ite> TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOK 6TH EDITION Institute of Transportation EngineersLibrary of Congress Catalogin in-Publication Data Traffic engineering handbook. - 6th ed p.cm, ISBN-13: 978-1-933452-34-0 ISBN-10: 1-933452-34-X 1. Traffic engineering--Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Institute of Transportation Engineers HE333.T68 2008 388,3'12--dc22 2008009391‘The Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) isan international educational and scientific association of transportation and traffic engincers and other professionals who are responsible for meeting mobility and safety needs. [TE facilitates the application of technology and scientific principles to research, planning, functional design, implementation, operation, policy development and management for any mode of transportation by promoting professional development of members, supporting and encouraging education, stimulating research, developing public awareness, exchanging professional information and maintaining a central point of reference and action, Founded in 1930, ITE serves as a gateway to knowledge and advancement through meetings, seminars and publications, and through our network of nearly 17,000 members working in more than 92 countries. ITE also has more than 90 local and regional chaprers and more than 130 student chapters that provide additional opportunities for information exchange, participation and networking. 7 _ Ja Insticute of Transportation Engineers 1099 14th Street, NW, Suite 300 West Washington, DC 20005 USA ‘Telephone: +1 202-289-0222 Fax: +1 202-289-7722 ITE on the Web: www.ite.org ISBN-13: 978-1-933452-34-0 ISBN-10: 1-933452-34-X, © 2009 Institute of Transportation Engineers. All rights reserved. Publication No. TB-010BTable of Contents Foreword onsen ‘Acknowledgments... CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAFFIC ENGINEERING Walter H. Kraft, D.Eng.Sc, PE, President, Walter H. Kraft and Associates LLC ‘What is Traffic Engineering? TES Role Scope of the Publication ‘The Future of Traffic Engineering ‘CHAPTER 2: ROAD USERS... Alison Smiley, Ph.D., CCPE, President, Human Factors North Inc. Robert €. Dewar, Ph.D., CPE, CCPE, President, Western Ergonomics Inc. |. Introduction. 1. Basics s ‘A. Fundamental Road User Characteristics and Limitations B, Road User Types I, Current Practice A. Positive Guidance. B TCs. Intersections and Roundabouts... D Railroad Grade Crossings E. interchanges. F Road Segments: G. Work Zones IV. Emerging Trends. . ‘A, Human Factors Studies as a Basis for Sight Distance Standards B. Self-Explaning Roads... cas. 1D. Human Factors and Safety Tools \V. Information Sources. References CHAPTER 3: VEHICLE: Karl Zimmerman, Ph.D., PE,, Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Valparaiso University 1 Introduction. Ik Vehicle Types A. Passenger Cars B. Light Trucks ia 24 24 25 31 34 35 36 39 40 40 at a2 42 7 57 57 58 Table of Contents ¢ v. Single-Unit Trucks. D. Combination Trucks E Rvs F Moton Bicycles H. Fleet Vehicles. I, Basic Vehicle Operation ‘A. Current Propulsion Systems. B. Vehicle Performance. IV. Current Vehicle Fleet A. Vebic B. Vehicle Age Use, C Emissions D. Performance. E Safety \V. Emerging Trends A. Vehicle Dimensio B. Alternative Fuels Technojogical Innovations V1. Information Sources R erences. CHAPTER 4: TRAFFIC AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS Brian Wolshon, Ph.D., PE., PTOE, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Louisiana State University Basics. A. Traffic Stream Parameters and Measurement B. Basic Traffic Stream Models . Traffic Shockwaves. Traffic Characteristics on Interrupt Flow Facilities and at Bottlenecks ic Stream Composition Current Practice A. Capacity and LOS Concepts B, Capacity and LOS Computation I. Emerging Trends. ‘A. Traffic Simulation Fundamentals. B. Scales of Traffic Simulation .Traffie Visualization. IV. Information Sources A, Published Sources B. internet Resources, References, Vi © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HAN 93 93 103 106 108 12 112 12 116 130 130 131 133 133 133, 134137 ., PTOE, Transportation Engineering Educator and | ‘CHAPTER 5: SAFETY... Eugene M. “Gene” Wilson, Ph. Safety Consultant Martin €. Lipinski, Ph.D,, PE,, PTOE, Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Memphis, | Basics 137 A. The Problem—Globally and in the United States scarce 32, I Curent Practice 138, ‘A. Quantifying Safety Approaches. 138 8, Summary of the Data ee 144 . Evaluation and Selection of Countermeasures: 144 I, Proactive Safety Approaches... 