CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Media Studies for Cambridge International AS & A Level COURSEBOOK Ian Marshall, Nicola Naisbett & Tina StoklosaSUT trey Endorsement statement Endorsement indicates that a resource has passed Cambridge International’s rigorous quality- assurance process and is suitable to support the delivery of a Cambridge International syllabus However, endorsed resources are not the only suitable materials available to support teaching and learning, and are not essential to be used to achieve the qualification. Resource lists found on the Cambridge International website will include this resource and other endorsed resources. Any example answers to questions taken from past question papers, practice question: accompanying marks and mark schemes included in this resource have been written by the authors and are for guidance only. They do not replicate examination papers. In examinations the way marks are awarded may be different. 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For mote information about the endorsement process, please visit www.cambridgeinternational.org/endorsed-resources, Cambridge International copyright material in this publication is reproduced under licence and remains the intellectual property of Cambridge Assessment International Education,Cre > Contents How to use this series How to use this book Introduction Unit | Introduction to Media 1.1 What is media? 12 Media and your life Unit 2 Media Language: Micro elements, 2.1 Semiotics Shots, angles, movement, composition 23 Sound 24 Mise-en-scéne 25 Editing Unit 3 Media Language: Macro elements 3.1 Genre 3.2 Narrative 3.3. Representation Unit 4 Textual Analysis 4.1 What is media text analysis? 4.2 Reading media texts 4.3. Writing about media texts Unit 5 Media Contexts 5.1 Media forms and platforms 5.2 Media institutions 3. Media audiences 5.4 Developing case studies 5.5 Using case studies Unit 6 Media Production: AS and A Level portfolios 6.1 Preparing for production 62 Re 6.3 Planning a production earching a productionCre 3.2 Narrative 3.3. Representation Unit 4 Textual Analysis 4.1 What 4.2 Reading media texts is media text analysis? 4.3 Writing about media texts Unit 5 Media Contexts 5.1 Media forms and platforms 5.2 Media institutions 5.3 Media audiences 5.4 Developing case studies 5 OU se studies Unit 6 Media Production: AS and A Level portfolios 6.1 Preparing for production 6.2 Researching a production 6.3 Planning a production 64 Developing skills: film/video 65 Developing skills: print 6.6 Developing skills: social media 6.7 Reflecting on a production Unit 7 Media Debates 7A Regulation 7.2. Postmodernism 7.3. Power and the media Unit 8 Media Ecology 8.1 What is media ecolo; 8.2 Evolving media environments se studies for media ecology 8.3 Developing Acknowledgements> How to use this seriesree vii > How to use this book ES Throughout this book, you will notice lots of different features that will help your learning. These are explained below LEARNING INTENTIONS eae ea ny These explain how the coursebook’s themes are integrated with the key concepts in the Cambridge International AS & A Level Media Studies syllabus. BEFORE YOU START This feature contains questions and activities on subject knowledge you will need before starting each section, It also provides a point of departure for inquiry. ACTIVITY These practical tasks allow you to understand and apply relevant skills, as well as opportunities to produce your own work either individually, or in pairs or groups. THINK These boxes give you an opportunity to apply your learning to real-life scenarios and consider the skills required in the media industry. TOP TIP Tips are provided throughout this coursebook to help with your learning. The tips might cover how to avoid common errors or misconceptions, evaluation and analysis, or guidance on how to approach your work. Sele UA Key vocabulary terms are introduced in the text when they are first introduced. An accompanying definition explains the meanings of these words and phrases. You will also find the definitions of these words as a pop-up in the same highlighted text. REFLECTION Se eee eee eeeach section. It also provides a point of departure for inquiry. starting vii These practical tasks allow you to understand and apply relevant skills, as well as opportunities to produce your own work either individually, or in pairs or groups. PN aol aon These boxes give you an opportunity to apply your learning to real-life scenarios and consider the skills required in the media industry. Tips are provided throughout this coursebook to help with your learning. The tips might cover how to avoid common errors or misconceptions, evaluation and analysis, or guidance on how to approach your work. Mele UA Key vocabulary terms are introduced in the text when they are first introduced. An accompanying definition explains the meanings of these words and phrases. You will also find the definitions of these words as a pop-up in the same highlighted text. REFLECTION s direct you to look back on an activity and encourage you to think about Reflection questio your learning. This feature enables you to reflect on your learning and assess whether you have achieved the learning intentions for the unit. If you identify any areas that you are less confident in, try to put together a list of actions for improving these. ‘ake it further This feature provides ideas about further reading or activities you can do as extension work, related to the topic.ree > Introduction g Who is this book for? This coursebook is for those that wish to explore how media impacts the many facets of our existence. The included information and activities prompt you to investigate the roles of media in your personal lives as well as your larger communities. You will also learn how to ‘read’ and analyse the media — processes that will aid you as you navigate through our media saturated world. This coursebook supports the Cambridge International AS & A Level Media Studies syllabus (9607) for examination from 2024. Additionally, this coursebook supports students interested in developing a deep understanding of media’s effects on society. Why use this book? A defining feature of this book is the inclusion of activities that prompt you to study the media sphere within your local or national contexts. This book is for all students wishing to explore the media, regardless of where you live. The book begins with activities that encourage you to reflect upon your own relationship with media. As you progress through the units and build your knowledge base about media-related topies, you will be asked to re-evaluate your relationship with media and reflect upon how it evolves over your course of study. 5 During your reflection processes, you will also be prompted to contemplate how you can use media-related skills in the world beyond academia. The “Think like a ...” sections ask you to put yourself in the roles of various me developed to help give you a small t media industry 4 or communications related jobs. These sections are e of the array of opportunities in fields connected to the Studying media is about closely analysing choices. When you take a picture of a friend or write an essay for a class, you are making a series of choices during the development of the new content, We tend not to view our processes in this manner because if we did so, everything would most likely take more time to create, However, when embarking upon the in-depth study of media, it is essential to slow down a bit and take time to think about how all aspects of the creation process have meaning. This book strives to help you do just that — slow down and mull over how alll the choices matter. You will get much more value out of the media when you learn to truly pay attention and analyse what you consume. Enjoy your media studies and use this book as an invaluable resource, guide and support towards achieving success on your course.ree Cech In this unit, you will: © Ieam basic concepts associated with media studies © consider how and why you consume media ‘© reflect upon the role of media n developing your sense of self and the world.Cre Introduction To study media is to study the process in which we document our lives. Before you delve into the intricacies of media production and analysis, you must first understand your relationship with media. Before you begin this topic, think about: © what you already know about studying media © what you would like to know about studying medi We will return to this point at the end of the unit, This unit links to the key concept of audience. In media studies, studying how and why audiences consume media is an essential process. During this unit, you will reflect upon your practices as an audience member to various types of media.1.1 What is media? LEARNING INTENTIONS, Think of a message, idea or principle that is important to you. Keep it simple. Now, using only one piece of paper, develop something that creatively conveys this message. Share your creation with a small group (four to five students). Discuss the following questions: © Did you create a piece of media? © Ifso, what makes this a piece of media? © — Ifnot, what would make this a piece of medi Ey What is meant by media? When we hear the word ‘media’ we may have different perceptions of what this actually means. Like many aspects of our existence, our understanding of ‘media’ has evolved along with changes in society. Before we begin discussing the many topics that comprise media studies, we must first explore the concept of ‘media’ Media = communication The most common definition of ‘media’ refers to the means in which we communicate. This includes both the media forms and the media platforms that are used to disseminate information to the masses. Media forms, such as print, have been used for communication purposes for centuries. Other media forms, such as film, TY, radio and video games, are more contemporary methods of communication.ETOAC ACTIVITY 1.1 Work with a partner to discuss how various media forms are used to communicate information in your city or country. Consider the types of information and content that are commonly communicated through these forms Copy and complete Table 1.1 with specific examples of content that are communicated through the listed forms ‘Time-based audio/visual media Film Tv Radio Print media Newspapers Magazines Advertising Table 1.1: Content communicated through different forms Review your tables and consider these questions: © Which media forms are most commonly used to disseminate content that focuses on entertainment? © — Which media forms disseminate informational content? © Which media forms disseminate both types of content?EAC The media platform is the distribution method for the media form. For example: © Social media is an online media platform that often distributes media forms such as print or music but can also include videos and images. © Broadcast media can be a digital or online platform that often distributes TV. © Video games are distributed through a digital media platform. It is important to note that as technology evolves, media forms may be able to be distributed through more than one media platform. Magazines are a great example of this. Although most magazines are now distributed digitally, many are also still available in physical form. ACTIVITY Consider how the following content is typically distributed. Copy Table 1.2 and place a tick (/) in the boxes for all types of distribution methods available for each form Newspapers TV shows Video games Magazines Music Podcasts Books Memes ‘Tab 1 Xe Working in a group of two to three, share your tables and engage in a discussion about your conclusions. 