domestic animals,
caring for our natural resources and the supply
of raw materials for industrial purposes.
11
GDP: Gross Domestic Product
SADC: Southern African Development Community
COMESA: Common Market for Eastern and Southern

Africa
UN: United Nations
1. Meaning of agriculture
The term agriculture is imitative from two Latin words: ager, meaning
field and cultura, meaning cultivation. Literally, agriculture means field
cultivation. Today, the term is broadly defined.
Agriculture can be defined as the cultivation and management of land for

the rationale of planting crops, rearing of livestock for use as food for
human consumption, feeds for domestic animals, caring for our natural
resources and as well as the providing of raw materials for industrial
purposes.
To practice agriculture means to use natural resources that are available

in our country to "produce commodities which maintain life, including
food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related services.
The definition agriculture includes arable farming or agronomy and
horticulture and all terms for the growing of plants, animal husbandry and
forestry.
Generally, the study of agriculture is known as agricultural science. In

Namibia, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years ago, and
its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates,
cultures, and technologies. However, all farming generally relies on
techniques to expand and maintain the lands that are suitable for raising
domesticated species. For plants, as it is evident in certain parts of
Namibia, this usually requires some form of irrigation, although there are
methods of dry land farming especially in the communal areas. Livestock
is raised in a combination of grassland-based, landless systems, and
water-free area.
It is thus essential to understand that the agricultural community has long

supported new techniques that improve production and help make food
even more affordable for consumers. For example, selection for breeding
in animals and crops has significantly resulted in improved disease
resistance and huge yields.
It is thus important to understand that in the developed countries,

industrial agriculture based on large-scale mono-culture has become the
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foremost system of contemporary farming, although there is growing

support for sustainable agriculture that including organic farming.
It thus important to note that, the major agricultural products all over the
world of which Namibia is part, can be broadly grouped into food, fibers,
fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals (grains),
vegetables, fruits, oils and meat. Meat and cereal (Mahangu , Maize and
Sorghum) are being produced here in Namibia. Fibers include cotton and
wool while raw materials timber. It is evident here in Namibia that over
one third of the country’s work force is employed in the agricultural
sector, second only to the services sector. Although the percentage of
agricultural workers in developed countries has decreased significantly
over the past several centuries, in Namibia the percentage is steadily
increasing.
Now you have an understanding as to what agriculture mean and the

general background have been given, it is thus important to look at the
importance of Agriculture to you, your family including our government.
2. Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable agriculture is an approach to agriculture that focuses on
producing food in a way that does not degrade the environment and
contributes to the livelihood of communities. Therefore it is important to
note that this simple statement communicates a multifaceted concept: that
agriculture must balance production, environmental, and community
development goals.
In reality sustainable agriculture refers to “an integrated system of plant

and animal production practices having a site-specific application that
will over the long term:
 Satisfy human food and fiber needs.
 Enhance the environmental quality and natural resource base upon

which the agricultural economy depends.
 Make the most efficient use of non- renewable resources and on-farm
resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles
and controls.
 Sustain the economic viability of farm operations.
 Enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.
In general it is important to view sustainable agriculture in the way that it

should not be an either/ or proposition, such that a farm either is or is not
sustainable. Somewhat, sustainable agriculture encompasses many
principles and practices that benefit farmer, their farm, their community,
and the environment in which he/she operates.
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Therefore, the economic, environmental, and social goals of sustainable

agriculture all over the world can serve as a useful yardstick for
measuring a farm’s performance and progress over a given period of
time. This approach makes sustainable agriculture pertinent to all
farmers globally because it can be applied to farms of every size and type
in the universe.
The major components of sustainable agriculture include:
Economic Profitability - To be truthfully sustainable, a farm must be

economically viable. The environmental and social benefits of
sustainable production methods on a farm do not always translate into
immediate economic gains. In this regard it is assumed that, sustainable
agriculture practices can have a positive economic impact on a farm.
Environmental Stewardship – it is important to understand that

environmental concerns are central to sustainable agriculture. Therefore,
sustainable agriculture is commonly described as: ecologically sound
practices that have little to no unfavourable consequence on natural
ecosystems.
Social Responsibility- Social sustainability relates to the quality of life for

those who work and live on the farms, as well as those in the local
community. Fair treatment of farm workers, positive farm family
relationships, personal interactions with consumers, and choosing to
purchase supplies locally (rather than from a more far-away market) are
just some of the characteristics considered in social sustainability.
3. The importance of Agriculture in Namibia

Namibia as well as most other countries of the world depends largely on
agriculture for survival. Despite the huge income derived from mining
and tourism, agriculture will remain a significant contributor to the GDP
of Namibia. About 70% of the population of Namibia is involved in
agriculture, either directly as farmers or indirectly in food processing,
marketing and servicing industries. Therefore, agriculture provides four
major necessities: food, clothing, shelter and employment. Agriculture is
essential in Namibia for the following rationales:
Provides food
Food is a basic need. Each family should try to ensure the availability of
sufficient food in line with the millennium goals for healthy nation.
Hence, the UN has declared 2014 Year of Family Farming to encourage
all families to be involved in food production. Food is important for
growth, maintaining health, reproduction and the ability to work (energy).
Food can be of either plant or animal origin, e.g. fruits and vegetables,
eggs, milk, fish, pork and beef. Insufficient supplies of food may result to
14
political instability, anarchy and chaos,while adequate production and

distribution of food will enhance national security.
Fig. 1 Chicken eggs (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
Fig. 2 Sweet Potatoes: Locally produced food in the Zambezi region

(Photo by Percy Mashebe)
15
Provides income
The sale of agricultural products provides farmers with income that they
can use to support their families. Without doubt, however, the greatest
need is for markets to be available or accessible to the farmers in the first
place. The most major challenges faced by small scale farmers in
Namibia are the following:
 Most farms are located far from markets within Namibia or export
destinations to South Africa and elsewhere.
 The Namibian market is very small given the low population of about
2.1 million people in 2006.
 The local purchasing power of the average consumer of farm

products is limited, and it is mainly aimed at staple foods such as
Maize and Mahangu.
 Prior to independence, relatively little effort was made to develop

markets for Namibian produce.
 The most challenge most Namibian farmers face is that farming is

very expensive, which eventually leads to the fact that farmers
farmers demand high prices for their goods.
International trade/foreign exchange
The sale of agricultural products to the European Union provides

Namibia with foreign exchange that is then used to purchase medicines
and industrial goods.
Imports serve to provide agricultural products that the country cannot

produce, while exports earn revenue from sales to foreign markets. Most
cross-border sales are organized by private traders, but all governments
exercise controls and enter into agreements to protect or enhance the
value of farm produce in three principal ways:
 By promoting exports, and therefore local production;
 Through restrictions on imports to protect and support local

production against foreign competition;
 By limiting the export of raw products to encourage local processing
It is thus essential to understand that exports are mainly promoted

through trade agreements between different countries that aim to give
exporters free, cheaper or preferential access to markets in countries with
which Namibia has links. Very important to understand is the fact that
Namibia is party to many southern African and international trade
agreements and communities. These include the following: the Southern
African Development Community (SADC) Free Trade Agreement, the
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA).
It is important to understand that Namibia as a small country, it has to

protect itself from dominance by economically powerful trading parties
who often are in stronger positions to promote their interests. This is the
16
case with South Africa, by far Namibia’s biggest trading partner.

Namibian exports of agricultural goods to South Africa amounted in
value to about N$2,379 million in 2005, while Namibia imported
agricultural products worth N$2,222 million from South Africa. Beef,
mutton and goats are the main food exports to South Africa, whereas
Namibia, imports most of its high value, processed agricultural products,
sugar and staple foods in the form of maize, wheat and rice.
The other major market destination for Namibian farm produce is the
European Union, the main exports being beef, mutton, table grapes and
dates. The current value of food exports to the European Union amounts
to about N$1.1 billion annually.
Fig. 3: South Africa Rand and the Namibian Dollar (Photo by Percy
Mashebe)
17
Fig. 4 United States of America Dollar (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
Provides raw materials
Most agricultural products –for example sunflowers, sugar, mohair and

beef- have to be processed before they can be used. Sugar may be refined,
mohair may be woven into wool to make clothes, and beef may be spiced,
cooked and tinned to produce long lasting corned beef as well as sausage.
Palm oil is used in soap and pomade industries, cocoa beans used in
beverage industries. Rubber is used in the tyre and tube industries, this is
not produced in Namibia at this stage, however, the potentials exist.
Hides and skins are used in the manufacture of leather products such as
shoes, hats, jackets, belts. These are hugely produced in Namibia through
Meatco tanneries.
Some common agro based industries are: beverages factories which

produce tomato puree, jam and juices of tomato, orange, grape, guava,
pineapple and mango. Textile factories which make use of cotton;
breweries which make use of barley and other grains (castle larger and
Windhoek larger are examples); and the confectionary and baking
industries which make use of wheat. Processing increases job
opportunities and also adds value to products, hence increasing revenues
for Namibia.
18
Fig. 5 Cabbage ready for marketing (Photo by Percy Mashebe)
Fig. 6: Maize cob ready for harvest: Source: (www.google.com.na/images )
Employment
Agriculture provides employment for about 70% of the working

population in Namibia, who either work directly on the farm or indirectly
in the primary and secondary industries which utilize agricultural raw
materials as inputs. Hence agriculture provides them ready employment –
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on horticultural farms, fresh produced hubs, ranches, and game farms,

cattle posts and above all in your own villages.
Fig. 7: Local people employed at Kopano community project in the

Zambezi region (Photo by Percy Mashebe)
Agriculture offers career opportunities
There are several branches of agriculture, and many carrier opportunities

(see carrier opportunities). Different levels of training are required for
these. For all careers in agriculture in Namibia one must have a National
Senior Secondary Certificate with credits in mathematics and science
subjects.
Agriculture is more than just farming, one of the world's biggest

businesses, there are over 200 different career areas available in
agriculture. There is also presently particularly in Namibia, a very high
demand throughout the industry for trained, educated and well-motivated
young people to enter the industry.
Not only does agriculture provide a fulfilling and interesting career

choice, it also opens the doors to many other aspects of life, due to the
broad education, skills, training and experience that are required. Careers
in Agriculture will give you an insight into the many varied and
interesting career opportunities that exist within the agricultural industries
from livestock farmer to geneticist, farm manager to race horse trainer.
20
In groups discuss the role of agriculture to a family and national

economy. You should begin your discussion by defining the term
agriculture in your own understanding relating to the Namibian
context.
Group
activity
4. The importance of teaching agriculture in Namibian schools

 To provide learners with adequate skills to make a living and
progressively advance in farming.
 To advance food production through improvement of agricultural

production techniques in schools.
 To prepare learners adequately for producing and marketing farm

commodities effectively.
 To prepare learners for conservation of soil and other natural

resources.
 To provide occupational entry –level skills in agriculture to

school learners.
Give your reflections on the importance of teaching agriculture in

Namibian schools.
Reflection
21
6. Major components / Branches of agriculture

 Agronomy: Crop and soil sciences
 Agricultural Economics/Agribusiness
 Animal Science
 Agricultural Engineering / Farm mechanization
 Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology
5. Organizational structure / Career opportunities

Following are the
Agricultural research officer
Crop production officer
Plant breeder
Range manager
Veterinary surgeon
Animal breeder
Entomologist
Farm mechanic
Irrigation engineer
Land surveyor
Landscaping officer
Farm manager
Marketing manager
Economist
Financial adviser
22
Agriculture offers career opportunities
There are several branches of agriculture, and many carrier

opportunities (see carrier opportunities). Different levels of training
are required for these. For all careers in agriculture in Namibia
one must have a National Senior Secondary Certificate with credits
in mathematics and science subjects.
Agriculture is more than just farming, one of the world's biggest

businesses, there are over 200 different career areas available in
agriculture. There is also presently particularly in Namibia, a very high
demand throughout the industry for trained, educated and well-motivated
young people to enter the industry.
Not only does agriculture provide a fulfilling and interesting career

choice, it also opens the doors to many other aspects of life, due to the
broad education, skills, training and experience that are required. Careers
in Agriculture will give you an insight into the many varied and
interesting career opportunities that exist within the agricultural industries
from livestock farmer to geneticist, farm manager to race horse trainer.
Fig. 8: Local people employed at Kopano community project in the

Zambezi region (Photo by Percy Mashebe)
23
In your groups list the other components and organizational

structures of agriculture, other than the one list above. After you
have listed the components and organizational structures, draw up
Group
a concept map to demonstrate your understanding.
activity
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about the meaning of Agriculture and also
the importance agriculture to the family and also to the national
economy. The unit also set a stage with regard to the components
Summary
and also the organizational structures in Agriculture education.
Above all, the unit presented the importance of teaching agriculture
in our schools.
References
References
Chard, P. (1991). Focus on ‘O’ Level Agriculture Book 1-4.
College Press. Harare, Zimbabwe. ISBN 0869258591
Mashebe, P.M. (2005). Excellent JSCE Agriculture. Zebra
Publishing.
Mashebe.PM (2010). Discovering Agriculture. Windhoek: Zebra
Publishing.
Oluyemi, A. (1996). Senior Secondary Agricultural Science.
Longman.
Owen, G. (1984). O- Level Agriculture. Longman. England.
24
25
26 Unit 2 ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
Unit 2
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES
ON AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
Introduction
We defined environment as the external conditions influencing
development and growth of people, animals and plants. The environment
plays an important role in the adaptation of crops and farm animals to
particular agricultural zones. We group the principal factors of the
environment into climatic, biotic and soil (edaphic) factors. These
environmental factors dictate the distributions of crops and animals all
over the world. Weather is the state or condition of the atmosphere at a
certain place over a short period of time, such as a day. It includes
temperature, wind, relative humidity and rainfall. Photoperiodism is also
important. Weather is ever changing, for example one day may be cold
while the next day next day may be hot. We describe climate as the
average weather conditions at a certain location e.g. temperature,
humidity, wind and rainfall of a place over a long period of time, usually
over 30 years or more. The prevailing weather and climate of an area
influence the types of crops and animals that farmers raise there, and the
ways in which farmers work. For example some crops are able to thrive
well in tropical regions of the world while some are better adapted to the
temperate climate.
 describe in detail the effects of the following

environmental factors on agriculture (temperature,
humidity, rainfall, wind);
Outcomes
 discuss the water cycle in detail by means of a diagram;
26
Chard, P. (Focus on ‘O’ Level Agriculture Book 1-4.

College Press. Harare, Zimbabwe. ISBN
0869258591
Prescribed reading
Mashebe, P.M. (2010). Discovering Agriculture: Namibia
Senior Secondary Certificate. Zebra Publishing.
ISBN 9789994564484

Oluyemi, A. (1996). Senior Secondary Agricultural


ISBN 0582651032
Elliot, R.I., Stout, G.W., Dejardin, E.J., & Sithole, D. (1985). Agriculture
for Southern Africa: A practical approach up to O’ level.
CollinsEducational. London. UK.
Additional Reading
Biotic: Living things
27
Terminology Climate: is a measure of the average pattern of variation

in temperature, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric
particle count and other meteorological
variables in a given region over long periods
of time
Edaphic: Is a nature related to soil
Humidity: Moisture, such as in the air.
Photoperiodism: Is the physiological reaction of organisms to

the length of day or night. It occurs in plants
and animals. Photoperiodism can also be
defined as the developmental responses of
plants to the relative lengths of the light and
dark periods.
Wind: Is the movement of a mass of air over the

earth’s surface
1. Environmental Factors affecting Agriculture

Environmental factors
Table 1 Environmental factors
Climatic Edaphic Biotic
Temperature Soil PH Pests
Sunlight/Solar radiation Soil structure Diseases
Relative humidity Soil texture
28
Climatic Edaphic Biotic
Air movement /wind Soil fertility
Temperature
Temperature refers to the degree of hotness or coldness of the

environment or body as measured on a scale, usually in degrees Celsius.
A maximum and minimum thermometer is used to measure temperature.
Fig. 9 shows the rate of plant growth in relation to temperature

changes (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
Each crop plant has its own approximate temperature range, i.e., its
minimum, optimum and maximum for growth. Although they are
subjected to a rather wide range of temperature, most crops in
Namibia make their best development between 23oC to 28 oC. Plant
either cease growth or die when the temperature is too low or too
high.
Effects of temperature on plants
Plants respond to temperature changes differently: they either grow faster or

slowly. Their growth rates increase with temperature increases, but very high
or low temperatures can reduce growth rate.
 High temperature causes an increase in transpiration and evaporation,

therefore temperatures that are too high can cause plants to wilt and
29
become necrotic. The ideal temperature for good growth of most plants
ranges from 200 C- 300C.
 The rate of photosynthesis increases with temperatures of up to 300C, and

then starts to drop.
 Warm temperatures encourage the outbreak of crop diseases such as

fungal disease and pests.
How to modify the effects of temperature on plants
 Apply mulch to the soil to insulate it against excess heat.
 Protect plants from high or low temperatures by shading them with plant
leaves or grass materials.
 Place plants under shade netting and in greenhouses when temperatures

are too high or too low.
 Practice irrigation to lower the soil and leaf temperatures.
Wind
Wind is referred to as the moving air. Wind may cause mechanical lacerations
and bruises to the tissues of the crop plants. High wind may bruise and tear
the leaves of the crop plants and on the other hand the plants may be blown
over. The rate of evaporation and transpiration increases in proportion to the
square root of the wind velocity. In high winds crop plants may be cut off by
the moving sand particles or completely uprooted (physical damages to
plants) or even buried under soil drift. Strong wind also causes soil erosion
and blow away the top soil rich in plant nutrients. Wind dries up the soil
surface and this has a serious effect on the growth of the plants as the soil
becomes dry and there will be less water available to plants. The speed of
the wind is measured by an anemometer, which also shows the wind’s
direction.
Useful effects of wind on plants
 Wind increases the rate of evapo -transpiration and results in the wilting
of plants. The high the wind the fast will be the rate of evaporation and
eventually this leads to wilting of crops. Since more water will be lost via
transpiration the crops tends to dry out, since the amount of water absolved
from the soil is not equal the amount of water lost through the leaves and
open water sources.
 Wind spreads airborne diseases and pests. Strong wind helps to spread
airborne disease and also pest from one place to the other. The areas that
were not earlier have a particular disease; will eventually be containing the
disease and pests.
30
 Strong winds cause collapse of crops as well as erosion. Strong wind

causes disaster in crop fields, since crops will collapse and eventually
break away. The rate of erosion is very high when wind is strong enough.
 Winds help to spread veld fires during the dry season, destroying valuable
grazing land. It is very difficult to control veld fires, especially is the fuel
materials are so dry enough. Huge areas will be destroyed and the loss of
biodiversity with eventually prevail.
Wind pollinates the flowers of cereals and grasses, and also helps to
disperse seeds. Certain crops will need wind to help in the pollination
process, without wind certain crops will not able to carry out the
production on new offspring. Wind is also important in the dispersal of
seed. Certain plants need strong wind to help the pop out the pods to help
in the distribution of seed.
Moving air reduces humidity, thereby reducing fungal infections on plants.

Strong wind keep the natural environment dry, thus reduce the amount of
humid in the atmosphere. This is essential to reduce the accumulation of
fungal diseases, which have devastating effects on crops.
Wind dries out access water from plant leaves, thus reduce fungal diseases
How to modify the effects of wind on crops
 The force of wind can be reduced by planting windbreakers (thick hedges

of trees). It is very essential to plant a row of windbreak, the main purpose
is to reduce the impact wind can cause to crops. The windbreaks will help
to reduce the velocity of wind, thus reduce crop damages, transpiration,
evaporation and eventually erosion.
 Soil erosion can be prevented by mulching the soil and by cover crops to
bind the soil particles. This is important to reduce leaching and also to
encourage drainage.
Sunlight
 Sunlight is essential for chlorophyll formation and photosynthesis .

Sunlight is essential in ensuring that the rate of photosynthesis is carried
out more effectively, so that plants can manufacture their food.
 Sufficient sunlight is thus important, since the rate of photosynthesis is

promoted. This in turn causes plants to produce more food and to grow
faster. It is also impotent to note that sunlight triggers flowering in plants.
Harmful effects of sunlight on plants

Strong sunshine causes blighting in plants and lowers their production.
31
Humidity
Humidity is the amount of moisture/water vapour present in the atmosphere or

is the water vapour in the air. Relative humidity is the vapour pressure in the
air in terms of the percentage necessary to saturate the atmosphere at the
particular temperature. The lower the relative humidity at a given temperature
the more rapidly will the air take up water transpired by the leaf or evaporated
from a moist soil surface.
Negative effects of humidity on crops

 High humidity causes a decrease in transpiration and evaporation.
 High humidity encourages the build-up of fungal diseases and this affects
the quality of the crops.
 On the other hand low humidity increases the rate of transpiration and
evaporation and this causes the crops to wilt and dries off that will lead to
the death of the plant.
 Evaporation and transpiration increases with increase in temperature and

decrease in relative humidity.
 A high seasonal evaporation from a free-water surface is generally

reflected in a high water requirement of crops. Therefore evaporation
determines the efficiency of rainfall, particularly under a rainfall of less 30
mm per year. The wet and dry thermometer can be used to measure the
amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere. This thermometer
consists of two separate thermometers. This is so because the other
thermometer is used to measure the air and the other records the
temperature of saturated air. Therefore from these two readings taken from
the two thermometers a measure of the amount of water vapour present in
the air can be easily be determined. The two readings taken from the two
thermometers are then compared in a table that shows the percentages of
water vapour in the air. This reading is known as the relative humidity
(RH).
Positive effects of humidity on crops
 The positive effect of humidity is that, high humidity is also relative to the
amount of precipitation any given climate receives, which in turn provides
adequate moisture for abundant plant growth, providing abundant food
(energy) for those food chains.
 High humidity generally makes the temperature of the air more constant: it
does not have the extreme differences between high and low temperatures
seen in the drier climates.
32
Discuss in detail the environmental factors that would limit

agricultural practices in Namibia. What advices would you give
to the farmers for them to ensure advances in farming?
Activity
You are expected to discuss in detail the environmental factors

such as temperature, light, wind and humidity. You have to
explicitly give your advice to the farmers based on your
Feedback experience. For the body of knowledge from this unit, it should
be now very easy for you to be able to generate substantial
advices to help the farmers.
2. The effects of climate on plant
Rainfall
Rainfall provides water, which is needed for both plant and animal life. Water
is essential for all the biochemical processes that take place in a living body.
Rainfall also determines the types of crops that can be grown in an area. On a
farm a rain gauge is used to measure rainfall in millimeters. In Namibia, most
rain falls in summer, while winters are usually dry. This means that most
subsistence farmers grow crops in summer. Only commercial farmers who
have access to irrigation are be able to grow crops in throughout the year.
Useful effects of rainfall on plants
Water is essential for growth and development. It is important to note that the
process of Photosynthesis takes place in the presence of water.
Nutrients must be dissolved in water before they can be taken up by plant

through the process of diffusion and osmosis.
It also supplies nitrates to plants.
Harmful effects of rainfall on plants
 Heavy rain showers or floods cause soil erosion and leaching.
 Heavy raindrops compact the soil and reduce infiltration and erosion.
 Storm rain may cause lodging in crops
 Heavy rain drain nutrients downward making them unreachable by plant

roots.
33
3. Water cycle
The water cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above and
below the surface of the earth water can change states among liquid, vapour
and solid (ice) at various places in the water cycle. Although the balance of
water on earth remains fairly constant over time, individual water molecules
can come and go.
Fig. 10 Water cycle (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
The earth has a limited amount of water needed by plants and animals in the
environment. It is therefore, important to note that water keeps going around and
around in what we call the "Water Cycle". This cycle is made up of a few main
components:
Evaporation : occurs when a liquid changes its state to form a gas or vapour because of
high temperature. When the sun heats up water in rivers or lakes or the ocean rises
and turns it into vapour or steam. The water vapour or steam leaves the river, lake or
ocean and goes into the atmosphere.
34
Condensation: is the change of state from gas or vapour to liquid as a result of a

reduction in temperature. Water vapour in the air gets cold and changes back into
liquid, forming clouds. This is called condensation.
Precipitation: Precipitation occurs when so much water has condensed that the air
cannot hold it anymore. The clouds get heavy and water falls back to the earth in the
form of rain, hail, sleet or snow.
Collection: When water falls back to earth as precipitation, it may fall back in the
oceans, lakes or rivers or it may end up on land. When it ends up on land, it will
either soak into the earth or become part of the “ground water” or it may run over the
soil surface and collect in the oceans, lakes or rivers where the cycle begins.
Activity 2
Match the following processes blow with the correct

statement:
 Evaporation
 Transpiration
 Melting
 Condensation
 Freezing
1. Solid to liquid_______________
2. Liquid to gas___________________
3. Liquid to solid___________________
4. Gas (vapour) to liquid ______________________
5. Loss of water from the plant leaves_____________________
35
1. Melting
2. Evaporation
Feedback
3. Freezing
4. Condensation
5. Transpiration
Unit Summary
In this unit you learned about the environmental factors and their
influences on Agriculture. These are rainfall, light, temperature, wind and
humidity. The unit also presented the water cycle and all the processes
that are essential in the water cycle.
Summary
36
References
Chard, P. Focus on ‘O’ Level Agriculture Book 1-4.
0869258591
References
King. A (1985). Agriculture: An introduction for
Southern Africa. New York. Cambridge
University Press
Mashebe, P.M. (2010). Discovering Agriculture:

Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate. Zebra
Mashebe, P.M. (2005). Excellent JSCE Agriculture.

Zebra Publishing. ISBN 9991680438

Owen, G. (1984). O- Level Agriculture. Longman.