1.2: Distribution of content © Which types of content are distributed using more than one media platform? © What media platform is used least? Media = creators The term ‘media’ is also used to refer to the organisations and people that create and disseminatemessages through media platforms. Quite often when we say ‘the media’, we mean the news A organisations, film, TV and music production companies, publishers and broadcasters that are sible for developing the content that we consume. EI When creating media content, one of the first choices is deciding which media forms and media platforms to utilise. Consider the following scenarios. As a content creator, what choices would you make? Which are the most suitable media forms and platforms’ © Scenario 1: You want to advertise a new mobile game geared towards people between the ages of 21 and 35 © Scenario 2: You are creating a documentary about high-end, environmentally friendly travel destinations, ¢ Scenario 3: You wish to spread the word about an upcoming play at your local amateur theatre. We rely heavily on ‘the media’ to develop content that helps us understand what is happening in our communities and the world at large. We also rely on ‘the media’ to entertain us with various forms of art or content that offers pure escapism. What organisations or specific directors come to mind when you think about your favourite films? Who has created some of your favourite songs? All these creators from ‘the media’ have had some impact upon your existence. Working with a partner, conduct research to find the content and creators for each of the following media forms for each of the past three years (search for the answers only within your country): © top grossing film © most watched show on broadeast TV © best-selling novel © top music single of the year Review your findings. Are there companies or creators that appear in more than one media form? If so, what conclusions can you make about ‘the media’ in your country? It is important to also remember that with advanced technology at our fingertips, almost anyone can be a content creator. If you have ever posted anything on social media or created a short film or piece of music, you are a content creator. Therefore, an important question to consider is, areEAC we all now members of ‘the media”? [ s | Why study media? Much of our existence is nbued with media, Due to around-the -clock access to technology and is not an over-exaggeration to say that we are constantly exposed to media content. Therefore, it is necessary to enhance our understanding of media. online information, it ‘The term ‘media’ refers to modes of communication, When we yy ‘the media’, we are often referring to the companies and people that develop media content Analy: The moder technology that we use to distribute and access media was integrated into society quickly. As we were enjoying this quick, efficient access, we had little time to truly think about what we were accessing or how it affects our lives. When you learn how to analyse media content, you are less apt to be manipulated and more apt to expose yourself to media content that enhances your life rather than sucks away your time. Skills Many of the skills that are developed through studying media can be used in other courses and B other facets of your life. In addition to improving your analysis skills, you will also work with a variety of technologies, research major organisations and create media products for a variety of purposes, The most profound skills development will occur as you work on long-term projects. During these projects you will enhance your planning, research and production skills. Assess your current abilities in the following skills — be honest! ECT tC nS Confident Communicating my ideas Analysing medi: content Creating new products using technolo; Managing my time well while working on long-term projectsere Creating a schedule for myself when working on long-term | « | projects Working within teams to develop something new Conducting research using credible sources Table 1 ills audit Review your learning © Which skills will help you as you work through this course? © Which skills are you most looking forward to improving?EAC Job prospects [7 | Media savvy individuals are thriving within our media-driven world. Many of the most sought- rp after jobs are those that require the skills developed through studying media. When most people think of jobs in the media, they immediately think about media content creators, The realm of media-related jobs moves far beyond content creation. Content creators often work with a team of people that are all experts at different aspects of how to create the content There is also the business side of the media, This aspect requires the expertise of those working in finance, operations, marketing and various management positions. Choose a job within the media sphere and research the following: © What qualifications are required for this job? © What are the typical tasks? © — How does this job relate to media studies? Take it further ‘Media literacy’ is a concept that represents a main goal within a media studies course. Research this term. What information did you find? What does a ‘media literate’ person do when consuming media? PROG eh Take a moment to reflect on the skills necessary for understanding media studies. After studying this section, complete this table: Cea oth Sra Cee You should be able to: Define and explain basic concepts and key terminology for studying media Understand the concepts of media forms and platforms Evaluate the effects of mediaTake a moment to reflect on the skills necessary for understanding media studies. After Ei studying this section, complete this table: Define and explain basic concepts and key terminology for studying media Understand the concepts of media forms and platforms Evaluate the effects of mediaSE Lae After studying this section, you will be able to: © reflect on the roles of media in your life ‘© assess your media usage habits: why you choose specific media and how often you use it © understand the difference between active and passive media consumption © evaluate how media impacts how you perceive the world, Now that you have a better understanding of media, revisit the process you began in Section 1.1 of communicating a message, idea or principle t portant to you. Again, try to keep it simple. This time, choose the media form and platform that you think is most suitable for communicating this message. Share your piece of media with a small group (four to five students). Discuss the following questions 5 © What is the most common media form chosen amongst the group? Discuss why this media form is used more often than others. — Ifthere is no common media form, discuss the reasoning behind the choices for each piece of media. Which media platform was chosen for each piece? Is there commonality here? Discuss the reasonings behind these choices. Before you can even begin to reflect upon the role of media in your life, you must first consider an important question — why do T use media? What motivates you to wake up in the morning and grab your phone to check out social media posts? What makes you want to glance at the TV (even though it is really your parents that are watching)? What drives you to play video games after school instead of completing your homework? The reasons why we use media are varied and intensely personal. Although media studies requires you to explore why the masses use media, it is also vital to examine why you are drawn to use various pieces of media, What anneals to me?What appeals to me? Do you find yourself using one media form more often than others? Perhaps you enjoy listening to music but don’t like to watch long films. Maybe you could spend hours reading a book but find the short postings on social media a bit of a bore. Your preferences are often motivated by a variety of factors including personality, context and environment. Take a look at the images in Figure 1.1 Figure 1.1: Why are we drawn to certa images? Which image do you like the most? What about the image entices you? Are you entertained by the silliness of the snail on the skateboard? Perhaps you like the creativity expressed through the mirror image on the floor of the chameleon against the black background. If you like the pol: bear image you may appreciate getting a quick glimpse of a moment in time ~ especially one that is quite diffi ult to capture. 5 Thinking about why we are drawn to one thing over another can help us understand our choices. Reflect on why you tend to use various media, Next to each of the following media forms, write short descriptions of your motivations for using them: e TV © print (newspaper, magazines, books) © filmv/movies © social media © video games © music © radio/podcasts For example: © TV: to learn about the local news, watch sports eventsSE Lae Don’t think about how you use the medium just yet. For now, just write down what draws | 9 | you to the medium. E Review your learning Pair up with a peer and discuss your lis . © Do you have similar motivations for consuming each media form? © — With which medium do you find different motivations for consumption? Also, discuss why other people in your life use these same media forms. © Are your parents’ motivations different from yours? What about your teachers” motivations, or those of your younger siblings or cousins? © Does age change the motivating factors for consuming each medium? Typically, media consumption involves a purchase and payment, but not always directly. For example, itis free to use major web browsers, but information on your searches is gathered, stored, analysed and resold to other companies. How do I use media? The ways that you choose to access and use med messages being deliver can play a key role in how you perceive the B «d, For example, on many streaming sites all episodes of a TV show are available as soon as the show itself is released. You may choose to watch the full season of the show in one sit ng ot watch the episodes at your leisure. On the other hand, if you watch a TV show on a broadcast station, you will only be able to watch one episode per week at a specific time. © The streaming option allows you to devour the entire season of the TV show in hours. You move from one episode to the next without much thought or reflection on what you just viewed, Before you know it, you have watched the entire season of the show and are ready to check out another one of the suggested offerings that show up in lieu of the next episode (which, sadly, will not be available for some time). © The TV broadcast station option forces you to wait between episodes. You may build up a sense of anticipation wondering what is in store for your favourite character. Right before you are ready to watch the next episode, you must remember what happened during last week's episode, When you finally get to the last episode, you feel invested in the story and the characters and are ready to get a sense of closure (or not wretched cliffhangers!). These two scenarios represent vastly different wa 's of exposing yourself to media. The relationship between you and what you are consuming is impacted by how you choose to engage with the product. Therefore, you need to reflect upon not only wiy you consume media, but howSE Lae you consume medi Working with a partner, ask each other the following questions and discu: your responses: © What piece(s) of technology do you typically use to consume media? © Which media form do you consume the most? The least? Why? © — Choose two media forms and discuss the platforms that you use to consume them, How does the platform impact your consumption habits? B Consider what you learned about how your partner consumes media, Did you notice any similarities with your own media consumption practices? Review your learning ul How often do I use media? Think about your typical day. As you are getting ready for school, do you listen to music? When you eat breakfast, do you focus on just eating or are you doing somethir On your commute to school, what do you see and hear? Do you look out of the window and see billboards or advertisements embedded in and around public transport? At school, do you read any books? Visit any websites? How about when you walk down the halls and corridors — do you else at the same time? see anyone wearing branded clothing? Although the questions above are only prompting you to reflect on a short time within your full day, there is a high likelihood that you consume some type of media shortly afer you wake up and continue consuming, in one way or another, until you sleep again. We have developed aLee society where we are highly reliant on media consumption for both information gathering and entertainment. Consequently, many of us consume media during a large portion of our day. A sociologist studies human behaviours through the observation of so ns and B societal structures. Think about a recent journey. Imagine you are a sociologist observing behaviours of your fellow travellers while they are in transit. interac © What do you think you would observe? © What activities are commuters engaged with while they travel? © What duration of their travel time would they be engaged in the activities listed? How much of these activities would use media’ h media is to moni One of the best ways to understand your relationship w for 24-48 hours. There are many ways to do this: or your media use Ifyou have a smartphone, you can use a monitoring app or the internal screen time monitoring system. Although this does not offer a complete view of media use (we often consume media using tools other than a smartphone), it does offer a glimpse into the amount of time you spend using specific applications © Abetter wav ta monitor medi a media nse loo Fverv time van findLee ‘yourself consum |, mark it down, Table 1.4 1s a sample media use log. ru | pein rE Be 7.00 a.m. — 7.30 a.m. Music Phone 8,00 am. —8.15 am. Video game (app) Phone 8.30 am, —8.45 am. Video (class) Computer/projector Table 1.4: Sample media use log 12 After documenting your media use for 24-48 hours, reflect upon the following questions in a small group: © What time of the day do you consume media the most? Why? © Are you comfortable with your overall media use within a 24-hour period? © When you are not consuming media, what are you ypically doing? © Are your media use habits consistent with those of your peer What do I get from media? Now that you have reflected upon why, how and how often you use media, it is important to contemplate what you ger in return from your media consumption. After you binge-watch that new TV show that everyone has been watching, what did you learn from the content? When you monitored your media usage for a day and found that you spent over two hours interacting with social media sites, are you content with how you spent that time? Our world asks us to consume media often, for various reasons, but it rarely asks us to slow down and take time to think deeply about whether the media we consume enhances our existence. The ubiquity of modern technology at our fingertips also makes us media producers. Therefore, you must also remember to reflect upon what you get from creating media. When you take a picture and post on a social media site, what do you get in return? Are you comfortable with what you are ~ or are not — getting back? Take a look at Figure 1.2. Imagine this shot is captured quickly, at a moment's notice by the child’s mother. She happened to have her phone in her lap, noticed her son’s joy at being lifted by his father, grabbed her phone, framed the image quickly and pressed the photo button. Why would she want to create this image? Two to three years from now, when she is looking through her pictures and stumbles across this one, what feelings may it invoke? hk llTEAC Figure 1.2: What might be the effect on us of receiving such an image? Now, imagine that this shot was posted on social media and shared with friends and family including you. When scrolling through your social media feed, you see this moment in time captured and shared. What do you feel when you see this image? Do you benefit from taking the time to look, and perhaps even comment, on what you see? Although you may not have the time (or energy) to question what you get out of all the media that you consume, it is helpful to start this process with the media that exhausts a great deal of your time, When you have a better understanding of how you benefit ~ or not ~ from media, you will choose to consume media that offers you a positive return. How does media impact my perception of the world? The most basic way that we lean about the world is through observation of what is happening around us. Much of this observation involves consuming media. When you wish to learn about what is happening in your community, you watch the local news or read the local newspaper. You could also scroll through social media pages dedicated to discussing local concerns. Quite often, our lives do not allow us time to actively, critically consume all three of these media, so we pick and choose what works for us. Sometimes we choose what is easier or faster and sometimes we choose to consume media from sources we have learned to trust. Regardless of what motivatesthese choices, the outcome is consumption of media, B ACTIVITY 1 Working with a partner, discuss the following questions: © What does it mean to get old? © What age would you consider old? Elderly? © Think about the people in your life that have reached an old age. What words would you use to describe them? What do you think they do during a typical day? What do you think they do for fun? Now, view and discuss the images in Figure 1.3, and answer the questions that follow Figure 1.3: Do these images challenge your preconceptions? 14 How do these images illustrate the lives of those that have reached an old age? © What connections do you see with your own lives? © How do these images impact your perceptions about what it means to get old? Did your perceptions of old age change after seeing and discussing these images? If we know that we will consume media in the quest to learn about the world, our next choice is to decide if we consume actively or passively. Active media consumption involves making deliberate choices. For example, you choose to subscribe to a spec ved magazine because the majority of the writing staff also work in science research. You read the articles online and question the conclusions or re-read some of the text so you develop a deep understanding of the concept. As an active consumer you also wish to continue the conversation and create a comment to include in the ‘user comments’ area of the page. ic science- On the other hand, passive media consumption does not involve any premeditation or deep thought while consuming. Much of social media is designed for passive consumption, hence the scrollable nature of the content. A passive consumer scrolls through content, not because you decide to specifically seek out any of it, but because it is something to do. Although passive consumption of media is often characterised as being ‘mindless’, some part of your brain is stilltering the content and therefore, it does have an effect on your perception. 4 The type of consumer that you choose to be will lead to how much media impacts your gE perceptions of the world. Are you an active or passive consumer of media? Stuart Hall argues that media audiences are active consumers that often consume media through the lens of their own experiences and social contexts. The Active Audience Theory suggests that because audiences make sense of media through what they know and how they live, the intended message of the media creator may not be what is understood by audiences. Audiences often interpret or alter media messages to support their own beliefs which are directly connected to their social context. How does media influence my perception of self? Have you ever watched a film or TV show and related, intimately, to one of the characters? This character may ‘live’ an entirely different existence than you, but there is still something about the character with which you connect. Perhaps watching this character live out their fictional stories made you realise something about yourself that you had never quite admitted. Maybe this character struggled with similar personal demons and found a way to overcome them ~ and inspired you to do the same. Our coexistence with each other and the media that we create and consume naturally leads to media influencing our sense of self. There is no instruction manual for how to best use the media 5 available at our fingertips. Nor do we have strict limitations on how much media we create and consume, We all have the responsibility to learn how to navigate the world of media in ways that are beneficial 15 If we bring a bit of ourselves to everything we do, everything we watch, everything we listen to, everything we read, how much do we take away? How much of the media you consume had a hand in creating your sense of self? How much would you like it to? This section prompted you to think deeply about the ways in which media has an effect on various aspects of your life. Are you comfortable with your findings? What changes would you like to make to your media consumption habits? What are you doing well? Take a moment to reflect on the skills necessary for understanding media consumption. After studying this section, complete this table:SE Lee Reflect on the roles of media in your life Assess your media usage habits: why you choose specific media and how often you use it Understand the difference between active and pa media consumption Explore how media impacts how you perceive the world Now return to the list you made at the beginning of this unit of what you already knew about studying media studies and what you wanted to learn, Think about what you have learned during this unit and add these points to your list. Take it further Media consumption is often impacted by your environment. Therefore, it is helpful to understand the media consumption habits of those around you. Create a short media consumption survey or media monitoring task and ask a group of peers or family members to complete it. Review the results and see if there are any connections to your own media consumption habits.SE Lee In this uni you will: © Ieam about the language of semiotics and how to use it © explore the technical elements of media language © discover how media language is used in media texts to generate meaning,cola Introduction Studying this unit will enable you to develop technical language and the skills of analysis that will help you understand how media texts construct representations and convey meaning and messages to audiences. This unit enables you to develop skills that are the foundation for textual analysis. The unit is broken into subsections, each focusing on a technical element of media language. Before you begin this topic, think about: © what you already know about technical media language © what you would like to know about technical media language. We will return to this point at the end of the unit, This unit links to the key concept of language. It will help you develop a deeper understanding of how the media communicates meaning through codes, conventions and techniques. You will gain a bank of new vocabulary and approaches to analysing media texts.rE After studying this section, you will be able to: © explain the concept of semiotics © define the terms ‘denotation’ and ‘connotation’ ‘© analyse a media text, identifying the connotations of signs. 