England. ISBN 0582651032
37
38 Unit 3 PRINCIPLES OF LAND TENURE SYSTEM
Unit 3
PRINCIPLES OF LAND
TENURE SYSTEM
Introduction
In this unit, you are going to learn about land tenure system in Namibia. To
begin with, we refer Land tenure as the way the land is owned or held by
individual or group of people or the state. Land tenure system indicates who
owns the land and /or who has the right to use it. We still refer Land tenure,
legally and customarily as the relationship of ownership among people,
groups or government with respect to land. On the other hand, Land tenure
also refers to the economic, legal and political arrangements regarding the
ownership and management of land and its resources in an area.
In simpler terms we define Land tenure simply as the ownership and

management of land and its resources in an area. We need to understand that
the word tenure comes from the Latin word tenere, meaning “to hold” and is
used in reference to landed property.
Total land mass in Namibia is about 823000sq km. About 84% of the land in
Namibia is suitable for agriculture. We divide Namibian land into three main
types: communal, commercial / freehold and state. We have to note that the
land in the central and southern parts of the country is mostly used for
commercial farming, while the land in the northern and eastern parts is mostly
used for communal farming.
 describe the main features of land tenure system;
 describe the farming methods applicable in Namibia;
Outcomes
 explain the effects on agriculture of rotation, mixed farming
enclosed and unenclosed farming system and monoculture;
38

0869258591
Prescribed
Mashebe, P.M. (2010). Discovering Agriculture:
reading
Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate. Zebra
Mashebe, P.M. (2005). Excellent JSCE Agriculture.

Zebra Publishing. ISBN 9991680438

Owen, G. (1984). O- Level Agriculture. Longman.

England. ISBN 0582651032
Elliot, R.I., Stout, G.W., Dejardin, E.J., & Sithole, D.

(1985). Agriculture for Southern Africa: A
practical approach up to O’ level. Collins
Additional
Educational. London. UK.
reading
Land tenure: Refers to the way the land is owned or held

by individual or group of people or
the state. Simply means the
Terminology ownership and management of land

and its resources in an area.
39
Rented land: The land rented from another person and is

paid in cash or in kind.
State land: The land that is owned by the government

or state and administered by
relevant government departments.
Freehold: The ownership of land and the buildings on

such land.
Leasehold: The right to hold or use property for a fixed

period of time at a given price,
without transfer of ownership, on
the basis of a lease contract.
Communal land The land that is owned by the community at

tenure: large and not by individuals.
Intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously in

the same field.
1. Community or communal farming system

This is the traditional system of land ownership whereby land is
generally regarded as the property of the community. This means that
individual ownership is rare, particularly in the rural areas. The
community may be a village, clan, always headed by a headman.
Generally, a farming system is a decision making unit, comprising a
farm household, cropping and livestock systems, which produces crop
and animal products for consumption and sale
Every member of the community has the right to use the land for
agricultural purposes, but may not sell any part of it, since the land is
regarded as a precious legacy that should not be sold. Most farming in
these areas is subsistence in nature. The communal areas are
separated from the rest of Namibia by a fence which runs across the
country from east to west. (Cordon fence).this fence aims to prevent
the spread of diseases from one area of the country to another.
40
1.1 Advantages of communal farming system
Every member of the community has the opportunity to request for

land to provide food and earn some money for his family or to build
house.
 It is possible to organize communal and cooperative farming on

such land.
 Land rights are easily passed on from one generation to another.
 It is cheap. farmers do not pay to graze their animals on

communal land
 Animals are vaccinated free by the directorate of veterinary

services
 It is easier to transfer land to prospective farmer since individual

attachment is almost absent
1.2 Disadvantages of communal farming system

 Inadequate maintenance of soil fertility
 Useful time is wasted in consulting large number of people
whenever government wants a piece of land for developmental
purposes.
 Disputes and court cases over land ownership and boundary
demarcation may result.
 This system does not give owners security of tenure, because the
chief has the right to revoke and relocate land for reasons of non-
use, disloyalty or surplus use.
 Communal land cannot be used as collateral for obtaining loans
from financial institutions.
 It may lead to excessive land fragmentation, thus making it
economically irrational to practice mechanized agriculture.
 It is difficult to export meat from communal farms because of the
cordon fence
 Grazing land is not fenced. Diseases therefore spread easily and
grazing patterns and breeding cannot be controlled.
 Herds are often not well looked after. This leads to low
productivity.
 There is little infrastructure to aid farmers.
 It is difficult to export meat from communal farms because of
cordon fence (red line).
41
Visit the local authority in your area and establish how

communal land is being owned and utilized by all the
Activity 1 communities in the area. Investigate with regard the powers the
traditional authorities have in terms of land ownership. How the
land is being distributed among the people within a community.
Did you visit the local authority? What did you find out with regard to
land ownership and utilization?
Feedback
2. Different types of land tenure system

Rented land: this is the land rented from another person and is paid in cash or
in kind.
State land: this refers to the land that is owned by the government or state and
administered by relevant government departments. The state land is reserved
for capital and other agricultural projects like Vunguvungu, Kalimbeza,
Ndongalinena, and Itunda projects. State land tenure refers to the rules that
govern the land that is owned by government departments. Examples of such
government departments are agriculture, housing, wildlife and conservation.
The following all fall under state control: urban centres, national parks and
game reserves, public institutions such as public schools and hospitals.
Freehold: refers to the ownership of land and the buildings on such land.
Owners of the freehold properties are generally free to do as they please with
their properties subject to legal requirements of the country.
Leasehold : refers to the right to hold or use property for a fixed period of time
at a given price, without transfer of ownership, on the basis of a lease
contract.
Those who have leasehold land or property own the land or property as is
specified in the lease. Once the lease on leasehold land or property has
expired the land and property returns to the position of the freehold.
Communal land tenure: this refers to the land that is owned by the community
at large and not by individuals.
42
3. Farming systems in Namibia

A Farming System is a decision making unit, comprising a farm household,
cropping and livestock systems, which produces crop and animal products for
consumption and sale.
3.1 Subsistence farming
This method is more practical in communal areas. People do not produce

extra food for sell instead they only produce to keep their family well. This
farming system is done by hands on a very small scale and no machinery is
used in this regard. Subsistence farmers depend mostly on rain, if the rain is
poor their production will be very poor and they are mostly in this situation
affected by hunger.
3.2 Commercial farming system
This farming system is more profit oriented. Commercial farmers produce

more food for sell through export to other country. Commercial farmers in
Namibia play a vital role in contributing towards the gross domestic product
(GDP). This farming system requires more money in order to purchase all the
needed machinery in order to produce at higher level. In Namibia commercial
farming enterprises include dairy farming, cattle ranching, pig keeping,
broiler chicken farming are all big and large commercial farming enterprises.
Commercial farms are privately owned. They are run mainly as businesses to
maximize profits for the owners. Farms in this system are supported by
financial institutions e.g. Banks, cooperatives, marketing and control boards.
Most commercial farms are found in the areas north of Rehoboth up to
Tsumeb and the east of Gobabis.
Advantages of commercial farming system
 Land can be fenced. This leads to greater productivity as farmers can

effectively manage their crops / livestock. There are breeding, disease,
grazing and pest controls.
 Farmers have support from financial agencies since land could be used as
collateral security.
 Meat and agronomic boards help them to sell and export their produce.
 Disadvantages of commercial farming system
 It is expensive. Farmers have to pay for land, fences, bore holes and
veterinary services, machinery.
 Skills are needed.
43
3.3 Shifting cultivation
This farming system was more evident during the early stages of farming in
Southern Africa in which Namibia form part. Farmers were able to clear a
piece of land and cultivate it for certain period. Once the soil fertility degrades
they shift or move to a new place where they will continue farming. The
system has great advantages as it allows the previous field to restore its
fertility; breaks down the life cycles of pests as the farmer move to the new
area where as the old field where the pest were normally sustain themselves
will be without the pests’ feeds and then they die. Yield increase as the new
area is till rich in essential plant nutrients needed for plant growth.
On the other hand the system has certain shortcoming such as more labour
intensive as clearing of a new place demand the human power. The system
also causes loss of destruction in biodiversity within the ecosystem. As it
involves cutting down more trees and shrubs certain negative effect of
deforestation may occurs. These are the build-up of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere that will cause severe warming of the environment. It also
encourages soil erosion that will contribute much to the degradation of soil
quality.
3.4 Settled arable land
Arable land is an agricultural term, meaning land that can be used for growing
crops. It is distinct from cultivated land and includes all land where soil and
climate is suitable for agriculture, including forests and natural grasslands,
and areas falling under human settlement. The land that is suitable for
agricultural production is used for settlement and other national
developmental activities.
3.5 Unenclosed grazing system

This is the grazing system that allows animals to move freely wherever they
want and able choose the best pasture they would prefer. This system is not
expensive as there is no need to buy the fences and also no maintenance costs
are required. This system is more in practice in communal areas where cattle
herder will release animals in the morning from the kraal and collect them in
the evenings. Overgrazing is a problem with this method as animals will
overgraze certain areas with palatable pasture and tend to cause overgrazing
that will lead to soil erosion. Soil erosion becomes a problem in this regard as
soil become exposed to strong and running water.
3.6 Enclosed grazing system
This is a grazing system that allows rotational grazing system. Animal

movement is thus controlled and at the same time grazing is controlled.
Overgrazing is thus controlled as animals are not allowed to graze in a
particular area for a long period of time. Animals will graze in a particular
camp or paddock for a short period time depending on the carrying capacity
of the grazing pasture of that area. With this grazing system animals are
44
moved in camps and this has an advantage of allowing the previously grazed
camp to recover from grazing.
3.7 Crop rotation
This is the growing of different crops in a given sequence on the same piece of
land in order to make the best use of soil resources. This is also important in
preserving the fertility of the soil as certain crops in the rotation should be able to
add fertility to the soil. Certain crops such as cereals are able to withdraw
nutrients from the soil while crops such as legumes are able to add nutrients to
soil.
The sequence should include cereals and legume crops in order to balance the
gain and loss of nutrients from the soil. Crop rotation has certain advantages:
these includes among others the breaking down the life cycles of pest, controlling
weeds and diseases and finally crop rotation helps to increase the fertility of the
soil thus increase production. Crop rotation also helps to improve the structure of
the soil and lead to the maximum utilization of nutrients by the plants.
Figure 11: Example of a crop rotation (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
3.8 Mixed farming
This is the farming system whereby both crops and animals are kept on
the same piece of land. This system has certain advantages to the farmer:
45
 The farmer will use the manure from animals to fertilize the soil in
order to increase crop production.
 The farmer will use animals to cultivate the soil in order to plant
crops.
 Crop residues will be used as feed for animals.
 Crops that have failed to produce can be fed to animals or silage can
be made in order to supply animals with food during drought periods.
 Failure on the farm is minimally avoided as the farmer will not only
depend on one production system.
This is important in the sense that when crops fail to produce due to
drought or other factors such as diseases, storm, and flood the farmer will
rely on his animals for food. This is equally important in case of animal,
if animals are infected with a disease and eventually causing death, the
farmer will obtain his food from the crops. This will help the farmer to
continue with production on the farm.
The system has the following disadvantages to the farmer:
 Higher costs involved in terms of the production of both crops and

livestock.
 High level of skills is required to effectively manage both crops and

livestock.
In your groups discuss the benefits of farming with both livestock and
crops on a farm and also suggest the implications this may have on
one sector of farming.
Group
activity
Crop remains can be used as feeds for animals, animal manure can
be used to fertilize the soil in order to increase production. Animals
can be used to cultivate the soil. The much benefit is also that, the
Feedback
farmer will be able to spread the risks of failure.
46
3.9 Monoculture
This is the cropping system whereby the farmer will continue planting
the same crop in the same field season after season and year after year.
Monoculture is generally understood as the agricultural practice of
producing or growing a single crop or plant species over a wide area and
for a large number of consecutive years. It is commonly used in modern
industrial agriculture and its implementation has allowed for large
harvests from minimal labour.
Monocultures can lead to the more rapidly spread of pests and diseases,
where a uniform crop is susceptible to a pathogen. 'Crop monoculture' is
the practice of growing the same crop year after year.
Fig. 11 A monoculture maize field (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
The system has the certain advantages:
 This system helps the farmer to have more knowledge and skills
regarding the crop he/she plants every season.
 The farmer will keep the same tools for a long time. This implies that
the farmer will not need to buy different tools every season as the
tools he/she owns can be used over and over.
 The main advantage of monoculture is that it permits maximum

concentration of production effort on a single target crop.
47
The system has certain disadvantages:
 Decline in the production of crops due to the fact that the nutrients
are usually depleted from the soil and not replaced.
 Pests and diseases becomes a problem as they turn the field as their
feeding home every season.
 Weeds are also very difficult to control as the same crop is planted in
the fields and the weeds that attacks it are encouraged to establish
very well throughout the production period of that field.
 The risk of crop failure is great and ever present.
 Monoculture encourages rapid depletion of soil nutrients and

destruction of the soil structures.
Intercropping
The practice of growing one crop variety in pure stands on a field is

referred to as sole cropping. It is important to note that in this practice;
only one crop variety occupies the land at any one time. Therefore, the
alternative practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously on the
same field is called intercropping. However, it is important to note that
the various crops in the intercrop do not necessarily have to be sown or
harvested at the same time; in this regard, the main requirement is that
they are on the field at the same time for a significant part of their
growing periods.
Fig. 12 Intercropping (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
48
Types of intercropping
 Row intercropping - this is when the various crops are grown in

separate rows.
 Mixed cropping - this is when the various crops are grown

intermingled more or less at random with each other.
 Relay inter-cropping - this is when a second crop variety is sown

between the stands of an existing sole crop just before the first crop is
harvested. In this regard, both the first and second crops spend most
of their field lives as sole crop, and grow together on the field for
only a brief period.
Fig. 13 Relay inter-cropping (Source: (www.google.com.na/url)
Factors that determine the crops combination and spatial arrangement
 Tillage practices - when ridges have been made, the spatial

arrangement of the various crops may be determined by particular
needs of each crop. For example, Kasava (planted in the Eastern
Zambezi region) which requires a deep layer of tilled soil, is planted
at the top of the mounds, while cereal crop like rice because of its
high moisture requirement, is planted in the lower ground between
the mounds. Other crops such as maize, pumpkins and melons are
planted at intermediate positions between the rice and the Kasava
(very commonly done in the Zambezi region).
The crop the farmer considers as target crop and which one is
considered a subsidiary influence the proportion of the crops.
Nature of the crops themselves: a few strands of pumpkin or melon

occupy a lot of land and have high economic yield, whereas rice
strands, for example, would have to be much more numerous to be
49
meaningful.
Advantages of intercropping
 In a watchfully planned intercropping the relative yield is usually

greater than one. This suggests that there is yield advantage in
growing crops together than growing each one separately.
 The crops may harmonize one another in their use of field time.
In this regard the periods of their peak demands for light, water,
nutrients and other resources may differ, so that in general there
is a more efficient utilization of the resources available.
 For example, during the two or three month that Kasava takes to
sprout and establish adequately on the field, a quick intercrop of
maize or melon would beneficially utilize the field resources
during this period.
 The component crop may balance each other in their use of

space. For example, an intercrop of a deep rooted crop can
exploit various horizons of the soil.
 An intercrop may be able to utilize resources which the main

crop may not be able to utilize or which may even be
disadvantageous to it.
 Certain crops may exert specific beneficial effect on others. For

example, plantains intercropped with young cocoa seedlings
provide shade for the seedlings. Similarly, in an intercrop of a
legume with a cereal crop, the cereal would benefit from the
nitrogen fixed by the legumes.
 By having many crops growing simultaneously on the field the

farmer is more or less buffered against failure of one of the crop.
 Intercropping allows for a more uniform distribution of labour

throughout the year.
 When one component of an intercrop combination fails, the other

combinations are able to utilize the resources that would have
been available to the failed crop and so yield better than they
would have done otherwise. In other words there is yield
stability.
 The spread of diseases and pests is less rapid than in single

cropping. This is probably because the mean distances between
the plants of the same component crops are greater. In many
situations, the other component crops are not susceptible to the
particular disease or pest afflicting one component and may act
as physical barriers to the spread of diseases and pest.
50
Disadvantages of intercropping
Since many crops exist together on the field, it is not possible to

tailor production practices to the needs of any particular crop.
Control of pests and diseases is particularly difficult because

pesticides which have been developed to control a disease on one
particular component crop may have deleterious effect on other
crops in the combination.
It is difficult to mechanize operations such as planting, weeding

and harvesting.
Evaluating yield from intercropping
The relative yield of each component crop in an intercropping

situation is the yield of that component in the intercropping
situation divided by what that crop would have yielded as a sole
crop, covering the same area as the intercrop and managed at the
same level.
Assume, for example, that a field with a crop combination of

maize and beans yields 1.5 tonnes/hectare of maize and 0.25
tonnes/ha of beans. If the expected sole crop yield of maize is 2.0
t/ha and that of beans is 0.5 t/ha. Then the relative yield of maize
is 1.5/2.0 = 0.75 and the relative yield of beans is 0.25/0.50 =
0.50.
 The sum of the relative yields of the various component crops in

the intercrop is sometimes called the Relative Yield Total (RYT).
A little reflection of how many times the land area used for
intercrop would be required to produced the same yields of the
component crops when they are grown as sole crops. The RYT is
therefore more conventionally referred to as Land Equivalent
Ratio (LER).
Mathematically
 LER = relative yield of crop A and relative yield of crop B +

relative yield of crop n
 In the maize/ cowpeas combination considered above the LER =

0.75 + 0.25 = 1.25. An LER greater than 1.0 implies that for that
particular crop combination, intercropping yielded more than
growing the same number of stands of each crop as sole crops.
An LER of less than 1.0 implies that the intercropping was less
beneficial than sole cropping.
 LER can also be calculated based on the monetary value of the

yield obtained from the various intercrop and sole crop situation
51
and make comparisons on this basis.
Calculating LER by comparing the total energy value of the yield in

kilo calories in various situations and compared the values to
determine which arrangement was most beneficial.
Why is monoculture so common in communal areas? Do you think

farmers are not realizing that they are practicing monoculture? Give
your views as to why communal farmers cannot be asked to stop this
Activity
cropping system.
Did you find out why monoculture is commonly practiced in communal

areas? I hope you have made substantial investigations regarding this
issue. I know you might feel the same, by saying that traditional
Feedback
farming should be the key to this issue and also lack of technical
knowhow in the field of agriculture. Most communal farmers do
farming as part of their cultural identity so that that they have enough
food to sustain their livelihood.
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about the land tenure system and their
characteristics that are more applicable to Namibia. The unit also cast
same light on the different farming systems that are more common in
Namibia.
Summary This unit treats the distribution of crops in time, i.e. whether shifting
cultivation, continuous cropping, monoculture, or crop rotation and the
distribution of the crops in space on the field, (i.e. whether intercropping
or sole cropping) as well as the level of management and resources
utilized to produce the crop, (i.e. whether production is intensive or
extensive) and the type of crops grown, (i.e. whether orchard, arable
cropping, pasturing, or forestry). The advantages and disadvantages of
each cropping systems and the principles of the rotations were also
discussed.
52
References
Akinsanmi. O. (1996). Senior Secondary Agricultural Science.
England: Longman Group.
References
53
54 Unit 4 SOIL FORMATION
Unit 4
SOIL FORMATION
Introduction
In this unit, you are going to learn about soil and how soil is formed
through chemical, biological and physical weathering. In this unit, you
will further learn about soil types, soil profile, soil texture and structure.
We define soil as the thin surface layer of the earth’s crust, which is made
up of loose unconsolidated material that serve as the medium in which
plant grow. We have to know that soil comes from parent rock materials.
We have to understand that soil is made up of different components;
these include organic matter, air, water, mineral salts and micro-
organisms. These components together they form a medium in which
plants are able to grow, since they occur in different proportion.
 outline the functions of soil.
 describe the ways in which parent rocks undergoes

physical, chemical and biological weathering.
Outcomes
 state the different types of soil
 explain the characteristics of the soil types available in

Namibia.
54

0869258591
Prescribed reading
ISBN 9789994564484



ISBN 0582651032

Agriculture for Southern Africa: A practical approach up to
O’ level. Collins Educational. London. UK.
Additional reading
Soil: Is the thin surface layer of the earth’s crust,

which is made up of loose unconsolidated
material that serve as the medium in which
Terminology plant grow.
Weathering: Is the process of breaking down parent rocks

into small particles to form soil.
Soil formation: Is the result of a combination or a sequence of

certain weathering processes
55
Physical Is the process of breaking down rocks without

Weathering: changing the chemical composition of the rock
Biological Is the process whereby rocks are distegrated

Weathering: due the activities of living organisms
Chemical Is the process of breaking down rocks into

Weathering: small particles by changing the chemical
composition of the rocks
Soil Profile: Is a straight or vertical arrangement of soil

layers from the surface to the bedrock
Soil Texture: Is the relative proportion of sand, clay and silt

particles in a soil sample
Crapping: Is the formation of a compact surface layer on

the cultivated soil by rain. It can hinder
germination and emergence of seedlings and
cause water to run of the soil surface
1. Functions of soil
 Soil acts as physical support for the plant, keeping it upright.
 Soil acts as a water reservoir, storing water for later use.
 Soil acts as a ventilator shaft.
 Soil moderates temperature fluctuations.
 Soils supply the plants with nutrients.
 Soil purifies the root zone.
2. The Process of Soil Formation

Soil formation is the result of a combination or a sequence of certain
weathering processes. These weathering processes can either being or
very complex. The type and activity of the process are determined by the
soil forming factors. Soil forming processes lead to the formation of soil
horizons in the profile.
56
Fig. 14 Soil formation (Volcanic eruption) (Source:

www.google.com.na/url )
Weathering
Weathering is the process of breaking down parent rocks into small

particles to form soil. Therefore it is important to understand that soil is
formed through the process of weathering. There are three types of
weathering:
Physical weathering
Physical weathering is the process of breaking down rocks without

changing the chemical composition of the rock. The breaking down of
soil results from different thermal expansion and contraction, the action
of ice and the mechanical effects of particles rubbing against each other.
These actions bring about the production of smaller particles and thus
form spaces.
Fig. 15 Physical weathering process (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
57
Agent of physical weathering
 Flowing water - running water and water waves cause rocks to

weather and erode.
 Ice - water freezing in the cracks of rocks widens and makes the
rocks to break away or distegrates.
 Wind - wind also causes rocks to weather by blowing sand particles

against the rocks.
 Changes in temperature - temperature change causes rocks to

weather to form soil. Sudden changes in temperature causes the rocks
to contract and expand and this causes the rock to peel off or cracks
to develop, and that will eventually break the rock when the
temperature cools down.
Biological Weathering
This is the process whereby rocks are distegrated due the activities of
living organisms. It is important to understand that plant roots grow in the
soil, moving particles and leaving organic residues when they help in soil
formation. Soil animals also create spaces and use plant material as food
leaving residues in the soil. Micro-organisms mostly live on plan and
animal residues and their dead cells remain in the soil. Metabolic
products added to soil water by these organisms and their residues
increase the rate of chemical reactions between minerals and water.
It is thus important to understand that from the geologist’s point of rocks

are degraded into soils, but from a soil scientist’s viewpoint a mineral is
built up which has new mineralogical, chemical, physical and biological
characteristics which are essential for the life of organisms within the soil
and the growth of plants and production of crops.
Fig. 16 Biological weathering (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
58
Agent of biological weathering
 Plant roots - plant root grow in cracks of rocks and making them
wider and forces them to break away. Certain plant roots produces
acid, the acid them dissolve the rock and make them weathered.
 Burrowers - termites, ants and mice eat their way into soft-textured
rocks creating passages for air and water and break off small particles
during the burrowing process.
 Micro-organisms - certain microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi

and fauna produce organic acids during decomposition that dissolves
rocks.
 Land animals - big animals such as elephants, cattle create a great

impact in breaking the rocks.
 People and their implements - help in the breaking away of rocks as

force is exerted on the rocks during land cultivation and causing the
rocks to break away.
Chemical weathering
This is the process of breaking down rocks into small particles by

changing the chemical composition of the rocks. Resistant minerals
remain unchanged and other impact with minerals such as dilute carbonic
acid will help to produce altered or completely new minerals. Therefore,
the uncharged minerals are thus termed inherited or primary minerals, the
altered or new minerals are referred to as pedogenic or secondary
minerals (pedogenisis = soil formation). This primary and secondary are
more commonly used by geologists than the terminology pedogenissi for
the classification of igneous and sedimentary rocks.
Chemical weathering agents
Water - Water dissolves the rock as it mixes with mineral found in the
rock to form compounds. These compounds that are formed are softer
since they are hydrated and they are easily weathered.
Oxygen - Oxygen combines with iron to form iron oxide (rust).
59
Carbon dioxide - carbon dioxide combines with water (rain) to form a

weak carbonic acid that dissolves the certain minerals that are present in
the rock causing the rock to distegrate.
2. Soil Types
Table 3:.Different soil types and their characteristics
Characteristics Sand soil Clay soil Loam soil
Particle size Large and loosely packed Very small Mixture of large
and small particles
Water Hold very little amount of Holds a lot of water Hold the right
retention water amount of water
need by plants
Drainage Drains too quickly Drains badly Drains quite well
Cultivation Very easy to cultivate even Heavy to cultivate Fairly easy to work
when wet and stick to tools
when wet
Air content Good aeration Bad aeration Quit good aeration
Pore space Large and few Small and many Fairly enough
Temperature Hot Hot Warm
Plant growth Poor plant growth, but roots of Poor plant growth Very well and
plants penetrate easily and roots very roots of plants
difficult to penetrates fairly
penetrate through. good
2.1 Soil profile
Soil profile is a straight or vertical arrangement of soil layers from the