1 Imagine you’re looking around your home. Identify some objects and colours. Write down what you think of when you look at the objects and colours. 2 Ask a friend or family member if they think the same. Note down any commonalities 3. Now that you have started to consider how meaning is generated, take a look at the image in Figure 2.1 18, Figure 2.1: What do you see in this image? © — Write down a simple description of the© Write down what you think of when you look at the image. How does it make you feel? What do you associate with it? Review your learning ‘What was it that led you to make these associations? Would everyone draw the same conclusions as you, regardless of their age, gender, ability, background or social cla: What is semiotic analysis? Understanding the concept of semiotics is essential for building and mastering your skills of analysis. Semiotics forms the foundation of any technical analysis and will enable you to discuss how different aspects of media language work together to create meaning. The process you engaged in in the Before you start activity is called a semiotic analysis. This section will de your ability to conduct a semiotic analysis of a still or moving image. Before we start looking at the technical el familiar with the language of semiotics. ments of media language, we need to become \s are all around Semiotie analys us. Anything can be a sign, such the study of signs and the meaning that they generate. Sig a table or the colour blue. Roland Barthes is a theorist you will encounter throughout your study of media, He is considered a structuralist and his work on semiology is informed by the ideas of semiotic Ferdinand de Saussure. We will focus on the fundamental ideas of Barthes’ work in this subsection, There are two layers to a semiotic analysis: ‘* Denotation — the literal description of the sign. © — Connotation — the meanings we take and associations we make from the sign. This is also referred to as the signified. Signs are culturally dependent. Our cultural background may lead us to This is important to remember when analysing media texts. nterpret signs differently, Here is an example of a semiot 19,OL EeLL Figure 2.2: What does this image denote? The image in Figure 2.2 denotes traffic lights. In Western cu © the reen light signifies go © the amber light signifies that the red light is about to appear, and a driver should stop if itis, safe to do so © ared light signifies stop Conduct a semiotic analysis of the image in Figure 2.3LER LU Figure 2.3: What does this image denote and connotate? 1 Write a literal description of the image (denotation), 2 Write down what you associate with the image (connotations). Le Assess your progress with this subsection. Can you analytical sentences about the red rose? se the following terms to create two © connotations © denotation. PROGRESS CHECK Nec me orn) On eC ag CO) Explain the concept of semiotics. Define the terms ‘denotation’ and ‘connotat Analyse a still or moving image, identifying the connotations of signs.Coy After studying this section, you will be able to: © identify all types of camera shots in a media text © identify all types of camera angles in a media text © identify all types of camera movements in a media text © identify aspects of composition in a media text © discuss how camerawork can influence the meaning of a text. BEFORE YOU START Cinematographers make choices and decisions, under the direction of a producer and director, about how to construct shots and move the camera in order to create meaning and make the audience feel a particular way. meaning? B Consider films and TV shows you have seen or use a streaming service to locate a series of film openings to help you answer the question. With a partner, discuss the following question: © Inwhat ways do you think camerawork can influe! THINK LIKE A ... CINEMATOGRAPE Working with your partner, use a camera to take photographs of the following: ¢ A person that looks happy. © The outside of a s threatening? ‘hoo! building. Can you make the building look menacing and © Two people having an intense conversation. © The inside of a room which focuses on elements of the decor. What choice th and decisions did you make when taking your photographs? Why did you make ese choices and decisions? Now that you have started to th hnically about the choices and decisions that cinematographers make, let’s focus on the language of cinematography and consider how technical elements of eamerawork communicate meaning, 22Coy Studying camerawork involves analysing the choices and decisions that media producers make 3 regarding camera shots, angles, movement and composition. Camera shots You need to become familiar with a variety of different camera shots and why media producers use them. This section explains the key shots that you will need to be able to identify and analyse. An establishing shot usually shows a location. This is to set the scene and establish where the action is going to take place Figure 2.4: Establishing shot A master shot is a camera set-up that remains consistent throughout the filming of an entire scene. The camera does not change position and is set at an angle that captures all character performances. This shot is used so that an editor can return to it if other camera shots or angles do not achieve the desired effect or do not capture all the required footage An aerial or overhead shot looks down upon a scene or characters. In Figure 2.5 we can see that the camera is looking down on some fishing boats. This enables the audience to see the boats in relation to the surroundings. Here the boats look in a state of distepair signifying that the peoplerE Figure 2.5: Aerial shot Long shot A long shot usually depicts the full body of a character and enables the viewer to read them in relation to their surroundings. In the example in Figure 2.6, the characters are shown standing in Roman ruins. They look small in comparison to the grand stonework, connoting they are feeling overwhelmed and threatened.Two shot A two shot will feature two characters and enables the audience to read their body language and interaction with each other. In this shot, we can see two characters sitting next to each other on the sofa. The proximity between them suggests they know each other but their body language signifies their discomfort. Figure 2.7: Two shot Wide shot A wide shot will feature a number of characters and allows the audience to read their body language and see how they interact with each other. The wide shot in Figure 2.8 depicts four people around a dining table. The distance enables the location to be seen and clearly signifies that the characters are dining in a luxury home. The dinner is sophisticated and those in attendance are interacting socially, Se eee eee eeerE Cae Figure 2.8: Wide shotFigure 2.9: Mid-shot 25 In this mid-shot, the audience are able to read the body language of the character — he appears gE contemplative as he looks into the distance. His hands placed on his hips could be interpreted as a sign of seriousness. Furthermore, the audience are able to see the character in his immediate surroundings and it would appear that he is on a farm in the countryside signified by the tractor in the background of the frame. Close-up shot In this close-up shot, the audience are able to read the detail of the character’s facial expres and body language. Her clasped hands pulled towards her face, mouth partially open and her stare into the distance signify that she is nervous, panicky and agitated Figure 2.10: Close-up shot 26 Point of view shotSSL a Point of view shot Figure 2.11: Point of view shot of view shot shows the audience what the character is looking at, This enables the viewer es them further into the on-screen action ome the character and sutun The shot in Figure 2.11 shows the audience what a character is looking at through a telescope. This encourages the audience to identify with the character and immerses them in the on-screen action — the audience becomes the character and sees the narrative through their eyes. Over the shoulder shot An over the shoulder shot is usually used during a conversation. It allows the audience to become part of the conversation and read character reactions. In nifies how ure 2.12, we can see the character’s reaction to a question. Her expres she is processing what has been said but equally how unimpressed she is.EC Cae part of the conversation and read character reactions. In Figure 2.12, we can see the character’s reaction to a question. Her expr she is processing what has been said but equally how unimpressed she is. Figure 2.12: Over the shoulder shot 27 Camera angles Camera angles can be used to make characters or buildings appear dominant, powerful and threatening or powerless, weak and vulnerable. In this high an Je shot, the audience are looking down at a woman sitting alone outside on some steps. Her body language in unison with the angle suggests that the woman is isolated, unhappy and in need of comfort. The angle positions the audience as caring and worried for the woman,oe Camera angles can be used to make characters or buildings appear dominant, powerful and gE threatening or powerless, weak and vulnerable. High-angle shot In this high angle shot, the audience are looking down at a woman sitting alone outside on some steps. Her body language in unison with the angle suggests that the woman is isolated, unhappy and in need of comfort. The angle positions the audience as caring and worried for the woman. Figure 2.13: High-angle shot Canted or Dutch angle A canted angle is when the camera is tilted to one side. This angle can be used to disorientate the audience, It could be conveying the frantic nature of on-screen action or signifying the mental unravelling af haracterSra Figure 2.13: High-angle shot Canted or Dui A canted angle