surface to the bedrock. This can easily be observed by digging straight
through the soil. Most crops and short rooted plants obtain their nutrients
from the top layer as it is rich in plant nutrients. The top layer is always
dark in colour and contains high amount of organic matters. Subsoil is
lighter and contains less amount of humus. This layer is less suitable for
plant growth due to poor nutrient content. Only plants with long roots are
about to benefit from this layer.
60
Fig. 17 Vertically dug earth showing the layers of the soil (Source:
www.google.com.na/url)
Fig. 18 Simple soil profile (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
If you happen to look in a soil pit at your garden or on a roadside cut, one
61
you will see different layers in the soil. These layers are called soil
horizons. The arrangement of these horizons in a soil is known as a soil
profile. Soil scientists, who are also called pedologists, observe and
describe soil profiles and soil horizons to classify and interpret the soil
for various uses. It is important to note that soil horizons differ in a
number by far of visible soil properties such as colour, texture, structure,
and thickness. Other properties are less evident. Properties, such as
chemical and mineral content, consistence, and reaction would require
special laboratory analysis to diagnose. All these properties are used to
characterize types of soil horizons.
In your groups, identify a suitable area around campus garden and

dig a hole of about one metre. Make sure the sides of the hole are
very neat for you to observe the different layers. On a clean chart
Group draw one side of the hole that you have made to visibly show the
activity different layers. After you have drawn the diagram on the chart, label
it very clear. Present your work during the next lecture.
Write down in your note book what you have observed and compare this
with what the literatures are saying.
Feedback
2.2 Soil texture
Soil texture is the relative proportion of sand, clay and silt particles in a
soil sample. Soil texture can still be defined as the coarseness or the
fineness of soil particles or distribution of soil particles according to their
sizes. The texture of the soil can be determined by feeling between the
finger and also by trying to mould a sausage. When a sausage fails to
mould the soil is not clay. Sand soil will fail to mould a sausage since the
particles are big and not attached together.
62
Table 4: Particle sizes of different soil types in mm
Soil type Particle size
Gravel Above 2.0 mm
Coarse Sand 2.0-0.2 mm
Fine Sand 0.2-0.02 mm
Silt 0.02-0.002 mm
Clay Below 0.002 mm
2.3 Soil composition
Soil includes mineral particles derived from weathered rocks. It is

important to note that minerals alone cannot support plants.
Consequently, certain essential constituents of soil include organic
matter, air and water. Conversely, certain small animals and bacteria that
live in the soil also add to its formation.
Minerals - The mineral and the organic phase form the solid matrix or the
body of the soil. The particles that form the mineral fraction of a soil
range in size from less than 0,002 mm to larger than 10mm. It is only the
fraction less than 2mm that is considered as soil. The larger fractions are
called coarse materials. A large amount of minerals can be found in the
soil fraction. The composition of these minerals (kind of minerals) their
size and proportion of their occurrence determine a variety of the
properties of soil.
Organic materials – organic matters are the dead plants and animal
remains. Decaying plant and animal materials are gradually broken down
to rich dark humus. Micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi play an
important role in the decomposition process of plants and animal remains.
Humus provide nutrients, improve soil texture and it separates the
mineral particles and thus allow air and water to enter the soil.
Water and air - the space between the soil particles (pore spaces) are filled
with air or water, or both air and water. Soil microorganisms help to
aerate the soil. Soil air contains oxygen and carbon dioxide and it is
63
usually saturated with water vapour.
2.4 Soil structure
The particle of soil usually fit tightly together to form large aggregates or
pads. Cracks or planes separate the peds. It is this state of affairs that give
rise to the structure of the soil. In general the structure of the soil is
described in terms of its type , class and grade . The shape of the
aggregates determines the type of soil structure. The clarity in which the
soil aggregates can be distinguished is described as structure grade of the
soil.
Table 5. Different soil structure types and their characteristics
Soil structure Characteristics Diagram
Crumb Round porous

aggregates
Single grain The particles of soil

are loosely arranged.
Not suitable for crop
production and it has a
poor water holding
capacity.
Angular blocky Cubic aggregates with

angular corners
Columnar Aggregates that are

longer than they are
wide (pillar-like) with
rounded tops
Prismatic Aggregates that are

longer than they are
wide (pillar-like) with
flat tops
64
Agriculture Education 1 MAU3681
Soil structure Characteristics Diagram
Structure Grade Characteristics
Structureless No observable aggregates as in

the case of loose sand soil. If the
sand does not cling together it is
single grained. When it does cling
together it is massive.
Weak The aggregates are difficult to

observe in an undisturbed soil and
are poorly formed.
Moderate Aggregates are well formed but

are not clearly observable in
undisturbed soils
Platy Aggregates that are

wide than they are
thick
Table 6: Four soil structure grades and their characteristics
65
Strong Aggregates are well formed and

clearly distinguishable in
undisturbed soil
In common, structure class is determined by the size of the aggregates. It

differs from fine aggregates to extremely coarse aggregates. There are
sufficient movement and linking substances. Soil with transitory
aggregates can then be bound together more eternally with clay particles,
organic polymers, glues, Fe and AI oxides, fungi and roots expansion and
shrinking of clay minerals, growing roots, soil fauna, freezing, defrosting
and soil tilling. Definite soil structures such as crumb, granular and sub-
angular blocky structures are set up in top soil horizons. The formation of
these types of soil structure depends on the presence of bonds/glues such
organic polymers, Fe and AI oxides. All types of soil structure in the
topsoil are quite indispensable and complimentary for plant growth. It
therefore, improves aeration, water infiltration, seedling emergence and
prevents water and wind erosion and finally crumbs formation.
Soil Advantages Problems
Loam Easy drainage of excessive water , No problems are associated with

good retention of water for plant use, this type of soil as far as crop
easy cultivation over a wide range of production is concerned.
water content, good supply of nutrients
for plant use
Coarse sands Easy drainage, easy cultivation, warm Poor ability to hold water for
up quickly in the spring plant use - thirst soil, poor supply
of nutrients for plant use – hungry
soil, poor ability to hold applied
nutrients - leaching losses.
Fine sands Easy to cultivate Prone to erosion, compaction and

and silts capping (Crapping is the
formation of a compact surface
layer on the cultivated soil by
rain. It can hinder germination
and emergence of seedlings and
cause water to run of the soil
surface).
66
Clays Good supply of nutrients for plant use, Poor drainage of excess water -
good retention against leaching, good many become waterlogged, high
retention of water for plant use power requirement for
cultivation, early puddle by
animals or machinery when wet,
very hard when dry, cultivation
restricted to a narrow range of
water content, warm up slowly in
the spring
Stony soils Not advantages as far as crop Draught due to the reduced
production is concerned, despite being volume of soil to hold water,
rich in minerals. difficulty of cultivation and wear
of machinery by abrasion,
increase leaching of minerals.
Table 7: Agricultural Importance of soil types
67
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about soil. The unit presented to you the aspect of
soil formation (weathering process). Different weathering processes are
also discussed (biological, physical and chemical weathering). The unit
also cast light on the with regard to the different soil textures, soil
Summary structure and the soil profile. The major components that form soil are
also presented in this unit.
References
King, A. (1985). Agriculture: An introduction for Southern Africa.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
References
68
Unit 5
SOIL FERTILITY
Introduction
In this unit, we are going to talk about the fertility of the soil. We refer soil
fertility as the ability of the soil to support and enable the plants to grow well.
We have to understand that most nutrients that are required by plants for
growth are taken from the soil and these plant nutrients are released from
parent materials through weathering and from organic matter through
mineralization. In an ecosystem there is a balance between the uptake and
removal of nutrients by plants and erosion and also the release of nutrients
through weathering and mineralization.
We have to know that plant tissues comprise C, H, O, N, P, S, Ca, Mg , and CI.

Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo. Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O) are derived from soil
water. And the remaining nutrients are grouped into macro and
micronutrients. We have to understand that macronutrients are needed in
fairly high amount. These are N, P, S, Ca, Mg, K and CI . On the other hand we
have to know that micronutrients are required in smaller quantities and these
are Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B and Mo . Normally, we have to realise that Nitrogen is
available in excess in the atmosphere and it is mostly absorbed from the soil
where it is the most limiting nutrient for food production.
list the major plant nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium;

understand the general effects of these nutrients on plants.;
state the need for calcium, magnesium, and sulphur for plant health and
Outcomes
growth.
describe the nitrogen cycle, without reference to specific named

microorganisms.
69
70 Unit 4 SOIL FERTILITY
describe and carry out a simple test to determine soil pH and explain the
processes involved.
state the factors affecting soil pH and explain their effects on the
soil.
describe how soil pH can be regulated by the use of lime

relate soil pH to soil types and plant growth.

0869258591
Prescribed reading
ISBN 9789994564484



ISBN 0582651032

Additional reading
70
Soil fertility: The ability of the soil to support and enable

the plants to grow well.
Terminology
Nitrogen Fixation: Process of making available nitrogen

compounds in the air (mainly molecular
nitrogen N2) to plants.
Mineralization: Process during which decomposers like

earthworms, termites, slugs, snails, bacteria or
fungi convert the organic nitrogen of dead
plants into inorganic forms.
Assimilation: The conversion of inorganic nitrogen (such as

nitrate) into an organic form of nitrogen likes,
for example, an amino acid.
De-nitrification: The process of reduction of nitrate to nitrogen.
Eutrophication: The process by which a body of water

becomes rich in dissolved nutrients from
fertilizers or sewage, thereby encouraging the
growth and decomposition of oxygen-
depleting plant life and resulting in harm to
other organisms.
Soil pH: The degree of acidity or alkalinity of or

measure of the hydrogen ions concentration in
the soil.
71
1. Plant Nutrients
For suitable plant growth, a standard supply of plant nutrients in particular the
essential ones, is obligatory. Plants take up a large number of elements from
the soil, air and water during their growth period, but not all of these are
indispensable. Only 16 elements have been established to be important for all
plants and four others have been found to be vital for some plants. Important
elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur are
the elements of which proteins and hence protoplasm is composed. The other
ten elements which are necessary for plants are potassium, calcium,
magnesium, iron, manganese, molybdenum, copper, boron, zinc, and chlorine.
The four elements which are important only for some and not for all plants are
sodium, cobalt, vanadium and silicon.
Sources of Nutrients
Table 8: Sources of essential plant nutrients
Source Nutrient
Carbon (C)
Nutrients Organic Inorganic Sources Deficiency as CO2
Source (carbon
dioxide);
Nitrogen (N) Manure NPK, Ammonium Stunted
Compost fertilizer growth,
yellow
colour
Phosphorus (P) Manure N.P.K Purple

Compost leaves
Super-phosphate and
stunted
growth
Potassium (K) Manure N.P.K, Brown

Compost patches
Potassium fertilizer on the
leaves
Calcium (Ca) Manure Limestone Weak

Compost plants
that fall
over
easily
Magnesium (Mg) Manure Chlorosis

and
72
Source Nutrient
Compost leaves
fall off
Sulphur (S) Manure Ammonium sulphate Chlorosis

Compost and
stunted
growth
Air (Non-mineral)
Water (Non-mineral) Hydrogen

(H) and
oxygen (O)
as H2O
(water);
Soil, Fertilizer and animal manure (Mineral) Nitrogen

(N) a
considerable
amount of
nitrogen is
also fixed
by
leguminous
plants
through root
nodule
bacteria
2. Macro and Micronutrients

Macronutrients are required by the plants in large amount, and large quantities
have to be applied if the soil is lacking in one or more of them. Within the
group of macronutrients, which are needed for plant growth in large amounts,
the most important nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, while
calcium, magnesium and sulphur are sometimes called secondary nutrients
due to their secondary importance in plant nutrition.
In peculiarity with macronutrients, micronutrients or trace elements are

necessary in only small amounts for accurate plant growth and have to be
added in very minute quantities when they cannot be provided by the soil.
73
2.1 Micronutrients or Trace Elements
Micronutriients or Trace Elements includes iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc

(Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl) and boron (B). They are a
component of the key substances in plant growth and are as good as vitamins
in human nutrition. Being taken up in small amounts, their range of optimal
supply is very tiny.
Addition of Plant Nutrients to the Soil
 The farmer can supply plant nutrients to the soil by adding the
following:
 Organic manure
 Green manures and other crop residues
 Concentrated organic manures
 Commercial fertilizers
 Soil amendments
Table 9: Essential macro and micronutrients and their role in plants
3. Organic fertilizers
It is important to understand that soil fertility on farms is almost entirely
dependent on locally available resources. In Namibia cattle manure, crop
residues and woodland litter are the commonly used organic fertilizers,
but these are rarely applied in sufficient quantities to impact on crop
yields especially on a large scale practice.
The main benefit of using organic fertilizers is that, compared to mineral

fertilizers, they are usually readily available on or near the farm at very
little or no cost other than costs of labour, handling, transportation, or
opportunity costs of land used for their production. Organic fertilizers
improves soil fertility.
Farm kraal manure, compost, green manures and other bulky sources of
organic matter are known as bulky organic manures. These manures
supply plant nutrients in small quantities and organic matter in large
quantities. These manures have a direct effect on plant growth, on the
humus content of the soil, by improving its physical properties, and on
microbial activities in the soil.
74
3.1 Kraal manures
The term Kraal Manure (KM) refers to the refuse from cattle on the farm
although as a small quantity of manure can be derived from other animals
including birds on the farm. However, the richest and most concentrated
manure is poultry manure which is particularly good for vegetable
production and this is really used by farmers. Generally the manure
obtained from all animals on the farm is referred to as farmyard manure.
It is important to note that farm yard manure consists of two components-
solids and liquids in a ratio of approximately 3:1. The solid portion is
made up straw that has been used for bedding and dung. In this regards
dung is mostly undigested food and urine is a fluid waste product. More
than 50% of the organic matter in dung is in form of complex products,
often of lignin and protein, which are similar to humus. Kraal Manure
contain on the average 0.5%N, 0.25% P205, and 0.5% K20. Generally,
30% of N, 30% of the P205 and 50% of the K205 in farm manure are
available to plants.
Significance of cattle/kraal manure in crop production
 Cattle/Farmyard manure is basis of nutrient especially nitrogen,

potash and some trace elements.
 It manipulates the physical properties of the soil.
 Cattle/Farmyard manure boosts the humus content and subsequently

the water holding capacity of the soil.
 It improves the structure of the soil by making it more granular,

better aerated and better drained.
 The manure also tends to reduce soil compaction which is often

associated with continuous cultivation.
3.2 Compost
It is important to note that compost is a well-rotted vegetable

matter which is prepared from farm and home refuse. It is essential
to understand that compost is prepared in trenches of various sizes
and shapes. Therefore, the accumulated refuse is well mixed and
then spread in the trench in a layer of about 0.3 m. This layer is
then well moistened or supplied with water by sprinkling over it
slurry of cow dung and water, or earth and water. Subsequent
layers of the same thickness of mixed refuse are then spread on the
heap and moisten. After about three month it is now fully
decomposed and should be taken out of the trenches formed into
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conical heaps above ground and covered with earth. After one or
two months, the compost will be ready for use. The N, P and K
contents of farm compost are on the average 0.5%, 0.15%, 0.5%,
respectively, while those of the town compost are 1.4%, 1.0%,
1.4%, respectively.
Benefits of composting organic matter
 The carbon: nitrogen ratio is improved because carbon dioxide is

released to the air by micro-organisms.
 Improve the structure of the soil by making the soil friable, crumbly
and easier to handle and work upon.
 The heat generated may kill weed seeds and other pathogenic
organism. It is the cheapest source of organic manure.
3.3 Green manures
Green manure is the practice of growing and ploughing in green crops to

increase the organic matter content of the soil. It is important to note that
green manure crops are usually fast growing annual legumes and grasses.
These crops are usually incorporated in the soil when they are green and
succulent. Therefore any crops which grow quickly even on poor soils
and produce plentiful mass of green leaves and tops can be used as a
green manure crop.
Benefits of Green Manure
 It increases the organic matter content of the soil.
 It improves soil structure.
 Makes phosphorus and certain trace elements available to plants.
 Checks erosion and leaching.
 Helps to control weeds by acting as a smother crop.
 Determining the organic content of the soil.
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To carry out this activity you will need the following:
 Soil from the school garden
Activity  Tripod stand

 A stirring rod
 Crucible
 A Bunsen burner
 Weighing scale
Collect a sample of dry soil of about 50 g and place it in a crucible.

Allow it to heat enough, stirring with the rod to mix the soil correctly.
Do an observation without fail and see the colour changes of the soil.
Allow enough heat until the organic matter content has burnt off.
Allow enough time for the soil to cool and then re-weigh. Record the
different in weight. What was the purpose of heating the soil? Record
your findings in terms of weight before heating, weight after heat ing
and work out the difference (25).
3.5 Inorganic (mineral) fertilizers
It is essential to understand that mineral fertilizers need to be applied to

crop at least two times within a growing season (split application), either
basally at planting time or top-dressed during vegetative growth period.
In general the amount of inorganic fertilizer used in most smallholder or

communal farming systems falls far below standard extension
recommendations, due to poor purchasing power, risk aversion due to
poor and unreliable rainfall, and lack of significant returns.
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Fig. 19 A bag of N.P.K fertilizer (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
Therefore, any natural or manufactured material, which contains at least 5

percent of one or more of the three most important nutrients (N P K), can
be called fertilizer. These are called mineral fertilizers in an industrially
manufactured fertilizer. It is also important to understand that fertilizer
may contain one or more of the essential nutrients. Therefore, those that
contain only one of the major elements are described as single, simple or
straight fertilizers. On the other hand those that contain two or more of
the major elements are classified as mixed or compound fertilizers. In this
regard Nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium are the main plant nutrients
and these three provide the basis for the major groups of fertilizers.
In Namibia, due to an increase in population and rise in standard of living

especially in fast growing cities like Windhoek and Ongwendiva there is
an increasing demand for food and feed grains. Therefore, to meet up
with the food demand it is necessary to intensify field crop production
locally. This is only possible through the use of commercial fertilizers.
Generally, although there have been wonderful increases in fertilizer

using in tropical Africa over the years, utilisation is still on a very small
scale relative to the total needs. However, it is evident that there is a wide
gap between the national requirements for fertilizers and their actual use
by farmers.
3.6 Chemical Fertilizers

Nitrogenous Fertilizers
The nitrogen as one of the most important component in many straight

and compound fertilizers is in the ammonium (NH4 ions) form, but this is
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quickly changed by the bacteria in the soil to the nitrate (NO3 ions) form.
Crop such as cereals (Mahangu, maize, sorghum) take up and respond to
the NO3 ions faster than to the NH4 ions, but some crops, such as rice,
potatoes and grasses, are equally responsive to both forms.
It is important to note that on the basis of the chemical form in which

nitrogen is combined with other elements in a fertilizer, nitrogenous
fertilizers may be classified into four groups:
Nitrate Fertilizers
It is important to understand that in these fertilizers, nitrogen is combined

in nitrate (NO3) form with other elements. Such fertilizers includes
sodium nitrate (NaNo3), which contain 16 percent N, calcium nitrate [Ca
(NO3)2], contain 15.5% N, and potassium nitrate (KNO3), containing
13.4% N and 44% K.
Therefore, it is evident through practical application that nitrate fertilizers

are quickly dissociated in the soil, releasing the nitrate ion for plant
absorption. In isolation they are readily absorbed and utilized by the
plants very effectively. The enormous mobility of the nitrate ions in the
soil has the benefit that, even when applied to the surface of the soil, the
nitrogen quickly reaches the root zone. They are for that reason very
often used as side and top dressings. On the other hand, there is also the
increased danger of leaching of these fertilizers.
It is generally known that all the nitrate fertilizers are basic in their
residual effect on the soil and their continued use may reduce soil acidity.
Ammonium Fertilizers
Ammonium fertilizers, nitrogen is combined in ammonium (NH+4) form

with other elements. In this regard, when added to the soil, the
ammonium ion is temporarily retained by the colloidal fraction of the soil
until it is nitrified. The major advantage of these fertilizers is that they are
much more resistant to loss by leaching because the ammonium ions are
readily adsorbed on the colloidal complex of the soils. In most situations
ammonium fertilizers have acidic residual effect on the soil.
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Fig. 20 A bag of Ammonium fertilizer (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
The following are the examples:
 Ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2SO4 ]
 Ammonium phosphate (NH4H2PO4)
 Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
 Anhydrous ammonia
 Aqueous ammonia
Nitrate and Ammonium Fertilizers
It is important to note that these are fertilizers that contain nitrogen in

both ammonium and nitrate forms. Nitrate and ammonium fertilizers are
readily soluble in water and suitable for use under diversity of soils and
cropping conditions. It is important to realize that the nitrate nitrogen of
these fertilizers are readily available to plants for fast growth and the
ammonium nitrogen resists leaching losses and can be utilized by the
plants at a later stage. Nitrate and ammonium fertilizers are acidic in their
residual effect on the soils. The following are the common examples:
 Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3)
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 Ammonium sulphate nitrate (ASN)[ (NH4)2SO4.NH4NO3]
 Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) [Ca (NH4NO3)2 ]
Phosphorus fertilizers
It is important to understand that crop plants absorb phosphorus in the

form of negatively charged ions such as or H2PO4-
Fig. 21 A bag of phosphorus fertilizer (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
Therefore, phosphorus fertilizers can be classified into three factions

depending on the form in which phosphoric acid is combined with
calcium:
 Phosphorus fertilizers containing water -soluble phosphoric acid or

monocalcium phosphate [Ca (H2PO4) 2]: this group of fertilizers are
super phosphate, ordinary or single, containing 16-18% P2O5; double
super phosphate, containing 32% P2O5; triple super phosphate,
containing 46-48% P2O5 and ammonium phosphate, containing 20%
N and 20% P2O5 or 16% N and 20% P2O5.
Therefore these fertilizers are speedily absorbed by the plants, since

plants absorb phosphorus as H2PO4 ions. It is important to note that
water-soluble phosphoric acid is rapidly transformed in the soil into a
water-insoluble form. By itself, there is no danger of loss of nutrients by
leaching.
In addition this group of fertilizers should not be used in neutral or

alkaline soils and not in acidic soils. In acidic condition, phosphoric acid
is converted into mono-calcium phosphate, and there is less chances of
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the phosphate being fixed as iron or aluminium phosphate.
 Fertilizers containing citric-acid, soluble phosphoric acid or

dicalcium phosphate [CaHPO4]; this type of fertilizers are basic
slags, containing 14- 18% P2O5: dicalcium phosphate, having 34-
39% P2O5 and rhenania phosphate, having 25-76%. Generally, these
fertilizers are particularly suitable for acidic soils.
 Fertilizers containing insoluble phosphoric [Ca3 (PO4)2]: these

types of phosphatic fertilizers are rock phosphate, containing 20-40%
P2O5: raw bonemeal, containing 20-25% P2O5 and 3-4% N and
steamed bone-meal, containing 22% P2O5. Therefore, these
fertilizers are well suited for strongly acidic soils or organic soils
which require large quantities of phosphorus fertilizers to raise the
soil fertility.
Potassium fertilizers
It is important to understand that all potassium fertilizers consist

essentially of potassium in combination with chloride, sulphate, or
nitrate. Roughly all potassium fertilizers are water soluble. The following
are main examples of potassium fertilizers:
 Potassium chloride [KCl] or muriate of potash, having 60-63% K2O
 Potassium sulphate [K2SO4 ], having 50 – 53 % K2O5 and 18% of

sulphur
 Potassium-magnesium sulphate [K2SO4. MgSO4] having 22% K2O5
 Potassium nitrate [KNO3], having 13% nitrogen and 44% K2O5 e)

Potassium metaphosphate [KPO3] having 40% K2O and 60% P2O5
Compound fertilizers
With regard to compound fertilizers, they supply two or three of the

major plant nutrient elements (i.e. nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium).
In fact, these are produced by mixing the straight fertilizers such as
ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate and nitrate of potassium or by
more complex chemical processes. It is therefore important to note that
the chemical composition of compound fertilizers is usually given as the
ratio of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium expressed as elemental N,
P2O5 and K2O respectively. Therefore, a 15:20:10 compound fertilizer is
having 15% N, 20% phosphorus P2O5 and 10% potassium expressed as
K2O.
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Benefits of compound fertilizers
 The mixture is usually dry, fine and well mixed and can be applied by
hand as well as through a fertilizer drill.
 The mixture usually contains all major plant nutrients.
 It saves the farmer time and labour.
 It does not form lumps or deteriorate in any way if it is not used

immediately.
Calculating the rate of fertilizer to be applied to the soil
 The amount of fertilizer to be applied per hectare on a given field is

strong-minded by:
 The sum of nutrients needed by plant for optimum growth and

productivity
 The accessibility of nutrient in the soil (intensity of soil fertility)
 The moisture status of the soil
 The type of crops to be grown
 The form and quality of fertilizers available.
 Usually mineral fertilizers are distributed in 50-kg bags while the

nutrient content (vigorous ingredients) is given in percentages e.g. N
15 P15 K15. The indicating or meaning that each 50kg bag
contained 15% N 15% P 15% K.
4. The procedure to follow in calculating the rate of fertilizer to be

applied to the soil
 Determine the quantity of vigorous ingredients contained in each
bag, this may possibly be done by dividing the percentage of
each nutrient by two. For example, N15 P15 K15 would contain
active ingredients N 15/2= 7.5kg P15/2= 7.5kg K 15/2=7.5kg
 If the recommendation is to apply N60-P60-K60 per hectare, the

easiest option for the farmer is to buy a compound fertilizer grade
N15-P15-K15.
 Therefore, one 50-kg bag contains N7.5kg -P7.5kg-K7.5kg of

active components
 To find the number of bags required to supply the recommended
83
nutrients:
 1 bag = 7.5kg, X = 60kg, find X, X = 60 divided by 7.5 = 8 bags

of NPK.
 Example: how many bags of ammonium sulphate (AS) (with

21% N and 24% S) are needed to supply 60 kg/ha of N?
 21 divided by 2 gives 10.5. Thus, approximately six bags of AS

would supply 60.5 kg of active ingredients of N.
5. Methods of Fertilizer Application