is when the camera is tilted to one side. This angle can be used to disorientate the audience, It could be conveying the frantic nature of on-screen action or signifying the mental unravelling of a character. Low-angle shot This low angled shot encourages the audience to look up at the hispanic male footballer. The angle makes the man appear dominant, confident and powerful. Figure 2.14: Low-angle shot Camera movement Table 2.1 shows a variety of camera movements that you need to become familiar with when analysing moving image textsFigure 2.14: Low-angle shot 28-9 Camera movement Table 2.1 shows a variety of camera movements that you need to become familiar with when analysing moving image texts Steadicam A Steadicam is a mount for a camera. This helps the camera operator keep the camera steady and enables a smooth movement. A Steadicam will be combined with other camera movements listed in this table. Pan During a panning movement, the camera will remain static and move from left to right or right to left to reveal narrative information. For example, the camera may be introducing characters sitting around a table. ‘© The director Wes Anderson uses a lot of panning shots to reveal narrative information, For example, in The Grand Budapest Hotel (2014, Anderson) the camera pans from Gustave walking out of a door toa rose with an envelope that has M Gustave written on the front. © Inthe film La La Land (2016, Chazelle) a whip pan (rapid or fast panning) is used to convey a developing relationship and intensity between characters. Sebastian is playing the piano and the camera pans to Mia dancing, The camera continues to whip between the pair as Sebastian’s playing intensifies.cara) TUE Tilt During a tilt the camera will remain static but move up and down. A tilt could be used to show the size and scale of something © —Anexcellent example of a tilt revealing the size and scale of something is in the film Interstellar (2014, Nolan). Christopher Nolan uses a tilt as the character Cooper steps out of the spaceship to see an all-encompassing wave in front of him. Dolly shot A dolly shot involves the camera physically moving through a scene. The camera can move forwards, backwards or sideways. The camera will follow a moving object such as a person. This movement integrates the audience into the scene by immersing them in the on-screen action. © Aclassic example of a dolly shot is in the opening of The Departed (2006, Scorsese). The character of Frank opens the film with a monologue and the camera follows him as he walks across a workshop. This introduces the audience to his character and provides ht into his psyche and moral code. Tracking shot hot is similar to a dolly shot in that it follows a moving subject; it will just be attached to a physical track when doing so. This ensures a smooth and continuous movement. © Inthe opening of the film Goodfellas (1990, Scorsese) a single tracking shot follows Henry and Karen as they walk through the Copacabana club, The shot lasts just under three minutes and signifies their importance in the film but also in their community. Crane, helicopter and drone These shots elevate the camera above a landscape and are often used to signify the epic size and scale of a setting or building. The shots are sometimes combined with a tracking movement to follow a car chase, for example. Handheld A handheld camera is easy to identify: it often has an element of shake because it is held by the cinematographer rather than being mounted on a Steadicam. This camera movement is often used to provide a documentary feel to a moving image text and can help aid the construction of realism, For example, handheld camera movements are used often in war films from the point of view of soldiers during a battle scene, ¢ The entire film Cloverfield (2008, Reeves) is filmed on a handheld camera. This gives the illusion of it being ‘real’ and itis this that makes the film more impactful and has the audience on the edge of their seat throughout. The disorientating feeling provided from the handheld camera is purposeful to provoke a stronger emotional response from the viewer. Zoom A zoom is the process of bringing the audience closer to a subject by adjusting the camera lens rather than physically moving the camera, A often less smooth than a track in or out and is ofien used to bring the audience closer to a character's facial expression or draw attention to something in a frame. zoom ii Reverse zaam The reverse 200m is a mavement that 70ams in and then hack out This, 28-9SSL Reverse zoom _ | The reverse zoom is a movement that zooms in and then back out. This 28-9 adds dramatic effect and can be used to signify an immediate sense of shock and disbelief. © Aclassic example is in the film Jaws (1975, Spielberg) when the chief of police, Martin Brody, notices the shark in the water whilst he is sitting on the beach. Liou bere from the terrifying No.1 best seller. Table 2.1: Types of camera movement 30 ACTIVITY Use a streaming service or website such as YouTube to locate other examples of each of the camera movements listed in Table 2.1. The examples could be from TV or film. Review your learning © What impact does each movement have on the audience? © How does it make the audience feel? © How does it aid their understanding of what is happening in the scene? Composition The composition of a shot is an important tool for a cinematographer. There are a number ofSra Composition The composition of a shot is an important tool for a cinematographer. There are a number of EI aspects to the composition of a shot, for example framing and depth of field. Framing The composition of a shot and the framing decisions made by a cinematographer play a large role in the production of meaning. The frame is broken into thirds — referred to as the rule of thirds. Figure 2.15: Rule of thirds grid In Western cultures, typically anything placed in the left or top of the frame carries more power. This is because the top left of the frame is typically where the human eye falls first. 31 Framing can also be open or closed.Sra Figure 2.16: Open frame Figure 2.16 is an example of an open frame. The audience can imagine the city streets stretching beyond the confines of the frame. This makes the character appear free In contrast, Figure 2.17 is an example of a closed frame.31 Figure 2.17: Closed frame The character is tightly framed by the window. This makes the character appear trapped and & ey connotes a sense of vulnerability Depth of field This term refers to the areas of the frame that are in focus. The frame is di foreground, middle ground and background. led into the Shallow focus This term describes a frame when only the foreground is visible. The shallow focus photography in Figure 2.18 makes the audience focus on the intense emotion of the character. Figure 2.18: Shallow focus Standard focus This is the most commonly used depth of field in moving image texts. The foreground and middle ground are sharp and the background is slightly out of focus. In Figure 2.19 the audience are encouraged to focus on the character’s dialogue and facial n, whilst being aware of the immediate surroundings but not distracted by the detail ofoe Standard focus gE This is the most commonly used depth of field in moving image texts. The foreground and middle ground are sharp and the background is slightly out of focus. In Figure 2.19 the audience are encouraged to focus on the character’s dialogue and facial expression, whilst being aware of the immediate surroundings but not distracted by the detail of them. Figure 2.19: Standard focus fa This is where all three planes of vision are sharp. This is because the director wants the audience to read all of the detail in the frame. Deep focus In Figure 2.20, the audience is encouraged to read the detail of the decor because it provides insight into the lives of the characters. The cooking utensils and cookery books suggest they enjoy entertaining and cooking a variety of cuisines. The selection of books signifies that they are well-read and cultured and the photographs on the fridge signify their love of socialising.Deep focus This is where all three planes of vision are sharp. This is because the director wants the audience gE to read all of the detail in the frame. In Figure 2.20, the audience is encouraged to read the detail of the decor because it provides insight into the lives of the characters. The cooking utensils and cookery books suggest they enjoy entertaining and cooking a variety of cuisines. The selection of books signifies that they are well-read and cultured and the photographs on the fridge signify their love of socialising, Figure 2.20: Deep focus Focus pull This is used to change what is sharp and what is out of focus during a shot. For example, the foreground may start out of focus with the middle ground sharp, and then change during the shot so that the middle ground is out of focus and the foreground becomes sharp. This is used to shift audience attention and focus during a shot. 1 Choose a film opening or the opening of an episode of a TV show. Identify examples of the camera shots, angles and movements covered in this section 2 Suggest how the camerawork has contributed to the construction of meaning. Focus on the distance, movement and angles used. Consider how the audience are encouraged to feel and how they are encouraged to respond to the characters, 3 What technical decisions have been made regarding the composition of shots? Consider whether the framing is open or closed, the depth of field and how the rule of thirds has been used.How does this aid the construction of meaning? Turn your notes into a series of small paragraphs. Focus on two minutes of your chosen film or TV show. Can you suggest how aspects of the camerawork work together to create meaning for the audience? 34 Below is a sample answer to this task: ‘The camera tracks in towards the protagonist, who is standing in the doorway. The closed fyame connotes theiv feeling of entrapment. The tracking stops and a closeup, in shallow focus, encourages the audience to focus on the tears welling up in their eyes — the protagonist feels sad and overwhelmed. The camera tilts down following the movement of the protagonist as they slide down the door frame. A high-angle shot shows them slumped on the floor. The height of the camera signifies their powerlessness and vulnerability, REFLECTION Complete the following activities to assess your progress with this section. 1 Consolidate your knowledge and understanding of camerawork by creating a table that lists and defines camera shots, angles, movements and composition techniques. Suggest how each cinematographic technique, in your table, can construct meaning in a media text. When analysing camerawork, always identify the camera distance when discu: movement, angles and composition. PROGRESS CHECK Take a moment to reflect on the skills necessary for understanding camera shots, angles, movement and composition. Afier studying this section, complete this table: Noe eC) ae citar te SOT Tk Identify all types of camera shots in a media text, Identify all types of camera angles in a media text Identify all types of camera movements in a media text Identify asnects of comnosition in a media textSCS mee OF ‘tracking stops and a close-up, in shallow focus, encourages the audience to focus on the tears welling up in their eyes — the protagonist feels sad and overwhelmed. The camera tilts down following the movement of the protagonist as they slide down the door frame. A high-angle shot shows them slumped on the floor. The height of the camera signifies their powerlessness and vulnerability, REFLECTION ‘Complete the following activities to assess your progress with this section, 1 Consolidate your knowledge and understanding of camerawork by creating a table that lists and defines camera shots, angles, movements and composition techniques Suggest how each cinematographic technique, in your table, can construct meaning in a media text, Xo ut When analysing camerawork, always identifi movement, angles and composition. the camera distance when discussing PROGRESS CHECK Take a moment to reflect on the skills necessary for understanding camera shots, angles, movement and composition. After studying this section, complete this table: OO RTE, Identify all types of camera shots in a media text. Identify all types of camera angles in a media text. Identify all types of camera movements in a media text. Identify aspects of composition in a media text, Di meaning of a text. uss how camerawork can influence theSLL After studying this section, you will be able to: © understand the difference between sound that features inside and sound that features outside the story world ‘© identify different elements of sound © identify different aspects of a soundtrack © analyse the role of sound in the construction of meaning in a media text. ri RE YOU STAR’ This activity can be carried out in pairs or small groups. ach pair/group should choose a film or TV show and select a sequence from it. Take it in tums to screen your chosen sequence to the rest of the class with no visuals, only sound, Play the sequence twice. © The first time you listen to another group’s sequence, write down every sound you hear. © The second time you listen to it, write down what you think is happening. What do you think the visuals will show? Present your a alysis and justify the decisions that you have made. Now compare your analysis with the sequence: watch it with the sound and the visuals playing. What impact does sound have on the production of meaning? Let's put your thinking into practice ODE Ne S Sound plays a significant role, not only in the development of a narrative but in the emotional response of audiences. Working with a partner, develop an idea for the opening of a new TV drama. Create a soundseape for it © Share your ideas with another pair. Review your learning Write a short paragraph to justify the choices and decisions that you have made and outline the meaning that you intended to create. Now that you have started to think technically about sound, let’s explore in detail the differenttypes of sounds that create a layered soundscape 36 Sounds can be classified as diegetic/non-diegetic, and synchronous/non-synchronous. The fictional world or story world of a moving image text is called a diegesis. Within the diegesis, sound is either diegetic sound or non-diegetie sound, as shown in Figure 2.21 Outside the story world Story world Diegetic sounds are found in the fictional world. These are sounds the characters can hear, Non-diegetic sounds are found outside the fictional world. The characters cannot hear these sounds, which are used to enhance meaning and emotional response for the audience. Figure 2.21: The difference between diegetic and non-diegetic sound Synchronous sound sound matches the on-screen visuals — there is a visible source for the sound, For example, the audience hear a gunshot and can clearly see a character with a gun in their hand, By contrast, asynchronous sound sound does not match the on-screen visuals — there is no visible source for the sound. For example, the audience can hear the sound of sirens but cannot see an emergency vehicle on screen, suggesting it is approaching 37 Different elements of sound Table 2.2 explains how different sound elements can help to create meaning,Doge Orn Sound effects Sound effects ean be diegetic or non-diegetic. © Diegetic sound effects are often heightened for effect. Examples include footsteps, a gunshot, knocking on a door, floorboards creaking. © Non-diegetic sound effects are not as commonplace as diegetic ones, but they are sometimes used. A good example would be a heartbeat during a chase sequence Sound effects can help integrate the audience into the story world, provide narrative information and help evoke an emotional response. Sound motif This is a sound attributed and associated with a particular character or action. A classic example is the ‘shark theme” in the film Jaws. The repeated use of the sound became synonymous with the appearance of the shark and signifies impending danger. Sound bridge This is an audio transition to help a text move into a new scene. A sound will start in one shot and be carried over to the next. For example: © Acharacter is shown asleep and dreaming. © The audience hear the beeping of an alarm clock. © The beeping continues as the shot transitions to the bed, reaching out a hand to switch off the alarm. Dialogue and mode of address Dialogue means the spoken words of the characters within the diegesis. Dialogue can provide narrative information, but the vocal delivery can signify the emotional psyche of a character and provide background information, such as where they are from and their history. The way a character delivers their lines can help create a mode of address or direct address. When analysing dialogue you should consider: © the speed at which a character is talking © their accent and dialect © their pitch, tone and lexis (vocabulary). Voiceover A voiceover acts as a narrator for the audience, providing narrative information. © The narrator of a story is often a character. This is called a homodiegetic voiceover. © If that character is the protagonist (lead character), then this device is alled an autodiegetic voiceover. Sound mixing Sound mixing creates the overall layered soundscape of a text, and considers how all sounds work together in a media text. The sound mixer will assess the levels of all sounds to ensure they are clear. Sound This refers to the distance of a sound. The audibilitv of a sound will sienifvSound This refers to the distance of a sound. The audibility of a sound will sig perspective how close the audience are to its source, and how important it is to the scene and construction of meaning, 37 Table 2.2: Elements of sound Soundtrack This is the complete compilation of music and sound that accompanies a film or TV show. Figure 2.22 explains different clements of the soundtrack. 38 Score This is music that has been written specifically for a media text. It is very powerful because it helps to: * create atmosphere * convey the emotional state of a character * elicit an emotional response from the audience. J Incidental music This is music that accompanies a specific aspect of on-screen action. For example * music shown to be coming from a radio, Bluetooth speaker or other technology * music accompanying a car chase. Like the score, it can command an emotional response from the audience. ¥ Themes Themes are pieces of music that have been created for and are synonymous with a particular TV show, podcast or radio show. They tend to be the opening to a show and create familiarity for the audience. ¥ Stings Stings are like punctuation: they signal the end of a scene and help create a smooth transition into the next. Stings can be used on the screen and also in radio. ¥ Ambient sound Ambient sound is an essential part of the sound design, also referred to as background sound. This helps to orientate the audience, letting them know where the action is taking place. Ambient sound also helps to create atmosphere and makes a scene feel more realistic. For example, if a scene is taking place on a busy high street, the audience will hear cars rewing, people chatting, sirens of emergency vehicles, doors opening and closing,Soundtrack This is the complete compilation of music and sound that accompanies a film or TV show. Fi 2.22 explains different elements of the soundtrack, Score This is music that has bee written specifically for a media text. It is very powerful because it helps to: * create atmosphere * convey the emotional state of a character * elicit an emotional response from the audience. | Incidental music This is music that accompanies a specific aspect of on-screen action. For example * music shown to be coming from a radio, Bluetooth speaker or other technology * music accompanying a car chase. Like the score, it can command an emotional response from the audience. | Themes Themes are pieces of music that have been created for and are synonymous with a particular TV show, podeast or radio show. They tend to be the opening to a show and create familiarity for the audience. ia eae eae Stings Stings are like punctuation: they signal the end of a scene and help create a smooth transition into the next. Stings can be used on the screen and also in radio. | Ambient sound Ambient sound is an essential part of the sound design, also referred to as background sound. This helps to orientate the audience, letting them know where the action is taking place. Ambient s und also helps to create atmosphere and makes a scene feel more realistic nple, if a scene is taking place on a busy high street, the audience will hear cars revving, people chatting, sirens of emergency vehicles, doors opening and closing traffic lights beeping, mobile phones ringing and numerous footsteps. Figure 2.22: Different elements of the soundtrack 39Using different and precise terminology to describe sound will enhance your analysis of a media text. Table 2.3 explains the correct scholarly vocabulary. RCT Melodic sound Port nm Melodic sound will have positive and pleasing connotations. It will be uplifting, mellow and sweet-sounding. Discordant Discordant sound is harsh and unpleasant to listen to. It will have negative sound connotations. Contrapuntal | Contrapuntal sound will not match the on-screen visuals. For example, if sound two characters were trashing a room, the music would be upbeat and cheery. The sound in this instance would signify a disturbed state of mind the characters take pleasure in being destructive and troublesome. Table 2.3: Defining the correct terminology for analysing soundLee Copy and complete this table: B Find examples from a variety of media texts for each of the technical elements of sound we have explored. Analyse the use of the sound. How does it help construct meaning in the text? What emotional response does it elicit from the audience? Choose a film opening or TV show and analyse the use of sound. How does it provide the audience with narrative information? What emotional response(s) are induced in the audience? 40 REFLECTION Assess your progress with this subsection. © Consolidate your knowledge and understanding of sound by working with a partner to create an idea for a new media text and creating an appropriate and creative layered soundscape for it. © Share your soundscape with another pair and justify the choices and decisions you have made. How did you want your audience to respond? What meaning did you want them. to take away? To enhance your discussion of sound, used a variety of adjectives to deseribe the sound in detail, and consider how multiple sounds are used together to create a layered sounds: Take a moment to reflect on the skills necessary for understanding sound. After st section, complete this table: tudying this, detail, and consider how multiple sounds are used together to create a layered soundscape. 