It is important to note that the method of application of fertilizers
(organic manure or mineral fertilizers) is an essential component of good
agricultural practices. A rapid start and continued nutrition is important
for sustained maximum profit. It is imperative to place some of the
fertilizer where it will intercept the roots of the young plant and to place
the bulk of the nutrients deeper in the soil.
In the regard, nitrogenous fertilizers are easily soluble in water and have
mobility, so they can be applied on the soil surface.
However, a phosphorus fertilizer moves slowly from the point of

placement, it should however, be placed closer to the plant roots. To
reduce phosphate fixation, phosphorus fertilizers should be so placed that
they come into minimum contact with the soil particles and are close to
the plant roots. Potassium fertilizer moves slowly in the soil, they should
also be placed near the root zone. Based on these standards, the
following methods are applicable to apply fertilizers.
 Broadcasting
Under this method, the fertilizer is spread over the entire soil surface to
be fertilized with the objective of distributing the whole quantity of
fertilizer evenly and uniformly and incorporating it in the plough layer. It
is used mostly on dense crops not planted in rows or in dense rows and on
grassland. It is also used when fertilizer should be incorporated into the
soil after application to be effective e.g. phosphate fertilizers, or to avoid
evaporation losses of nitrogen e.g. urea, diammonium phosphate. It is
therefore essential to note that whether the fertilizer is broadcast by hand
or with fertilizer spreading equipment, the spreading should be as
uniform as possible.
84
Fig 22 Broadcasting fertizer (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
Row or Band Placement
Row or Band placement is the application of fertilizers into the soil close
to the seed or plant and is usually employed when relatively small
quantities of fertilizers are to be applied. However, when fertilizers are
placed along with, or close to the seed or plant in bands or pockets, it is
important to note that the roots of the young plants are assured of an
adequate supply of nutrients and this would promotes rapid early growth.
Therefore, this method of placement also reduces the fixation of
phophorus and potassium. On the hand, when seeds or plants are sown
close together in a row, the fertilizer is put in continuous band on one or
both sides of the row. This method of is more commonly used for
potatoes, maize, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane etc.
It is also important to note that where crops are cultivated by hand and
planted in hills, the recommended grams of fertilizer are placed in the
row or planting hole, under, or beside the seed, and covered effectively
with soil, this is kind of application is known as hill placement.
However, great care has to be taken in a way that no fertilizer is placed
either too close to the seed or to the germinating plant to avoid toxicity.
85
Fig 23 Row or Band placement of fertilizer (Source:

Top dressing
Top-dressing also commonly known as broadcasting the fertilizer on

standing crop, is mainly used for small and large grain crops and for
crops such as forage, wheat and barley.
Fig. 24 Top dressing of crops with fertilizer (Source:

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Side dressing
Very important to remember is the fact that side dressing is also another
form of top dressing where fertilizer is spread between the rows or
around the plants. Most commonly used in maize, cotton, sugarcane, trees
and other perennial crops fields.
Fig. 25 Side dressing of crops with fertilizer (Source:

Foliar application of fertilizer
This type of application refers to the spraying of the leaves of growing

plants with suitable fertilizer solutions. It is used mainly to correct
micronutrient deficiencies. However, to reduce the risk of leaf scorch, the
recommended concentration has to be respected and spraying should if
possible be done on cloudy days and in the early morning or late
afternoon.
87
Fig. 26 Foliar fertilizer application (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
Direct application into the soil
With the assist of some special equipment, liquid fertilizer and nitrogen
solutions can be applied directly into the soil. There is very little plant
injury or wastage of ammonium if the material is applied about 10cm
below the seed, and the soil is moist.
Application through irrigation water
It is important to note that straight or mixed fertilizers which are easily

soluble in water are allowed to dissolve in the irrigation stream and
eventually the nutrients are thus carried into the soil in solution.
Therefore, the most common fertilizers applied through irrigation water
are nitrogenous fertilizers.
Fig. 27 Application of fertilizer through irrigation (Source:

6. Overuse of fertilizer
 Excessive doses of organic residues in agricultural fields could be
dangerous for plants and micro-organisms living in the soil.
Although controlled amounts of organic residues, sewage sludge
and animal waste are a good choice for soil fertilization, they can
have damaging effects on soil biota when applied in excessive
doses
 Over time and with their overuse, detrimental effects became

evident. These included the negative effect on soil structure,
increased salinity, and a decrease in soil microorganisms.
 Their use year after year leads to an accumulation of sodium in

the soil. Carbonic acid, which is present in soil, combines with
88
the sodium to form sodium carbonate. It acts as a bonding agent

causing soil particles to bind together and compact.
 The soil becomes hard, difficult to work, and plant roots can't
penetrate it.
 The soil sheds water rather than absorbing it, robbing plants of
moisture Inorganic fertilizers allow plants to bypass this process,
and absorb nutrients directly in larger quantities that can burn
plant roots, especially if the soil is dry.
 The rapid growth that results from the use of inorganic fertilizers
can also be more susceptible to insect and disease attack.
Fertilizer mixture calculation
A mixture of fertilizer which indicated as 2:3:2 (22), for example,

Group
contain N, P, and K in the proportion of 2:3:2. The total quantity of all
activity
three nutrients together in 100kg mass of the mixture must then be a
total of 22kg. In your groups calculate the percentage of plant
nutrients in the fertilizer mixture 2:3:2 (22). Show your working (10).
7. Nitrogen Cycle
Plants depend on nitrogen compounds in order to grow. In nature,
nitrogen can be available in forms accessible to plants (like nitrates or
ammonia compounds) or inaccessible to plants (like molecular nitrogen
or nitrous oxide). The conversion between both forms takes place during
nitrogen fixation or de-nitrification.
89
Fig. 28 The Nitrogen cycle (Source: Senior Secondary Agricultural

Science)
Nitrogen is made available in the soil through different ways
 Through lightening/volcanic eruption- during thunder storm

lightening helps to combine nitrogen and oxygen (oxidation) in the
air to form nitric oxide that dissolves in rain water and washed into
the soil.
 By legume plants - legume plants such as beans, nuts, peas, cloves,

lucerne have bacteria in their root nodules which trap nitrogen from
the air and convert it into nitrates through a nitrification process.
 Bacterial that live in the soil–these bacteria absorb atmospheric

nitrogen for themselves. When they die and decompose nitrogen will
be released into the soil and changed into nitrates which plants can
use.
Processes in the nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen fixation is the process of making available nitrogen compounds

in the air (mainly molecular nitrogen N2) to plants. Nitrogen fixation is
possible for many bacteria and cyanobacteria. They live either in the soil
or in association with plants or also (few) animal species. For example,
the legume family of plants (Fabaceae) contains such bacteria in their
roots. It is important to note that the products of nitrogen fixation are
ammonia, nitrites or nitrates.
 Mineralization (ammonification) is a process during which

decomposers like earthworms, termites, slugs, snails, bacteria or
fungi convert the organic nitrogen of dead plants into inorganic
forms. The first step is formation of ammonia and its salts (NH4+X-).
90
 Assimilation is the conversion of inorganic nitrogen (such as nitrate)

into an organic form of nitrogen like, for example, an amino acid.
Nitrate is reduced for this purpose by enzymes first to nitrite (by
nitrate reductase), then to ammonia (by nitrite reductase). Ammonia
is incorporated into amino acids. Nitrogen cannot be used by plants
or animals as nitrogen but it must be converted into other form for it
to become accessible to plants and animals. It is important to note
that plant use nitrogen in the form of nitrates and animals use
nitrogen in the form of proteins. Accessible nitrogen compounds can
be stored in the soil in an inorganic form (nitrate) or be included into
a living organism as organic nitrogen.
 Nitrification is the second step of nitrogen fixation. Ammonia is a

primary product of nitrogen fixation and therefore the conversion of
ammonia to nitrites and nitrates (carried out by nitrifying bacteria) is
called nitrification.
 Denitrification is the process of reduction of nitrate to nitrogen. It is

carried out by microorganisms (Bacillus, Pseudomonas and other
bacteria) which switch from oxygen to nitrate respiration more
particularly in insufficiently ventilated soils. The de-nitrification
process can lead to several intermediates. The most relevant one is
nitrous oxide. The gases go back to the atmosphere. Nitrous oxide is
a long-lived greenhouse gas.
 Eutrophication is the process by which a body of water becomes rich

in dissolved nutrients from fertilizers or sewage, thereby encouraging
the growth and decomposition of oxygen-depleting plant life and
resulting in harm to other organisms. It is therefore important to note
that if too much fertilizer is added and not taken up by plants it
causes a twofold negative impact. Ammonia and nitrate are washed
out and end up in water (eutrophication) bodies and coastal areas.
Here they cause strong growth of plants and algae (phytoplankton)
and as a result life in the water can be extinguished if the oxygen
content is very much reduced due to decomposition of dying plants.
Ways of adding nitrogen to the soil
 Planting legume plants
 Adding manure or compost to the soil
 Adding nitrogenous fertilizer to the soil
 Adding green manure to the soil
 Use of fertility trenches
91
8. Soil pH
Soil pH is referred to as the degree of acidity or alkalinity of or measure
of the hydrogen ions concentration in the soil. Soil pH is one of the most
important soil properties that affect the availability of nutrients.
Macronutrients tend to be less available in soils with low or high pH.
Soil pH is an environmental factor that influences crop production in

Namibia. In this regard acidic and basic are the two extremes that
describe a chemical property. Mixing acids and bases can cancel out or
neutralize their extreme effects. A substance that is neither acidic nor
basic is neutral. The pH scale measures how acidic or base a substance is.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7
is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic. The pH scale is logarithmic and as
a result, each whole pH value below 7 is ten times more acidic than the
next higher value. It is essential to understand that pure water is neutral.
But it is also important to note that when chemicals are mixed with water,
the mixture can become either acidic or basic. Examples of acidic
substances are vinegar and lemon juice. Lye, milk of magnesia, and
ammonia are examples of base substances.
Fig.29: pH colour chart (Source: www.google.com.na/url)
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Table 10: Normal soil reaction range with corresponding pH values
Range in soil reaction pH value
Extremely acidic Below 4.5
Very strongly acidic 4.5- 5.0
Strongly acidic 5.1-5.5
Medium acidic 5.6-6.0
Slightly acidic 6.1- 6.5
Neutral 6.6- 7.3
Mildly alkaline 7.4-7.8
Moderately alkaline 7.9-8.4
Strongly alkaline 8.5-9.0
Very strongly alkaline 9.1 and above
Lime application practice
Lime is usually applied as CaCO3. Normally the aim is to raise pH to a

target value, but increasingly in the humid tropics the aim is to reduce the
percentage aluminium saturation to a satisfactory value (Sanchez, 1976).
The target value is normally between 6.5 and 7.0 for arable crops in
temperate regions but lower in the humid tropics. It is important to note
that this is related to the sensitivity of the crop to acidity, the organic
matter content of the soil, the cost of liming and the rate at which soils
become acidic.
Line is added to the soil to make it less sour (acid) and also supplies
calcium and magnesium for plants to use. Lime also raises the pH to the
desired range of 6.0 to 6.5. Liming as the term applies to agriculture is the
addition of any calcium or calcium and magnesium-containing compound
to the soil for reducing acidity. For this purpose, calcium oxide, calcium
hydroxide, calcium carbonate, calcium magnesium carbonate and calcium
silicate slags are commonly used.
93
It is important to understand that lime should be applied before ploughing

or applied on ploughed land and then disked or mixed into the soil. In a
situation when large quantities of lime are required, it is desirable to
apply the necessary amount in two or three splits rather than in one
profound application. On strongly acidic soils, where 7-15 tonnes of lime
are required per hectare for example, it is important to apply half the
quantity before ploughing and the remaining half should be applied and
disked after ploughing. However, when the lime required is below 4-5
tonnes per hectare for example, the entire amount of lime should be
applied and disked in at one time, 8-10 days before sowing. The
alkalinity of the soil can be corrected by adding sulfur to the soil. It thus
important to note that for the soil to be have the pH above 7, it must
either be calcareous (contain calcite, CaCO3), dolomitic (contain
dolomite, CaCO3. MgCO3), or sodic (contain Na2CO3). As soil become
more alkaline (pH 7-8.5), the concentration of OH- increases with
associated increases in biocarbonate which becomes the dominant anion.
Carbonate also increases but its concentration is much lower than
biocarbonate.
Determination of soil pH (procedure)
 Collect a soil sample.
 Make a solution by mixing soil and distilled water. Ordinary water

my not yield good experimental results, since it might contain certain
substances that may alter the results.
 Add a few drops of universal indicator solution to the mixture and

shake or stir.
 Allow the mixture to settle.
 Observe the colour that develops and compare using the pH colour
chart.
Relation of soil pH to soil type and plant growth
Plants grow well at a particular range of soil pH, and this optimal pH
gives the maximum yields. The growth of the crops is affected by the pH
of the soil, since the availability of the nutrients to the crops will depend
on the soil pH. Sandy soils are more acid tan clay soils because the clay
particles tend to hold on to the cations.
94
Factors affecting soil pH
 Heavy irrigation/rainfall - this causes leaching of essential nutrients or

cations and the essential nutrients are therefore replaced by the
hydrogen ions and this increases the acidity of the soil.. Leaching is
the loss of plant nutrients down in the soil by drainage.
 Chemical fertilizers – can lead to the production of inorganic acids in

the soil.
 Microbial activities - during decomposition the decomposers are able

to release acid from the decomposing materials. This increases the
acidity of the soil.
 Parent materials – soil made from sulfur tend to be acidic and soil
formed from limestone or sodium carbonate are alkaline.
 Bad management bad management practices can make a soil more

acidic. When a crop is harvested and residues removed, soil nutrients
used by the crop are not replaced. The nutrients tend to be replaced
by hydrogen ions and this make the soil to be more acidic.
95
Determination of soil pH
In your groups carry out the pH test (this has to be done in the
laboratory)
Group
activity
You will need the following:
 Distilled water
 Universal indicator solution
 Soil samples
 Glass biker
 Flat surface
Procedure
 Collect a samples of soil in the school garden