40 | Li | Take a moment to reflect on the skills necessary for understanding sound. After studying this section, complete this table: orig FNCU SOM ORE Oke acd COLT crs Understand the difference between sound that features inside and outside the story world Identify different elements of sound Identify aspects of a soundtrack Analyse the role of sound in the construction of meaning in a media text2.4 Mise-en-scéne LEARNING INTENTIONS BEFORE YOU ay Work in a small group for this activity. Allocate each member of your group a location from the following: 1 Acountry manor 2 Anapartment in a city 3 Anabandoned building 4 Anoffice. ‘Take it in turns to describe what your location would look like. Consider the decor, colours, outdoor environment and furniture/prop/s. Mise-en-scéne is literally everything you can see in a moving image or print text. Conscious decisions will be made by producers and directors regarding the mise-en-scéne because, as we identified in our study of semiotics, signs are culturally dependent, therefore audiences have been conditioned to interpret colours, patterns, facial expressions, body language and locations in particular ways. Media producers will use this in an attempt to fix meaning for an audience. Let's put this into practice. Working with a partner, develop an idea for a new Hollywood film. Write a detailed description of your protagonist and antagonist to pass onto the casting team. Consider the following aspects: © Their visible appearance. For example, do they have any dis features? \guishing marks or © Their costume and hair colour.© How their personality and qualities are evident in their general body language and facial [| 4) expressions. For example, are they always frowning or smiling? Imagine you are the set designer for your film, Create a minimum of four visual mood boards for four different locations in the film. One location must be the home of your lead protagonist and one must be the home of your antagonist. Consider: © location © decor © pattems © fumiture © lighting. Review your learning © What choices and decisions did vou make?© Why did you make these choices and decisions? 42 © What assumptions did you want the audience to make about your characters, and how gE did you want them to respond to your locations? Now that you have started to think technically about the choices and decisions that are made regarding the mise-en-scéne, let’s explore, in detail, how they can contribute to the construction of meaning in a text, Elements of mise-en-scéne to analyse in a media textLee Elements of mise-en-scéne to analyse in a media text ig. However languag: we should also facial Mise-en- consider the performance of the actors or models in terms of their bod; expressions and proximity. éne can be broken down into production design and light Production and studio design There are a number of elements that go into production design Location and setting Location and setting are important for the production of meaning because audiences are conditioned to interpret locations in particular ways. Location and setting can help to construct mood, particularly when there is a focus on weather, geographic information is provided and time period established. Costume and make-up Choices in costume and make-up can provide information regarding the personality of a character, their status, occupation, culture and even their age. It can help shape the audience’s perception of 43 Working with a partner, locate images of individual characters from media texts of your choice. Discuss your first impression of them, based upon their costume and make-up. Set design and properties The decoration of a room and the props used in a scene should always be analysed. A particular ince in the prop might be emphasised by the camerawork suggesting that it has signifi development of the narrative. s 2.23 and 2.24. Discuss and answer the questions in their captions. Look at Figure:ee Ce ACTIVITY 2.7 Look at 2.23 and 2.24. Discuss and a the questions in their captions,Figure 2.24: How do elements of the produc character? ion design er courage us to perceive this, 44 Lighting ig is a very powerful aspect of mise-en-scéne. Lighting can: © significantly shape mood and atmosphere ‘© influence perceptions of character and place © direct the audience’s attention in a scene signify the psychology of a character. Table 2.4 explains different types of lighting and how they might be used to create meaning Key The key light is the main source of light character, it will tell the audience that this is where the a scene. If the key light is on a focus should be. High-key High-key lighting is bright and has no shadows. It can be used to make a scene appear dream-like, idealistic or even clinical. It can create an optimistic, positive and hopeful mood. Low-key Low-key lighting will create shadows in the sc creating a feeling of foreboding characters and/or buildings appear mysterious This technique c make a scene atmospheric, d even makeChiaroscuro This is a contrast between light and dark in a scene. It is more dramatic than low-key lighting and will create harsh shadows. This form of light typically used in classic noir films but is used in contemporary cinema to be expressionistic. 2 was Natural This utilises the natural lighting from the scene ~ there will be no artificial lighting used in the scene. This form of lighting can help create realism and verisimilitude (realistic, plausible details) in a scene. Table 2.4: Different types of lighting See Figure 2.25 for an example of how lighting has created a mood and atmosphere. The use of low-key lighting in this close-up shot creates a feeling of melancholy for the audience. It highlights the sadness of the character and signifies hopelessness. Figure 2.25: How has lighting created the atmosphere in this image? To demonstrate your understanding of lighting, work in a small group to create a filmed sequence or series of still images that demonstrate each of the lighting techniques we have the lighting techniques to encode meaning for the explored. Consider how you are usin audience. Review your learning Write a short analysis of each image or your filmed sequence. 44 45EAC Justify the choices and de, shots. Colour Colour can help to create mood and atmosphere. When used in particular contexts, colours acquire socially accepted connotations. Remember earlier in the unit, you learned about Roland Barthes’ theory that signs are culturally dependent — the same applies to colour. For example: © Red: in Westem culture, the colour red could signify danger or love, depending upon the context. In many African cultures, red signifies sorrow. © White: in Western culture, white often signifies purity or virginity. In Eastern cultures, white signifies sorrow, bad luck or loss. © Green: this colour signifies envy or carries associations of nature in Western culture. In Eastern cultures, it signifies fertility and new life, but in some South American cultures, it signifies death It is important to remember that when we analyse colour, we should c origin because this might dictate the intended meaning by producers. - a ider the country of Create a colour wheel that is appropriate to your culture. 1 Drawacircle. 2 Create equal s .ctors with your circle. Make each sector a different colour.ETOAC ate a colour wheel that is appropriate to your culture. 1 Drawacircle. 2 Create equal sectors with your cirele. 3 Make each sector a different colour. 4 Research connotations associated with each colour and write them in your sector. ‘ene Contribution of performance to mise-en. To enhance, stretch and deepen your knowledge of mise-en-scéne, it is appropriate to consider aspects of character performance, as shown in Figure 2.26. The position of characters within a frame, their proximity to one another and the camera, and their body language and sssion can have a powerful impact on the meaning generated in a scene. cial 46 Body language and facial expression ‘The way characters react, gesture and move their body can influence how audiences perceive them and respond to them. It can also signify their psychology and role in the unfolding narrative Blocking A director will instruct the actor/model where to position themselves in a shot/scene and how to move in relation to the camera Blocking is important because it helps to direct the audiences’ attention, and can encourage or discourage audience identification and empathy with a character. Proximity Studying character proxemics involves examining the physical distance between characters in a shot/scene. The distance between characters can tell audiences a lot about their relationship. Figure 2.26: Elements of performance scene, Figures 2.27 and 2.28 demonstrate the contribution of proximity to mise-er © In Figure 2.27 the close proximity between the characters and their body language — embracing each other, maintaining eye contact and smiling — connotes a loving and romantic relationship.Ee Ce Close proximity indicates emotional closen: © In Figure 2.28 the proximity between the characters coupled with their backs turned on one another connotes problems in their relationship. The audience would interpret this as a failing relationship —a couple who have fallen out of love.m or TV show and conduct 1 Choose a scene from your favourite fi alysis of the mise-ens ne, Consider the following questi ns: © What mood and/or atmosphere is created? © How are the characters represented? © How are the audience encouraged to respond to the characters? © — How is mis en-scéne used to provide narrative information? 2 Complete the same activity with a consumer branding advertisement of your choice. © How is the product being represented? © What value is being transferred to the audience? (How is it suggested that their life will be enhanced by purchasing the product?) REFLECTION Consolidate your knowledge and understanding of mise-en-scéne by working with a partner to create a revision podcast. Include definitions of the different elements of mise-en-scéne and, by using an example, suggest how they can contribute to the construction of meaning. Be uta When discussing connotations of the mise-en-scéne, remember to discuss how audiences may interpret signs differently because of their life experience. PROGRESS CHECK Take a moment to reflect on the skills necessary for understanding mise-en-scéne. After studying this section, complete this table: Naty Na eR OO en Ca cS List and identify the different elements of mise: seéne in production design List and identify the different types of lighting se the role of mise-en-scéne in the construction of meaning in Anal; media textee 2.5 Editing LEARNING INTENTIONS ES After studying this section, you will be able to: © define and explain the concept of editing © list and identify the different types of continuity systems © list and identify the different types of non-continuity systems © analyse the role of editing in the construction of meaning in a media text. BEFORE YOU START The role of editing is to make a media text make sense — to create a narrative. Part of editing involves transitioning between shots, where one shot replaces the next. Working with a partner, choose two film or TV sequences. One should involve a calm conversation between two people, and the other should be an action scene, for example a car chase. You could use a streaming service. 