 Make a solution by mixing soil and distilled water.
 Add a few drops of universal indicator solution to the mixture
of water and soil.
 Allow the mixture to settle.
 Observe the colour that develops and compare using a pH
Colour chart.
Questions
1. What colour did you observe? (1)

2. Why did you use distilled water instead of ordinary water from
the tap? (1)
3. If your results indicates that soil is to acidic, what I you
suppose to do to correct the pH level of the soil (2)
4. The colour red and purple indicates what pH level on the pH
scale? (2)
96
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about soil fertility. The unit also presented
in detail the macro and micro nutrients that are essential for plant
growth. The unit also cast light on the aspect of soil ph and all the
Summary
factors affecting soil ph. The unit also give details with regard to
how soil ph can be determined. The unit also presented the nitrogen
cycle and all the processes involved in the nitrogen cycle are
discussed. The unit also presents the organic and inorganic
fertilizers that are being used in most crop farms in Namibia. The
aspect of overuse of fertilizers is also discussed in this unit.
The role of fertilizer in sustainable crop production cannot be

overemphasized. This unit examined the types of organic fertilizer
and chemical fertilizers, the role of each essential and non-essential
element in crop nutrition, method of determining fertilizer needs of
crop, methods of fertilizer application, symptoms of deficiency of
various types of fertilizers, method of calculating fertilizer needs of
crops, principles of effective utilization of fertilizers were
discussed. Also soil reaction as it relates soil pH and its correction
were treated in this unit.
97
References
King, A. (1985). Agriculture: An introduction for Southern Africa.

New York: Cambridge University Press.
References Martin, J. H., Waren H. L. & Stamp, D. L. (1976). Principles of

Field Crop Production (Third Edition), Macmillan pub. New
York. Pp 141-166.
Olaitan, S. O. and Lombin G. (1988). Introduction to Tropical Soil

Science, Macmillan Pub. London.
Onwueme, I. C. and Sinha, T. D. (1999). Field Crop Production in

Tropical Africa, CTA, Wageningen, Netherlands.
Rowland, J. R. J. (1993). Dry land Farming in Africa. CTA,

Wageningen, Netherlands.
98
Unit 6
SOIL ZONES/TYPES OF NAMIBIA
Introduction
In this unit, you are going to be introduced to the different soil zones that
are found in Namibia. It is significant for as a student and farmers out
there in the field to know the dominant soils found in different parts of
the country in order to determine the best soil types that can use for a
specific purpose.
identify the different Agro-ecological zones that are found in

different parts of Namibia.
Outcomes state the characteristics of different soil zones that are found in
Namibia.
determine the locations where these different soil zones are located
across the country.
99
100 Unit 4 SOIL ZONES/TYPES OF NAMIBIA

0869258591
Prescribed reading
ISBN 9789994564484



ISBN 0582651032

Additional reading
An Agro- Is a land resource mapping unit, defined in

ecological Zone: terms of climate, landform and soils, and/or
land cover, and having a specific range of
Terminology
potentials and constraints for land use,
Agro-ecological Refers to the division of an area of lend into

Zoning (AEZ): smaller units, which have similar
100
characteristics related to land su1tability,

potential production and environmental
impact.
Soil Type: A specific unity of soil with definable ranges

of characteristics. May correspond to the
lowest hierarchical unit of a soil classification
system, including specification of phase.
Soil Characteristic: A property of the soil that can be measured or

estimated.
1. Namibia Agro-Ecological Zones

Namibia may be divided into three physical regions. The first is the
western coastal plain of the Namib Desert which occupies 12% of the
total of the country, the second is the central plateau stretching from the
southern to the northern border covering nearly half of the country, and
the third is the semi-arid Kalahari zone lying along most of the eastern
portion of the country.
Soils are truly wonderful. They are foremost support systems of human
life and welfare. Plant grow on soil and this provide anchorage for roots,
hold water long enough to sustain the plants to make use of it, and hold
nutrients that sustain life – otherwise the Earth’s landscape would be as
barren as Mars. Soils are home to numerous micro-organisms that
accomplish a suite of biochemical Trans- formations – that include fixing
atmospheric nitrogen and decomposition of organic matter - and as well
as the armies of microscopic animals and familiar earthworms, ants and
termites. It is important to understand that most of the land’s biodiversity
lives in the soil, not above ground.
In Namibia, different kinds of soil are spread across different landscapes

– not randomly but in predictable patterns first identified 125 years ago
by pioneering Russian pedologist Vasiliy Dokuchaev (1846-1903) as
functions of parent material, climate, relief and living organisms acting
over time. However, it is essential to note that people are part of the
equation too, and soils, like landscapes, are often manmade.
101
2. Agro-Ecological Zones of Namibia

Kalahari Zone
The Kalahari zone is covered by sand of varying thickness. The

unsaturated zone plays an important role in the terrestrial water balance;
it is a controlling factor of plant growth as well as for the quantity and
quality of the recharge waters and of the resultant groundwater. in the
arid zone 95% of what goes on there hydrological is governed by
processes in the unsaturated zone. It is the dominance of the arid regions
by the unsaturated zone that make them special
Western Coastal Plain
The western coastal plains are largely composed of mobile dunes, gravel
and sandy plains. Approximately 250 km North West of Windhoek a
broad belt of large igneous complexes, extend from the coast north east to
central northern Namibia. These complexes are silica under saturated and
alkaline, and therefore have unusual mineralogy. Extensive plains, are
barren near the west coast, colonized by low grasses and scrub further
inland and thornbush becomes predominant in central northern Namibia
Central Plateau
The central plateau comprises mountains, highland areas and the Great
Western Escarpment. The semi-arid southern region consists of
sunbaked savanna with its yellowish-brown tints and characteristic
euphorbia and aloe plant species. The central plateau, which runs from
north to south, has an average altitude of between 1000 and 2000m. This
plateau gradually falls away towards the east where a sandy strip of land
merges into the level expanse of the Kalahari desert.
Soil Properties
The countries soils have 97% clay content of less than 5% and thus have
a very low water holding capacity. They are generally deficient in most of
the major nutrients, and also deficient in micro-nutrients such as
manganese, iron and zinc. Unconsolidated sand and shallow, weakly
developed soils on bedrock characterize the main groups of soils in this
semi-arid to arid country. Soil types include acrisols, alkaline soils,
alluvial soils, arenosols, arid soils, calcareous soils, cambisols, clay soils,
ferralsols,gleysols, lateritic soils, luvisols, regosols, saline soils, sandy
soils, vertisols. Soil drainage is free, impeded, seasonally waterclogged.
102
Fig. 30 Dominant Soils of Namibia (Source: Atlas of Namibia)
Fig. 31 Relative Soil Fertility (Source: UC, Data from Atlas of

Namibia)
103
3. Different soil zones available in Namibia and their characteristics

3.1 Soil zones/types
Table 11: Soil zones available in Namibia
Soil zones/types Characteristics Location
Leptosols Rich in calcium salts Found more commonly in the

within the first 30 hills of southern and north-
cm. western Namibia.
The soil is
susceptible to erosion
during heavy rainfall.
The soil is shallow

due continuous rocky
grounds.
Regosols  Consists of  Commonly found

fine to in the central region
medium of Namibia.
soil texture
mainly
found on
rocky
surface.
 This soil
type is not
shallow as
it is deep
104
up to 50
cm.
 Very prone
to erosion
mainly
depending
on the size
of the
slope.
 The
vegetation
carrying
capacity is
low and
can only
support
few
livestock.
105
Luvisols  Very good  Found in certain

soil for small areas in
cultivation Grootfontein in
purposes. Namibia.
 The soil
has good
water
holding
capacity.
 Good
drainage
with well
aeration
condition.
 The soil is
very fertile
and
suitable for
crop
production.
 The soil is
more
clayey.
Solonchaks and  The soil is  Commonly

Solonetzes more available in Etosha
Plan and in North
106
saline. Eastern border
 Found
more
commonly
in salt
areas.
 Not
suitable for
crop
production
as more
water
evaporates
from this
soil and
allow salts
to
accumulate
.
107
Arenosols  The soil is  Found in eastern

more and north-eastern
porous and Namibia.
increases
the rate of
drainage
and
circulation
of air.
 The soil
has poor
water
holding
capacity.
 The soil is
poor in
humus and
not suitable
for crop
production.
Crop
production
can only be
achieved
when
organic
matters are
added to
108
improve
the
fertility.
 Very
susceptible
to water
erosion
Fluvisols  Very rich  Found in the

in plant Caprivi region
nutrients along the Zambezi
and quite and also in the
suitable for eastern flood plan
crop in the Caprivi. Also
production. found in Kavango
Region.
109
Cambisols  This soil  Found central

has fine to northern region of
medium Namibia.
structure
materials
deposited
during
flood
periods.
 The soil is
slightly
fertile and
average
water
retention
and
drainage.
 Suitable
for crop
production
Gypsisols  The soil is  Found in central

rich in part of Namibia.
calcium.
 Made from
dissolved
rocks that
110
are rich in
calcium
sulphate.
 The soil is
less
suitable for
crop
production.
Table 12 Agricultural potentials of certain soil zones
111
Soil zone/types Agricultural efficacy General characteristics
and
Limitations
Fersiallitic High Well weathered tropical soils

with low water-retention
capacity; Potential for
irrigation
Solonetzic and Moderate-low Shallow sands on clay;

Highly alkaline; Periodically
Palanosolic
wet
Halomorphic Low Danger of salinization;

Wetness; Flooding hazard
Arenosols Low Low water-retaining capacity;

Very sensitive to wind
(Littoral sands)
erosion
Arenosols High Low water-retaining capacity;

Sensitive to wind erosion;
(Interior sands)
Potential for irrigation
Alluvium High Danger of salinization;

Flooding hazard; Potential for
irrigation
113
Unit 4 SOIL ZONES/TYPES OF NAMIBIA
Poorly-developed Low Shallow; stony; steep
Soils
Lithosols None Rocky; Steep mountains and

hills
In your workbooks draw a Map of Namibia and use different keys to

indicate the location of each of the soil zones you have studied.
Activity
Present your map on a large chart and clearly labelled.
Feedback
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about the major ecological zones that are found in
different parts of Namibia. The different soil zones, their characteristics
and also the various locations where such soil zones can be found have
been given more precisely. The characteristics of certain dominant soil
zones in Namibia, agro-ecological zones of Namibia have been discussed.
Summary
114
References
Chard, P. (Focus on ‘O’ Level Agriculture Book 1-4. College
Press. Harare, Zimbabwe. ISBN 0869258591
References Mashebe, P.M. (2010). Discovering Agriculture: Namibia Senior

Secondary Certificate. Zebra Publishing. ISBN
9789994564484

Oluyemi, A. (1996). Senior Secondary Agricultural Science.

Longman. ISBN 0582003407
Owen, G. (1984). O- Level Agriculture. Longman. England. ISBN

0582651032
115

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STUDY GUIDE

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Learning Design Unit

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2. The effects of climate on plant........................................................................... 33

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 How much time you will need to invest to complete the

The overview also provides guidance on:

 Where to get help.

 Course assignments and assessments.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.

The course content

 An introduction to the unit content.

 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning

 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

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Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

Welcome to Agriculture Education

Exit Learning Outcomes

 Discuss the importance of agriculture to people,

 Describe the contributions of agriculture to the family,

 State the ways in which crops and animals supply people

 Give reasons for teaching agriculture in schools.

 Identify the different components and career

 Describe the different types of farming systems.

 Define land tenure.

 Describe the freehold, state-land and communal land

 Discuss soil formation, erosion, conservation, irrigation

 Identify the different soil zones of Namibia.

 Develop a scheme of work from the syllabus.

 Designing of teaching aids.

 Develop a lesson plan to present the selected topic.

3 period/week, 1x2 practical per week

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.

Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time

https://elearning.unam.edu.na/support/ (Help Topic: Study Material)

Please see tutorial letter for instructions on the submission of

Getting around this study guide

A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

Activity Additional Answers to Assessment

Assignment Audio Case study Discussion

Exit Learning Feedback Group Activity Help

References Reflection Study skills Summary

Terminology Tip Video

Upon completion of this unit you should be able to:

 Define the term Agriculture in detail;