1 Screen two minutes of your first sequen e. As you are viewing it © Person | should clap every time the shot changes. © Person 2 should create a tally chart, noting down each time a clap occurs. 2. Now, screen the second sequence and repeat the activity Discuss the following questions with your partner: © How many times did you clap for each sequence? © How did you feel whilst viewing the extracts? © What impact do you think the duration of shots can have on the audience? © Why do you think each sequence used shot duration differently? What were the editor’s intentions?ee Let’s put your thinking into practice IN eB PST OD ELe:S You have been tasked with editing a sequence for a new thriller With a partner, storyboard your sequence. Your sequence must include a minimum of 25 shots. Your storyboard must include shots of: an abandoned building a corridor in an abandoned building a victim in an abandoned building a person making a telephone call the police taking a phone call in the control room, a close-up of a hand opening a door a criminal fleeing the scene of a crime a speeding police car a police officer searching an abandoned building A dark stairwell. 49Ee Ce ‘Your storyboard must be created so that: the sequence has continuity (it makes sense to the audience and it is clear to see what is happening) tension and suspense builds, placing the audience on tenterhooks. You can use the storyboard in Figure 2.29 as a template, or create your own Include content of Include content of Include content ofYou can use the storyboard in Figure 2.29 as a template, or create your own. Include content of Include content of Include content of shot here shot here shot here Description of your Description of your Description of your shot including shot including shot including technical elements of technical elements of technical elements of the camerawork and the camerawork and the camerawork and shot duration shot duration shot duration Figure 2.29: Storyboard example Rey w your learning Share your storyboard with another pair, Ask them to describe what is happening in your sequence and how they think they would feel watching it Do their opinions differently? atch your intentions? If not, what do you think you could have done Now that you have started to think in detail about the decisions editors make, let’s explore this technical element in more critical depth What is editing? Editing is both a technical and creative process of media production, It is a post process and involves the enhancement and assembly of raw footage and sound. The editing process occurs in the production of both print and moving image media. Editing can have a significant effect on how an audience interprets a medi it You will need to become familiar with a range of technical aspects of editing and be able to suggest how sound and visuals are put together using continuity system and n systems systems to create a complete media text. 49 50 text and how they feel when consumingEAC © The majority of moving image texts will aim to assemble shots so that continuity is created [ so | the shots will flow seamlessly into one another. This means that the storyline makes sense and occurs in chronological order. Continuity is achieved through the use of cuts and transitions, © Non-continuity is the disruption of time and space, and is often used to provide backstory or jump through time. Cutting Straight cut The majority of shots in a moving image text will be assembled using straight cuts. This is simply where one shot replaces the next. Straight cuts construct a linear narrative and aid continuity. Shot/reverse shot This editing technique is predominantly used to show characters conversing. The aim is to show their reactions whilst simultaneously involving the audience in their conversation. The shots are typically over the shoulder shots. The editor will assemble shots that have been taken from a two- camera set-up that adheres to the 180 degree rule as shown in Figure 2.30, When filming for a shot/reverse shot edit, the cameras will not cross the 180 degree axis. [sr]Figure 2.30: The 180 degree rule 50 When filming for a sho/reverse shot edit, the cameras will not cross the 180 degree axis. E 51 In the example in Figure 2.31, the audience are invited into the conversation and can clearly see how the characters are reacting to each other. The sequence would cut from this two shot to over the shoulder shots of each character, showing their reaction to what has been said. rt . a Figure 2.31: This two shot will lead to over the shoulder shots Eyeline mateh An eyeline match is used to provide the audience with narrative information and ensure continuity. It shows the audience what the character is looking at, which is usually offscreen. In Figure 2.32 the audience are clearly shown the character looking at something. This would be followed with a shot of what she is looking at.rte An eyeline match is used to provide the audience with narrative information and ensure Pr continuity. It shows the audience what the character is looking at, which is usually offscreen, In Figure 2.32 the audience are clearly shown the character looking at something. This would be followed with a shot of what she is looking at. Figure 2.32: Eyeline match Graphic match This is one of the more creative cuts to transition a scene, It involves cutting on two similar shaped objects, often signifying a passing of time or change in location. Action match This involves an action being started in one shot and completed in the next. For example, a character opens the door in shot 1, and walks through the door in shot 2 _ iiAction match This involves an action being started in one shot and completed in the next. For example, a a character opens the door in shot 1, and walks through the door in shot 2. = a Figure 2.33: An action match shot where a man opens a door in one shot and walks through the door in the next shot. Jump cut ¢. It uses ellipsis ~ essentially it omits A jump cut creates the impression of jumping through tis part of the action and relies on the viewer filling in the gaps. Consider a model having their makeup applied. The entire process may take 45 minutes but is reduced to a 1 minute sequenes the audience use their knowledge to understand the process. igure 2.34: A jump cut showing a model having their makeup applied. With a partner, research and locate examples of a graphic match, action match and jump cut. Some good examples of graphic matches can be found in the following films: Psycho (1960, Alfred Hitchcock); 2007: A Space Odyssey (1968, Stanley Kubrick). An iconic scene that is constructed with jump cuts can be found in The Royal Tenenbaums (2001, Wes Anderson). Action shots can be located in almost all films or TV shows.UL EeL Uy Review your learning © What impact did the cuts have on your understanding of the scene? © Were they used to demonstrate a change in time or location? te] Crosscutting and parallel editing Crosseutting and parallel editing helps inject pace, urgency, juxtaposition, tension and suspense into a moving image text, It involves cutting between different scenes of action that are happening at the same time (parallel editing) or at different times (crosscutting) Consider the scenario in Figure 2.35. The sequence crosscuts between three lines of parallel action, Consider how this can create nail-biting tension for the audience because they are put in an omniscient position through the editing Cross cut Cross cut Cross cut Cross cut Figure 2.35: Crosscutting three lines of action With a partner, create an idea for a sequence that uses crosscutting an create juxtaposition. /or parallel editing to Your sequence should demonstrate the difference between the lives of two siblings: © One sibling is down on their luck, struggling economically and in poor health. © The other sibling is successful and happy, living a lavish lifestyle. Review your learningShare your sequence with another pair. Justify the choices and deci sions that you have made. | 53 Cutaway A cutaway is used to move a filmed sequence momentarily from the main action, For example: © Acharacter is sitting at their desk, under str ss and working towards a deadline. © The sequence scene cuts away to a ticking clock, and then returns to the character. In this scenario the cutaway heightens the tension for the audience because it is apparent that time is running out. Consider the physical impact that editing can have on audiences, and how this can enhance their response and interpretation of a media text. 54-6 Insert An insert is used to focus the audience’s attention on something specific. Often this consists of a master shot of a character looking at an object and then the sequence cul extreme close-up of it. For example: s to a close-up or © Acharacter is looking at their wedding ring. B © An insert enables the audience to read the engraving, ‘Always and Forever’ on the wedding ring, Other tran ions Transitions are the way we move between shots. The transitions that you need to be familiar with are described in Table 2.5. ron Dissolve This is where one shot physically dissolves into another one. It signifies the end of a scene and usually a change in time or Fade-in and fade-out _| The fade-in/fade-out is typically a fade to and from black or white. Like the dissolve, this signi strong sense of finality about it. It will be used to represent a change in time and location. s the end of a scene but h: nother off ser The wipe is not used often. It can be used for comic effect and to Wipe A wipe involves one shot physically pushinUL EeL Uy Superimposition This is where an image or video is placed on top of another. This, can create a dreamlike effect. Long takes Long takes are shots that are held longer than the conventional 2~ 3 seconds. A true long take can last for several minutes or even for the duration of the media text. An excellent example of a long take is the feature film 1917 (2019, Sam Mendes). The film appears to be one continuous shot. This editing technique constructs realism as it makes the text appear like a documentary. The audience are sutured into the on- sereen action, and in the case of 1917, tension permeates throughout because the audience never cut away from the main line of action. 7 Figure 2.36: The audience are drawn into the action as /917 appears to be one continuous shot Visual effects al effects help to construct spectacle in media texts and in a digital world have become the norm. Visual effects blend real footage with that of manipulated imagery. Computer-generated imagery This technology (abbreviated to CGI) is used to create backgrounds, environments or creatures that either don’t exist or would be too dangerous to film. A good example of CGI is the Film Avatar 2: The way of water (Cameron, 2022). Performance motion capture and CGI are used to create the landscape of Pandora and the Na’vi