148 A Definition of an RSA 149 8, Stages of an RSA. ee E 149 Steps in Conducting an RSA i 149 D. Costs and Benefits reas 150 E Key Considerations. 151 IV. Focus Areas 151 | A. LoweCost Safety improvements pee ea 2. Intersection Safety improvements 152 Roadside Safety : ee 152 . NomMotonst (Pedestrian and Pedaleyist) Safety. 153 | , Work Zone Safety. a e 154 V. Emerging Trends sos BB AA. Safety Management Systerns and Highway Safety Improvement Frograms 155 B. AASHTO SHSP, fe 157 interactive Highway Safety Model 158 D. Changing the Safety Culture : 159 | E Marketing Safety 159 VL. Information Sources cere 159 A. World Wide Web. 159 References 162 CHAPTER 6: PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS. Babu K. Veeregowda, PE, PTOE, Partner and Senior Vice President, Eng-Wong, ‘Taub and Associates Gautam Bharali, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of Science Simon Washington, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Arizona State University 165 | Introduction 165 BASIS en i 165 A. Measures of Central Tendency. 166 | B, Properties and Uses of Central TendeNCY..our-n 168 C. Measures of Variation so 169 D. Grouping of Data 173 Table of Contents viiE. Basic Probability Concepts 175 IN. Current Practice. 77 A. The Binominal Distribution 17 B. The Poisson Distribution as @ Limiting Case of the Binomial Distribution. 178 C. Normal Distribution. 182 D. Confidence intervals 184 E, Hypothesis Testing 187 F Linear Regression, 194 G. Hypothesis Testing Revisited: Nonparametric Methods. 197 H. Basic Sampling Strategies 202 |. Outliers and Data Errors 206 IV. Emerging Trends 207 A. The Influence of Bayesian Methods and Markov-Type Stochastic Processes 208 References. 209 CHAPTER 7: GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR TRAFFIC. EricT. Donnell, Ph.D., PE, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University John M, Mason Jr, Ph.D., PE., Professor of Civil Engineering and Director, Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University |. Introduction 211 A. Transportation Project Development Process ant B. Role of Geometric Design in Transportation Project Development. 213 Use of Geometric Design Policies and Supplemental Guidance Documents 214 D. Applying Design Concepts. 216 I, Basics. 216 A. Functional Classification of Highways and Streets. 216 B. Design Controls and Criteria 217 . Design Elements, 222 IIL Current Practice. A. Context-Sensitive Solutions B, Case Study Example of Context-Sensitive Design . Design Exception Practices IV, Emerging Trends, 260 A, Design Consistency. 260 B. Safety Prediction, 260 . Operational Performance. 263 D. Visualization in Highway and Street Design 265 Vv. Summary 265 Acknowledgments. 266 References. 266 ‘© TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOK{ CHAPTER 8: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES Joseph E. Hummer, Ph.O., RE, Professor of Civil State University |. Introduction 269 | M.BaSiCS 270 I, Current Practice. 273 A. Common Studies: ae 273 B. Data Management 290 IV, Emerging Tends... fs - 292 A. Equipment 298 B. Data Management 293 \V. Information Sources. 293 References 295 | CHAPTER 9: PLANNING FOR OPERATIONS. John Mason, Director, Transportation Policy and Analysis, Science Applications International Corporation ‘Wayne Berman, Transportation Specialist, Federal Highway Administration Office of Operations | introduction 297 Il. Basics—Planning for Operations at a Glance. 300 ‘A. What Is lanning for Operations? 300 8, Why Do Planning for Operations? 300 C What Are the Benefits of Planning for Operations?. 301 IIL Current Practice—How to Do Planning for Operations — Techniques that Facilitate Planning for Operations 302 ‘A. The Transportation Planning Process. 302 B. Opportunities to Coordinate Planning and Operations. 304 IV, Emerging Trends, Ei 320 \. Information Resources. 322 A Information Sources. e rae B22 References 323 CHAPTER 10: MANAGING TRAFFIC DEMAND TO ADDRESS CONGESTIOI PROVIDING TRAVELERS WITH CHOICES. Grant Zammit, Systems Operations Specialist, Federal Highway Administration Eric N. Schreffler, Transportation Consultant, ESTC 325 | Basics, 325 ‘A, Congestion Management Requires Demand Management. 325 B. The Demands of the Past 326 C What Affects Deraand and Congestion?.. 328 D. Relating to Tradition. 329 | Ul Current Practice “ 329 ‘A. Applications of TOM. 330 IL Emerging Trends 341 Table of Contents © ixA. Sample Techniques—Infrastructure and Operational. 342 B. Sample Techniques—Financial and institutional 344 Analyzing for a Decision. 348 . Opportunity 350 IV. Information Sources 350 References 351 CHAPTER 11: SIGNS AND PAVEMENT MARKINGS... 355 Robert Seyfried, PE, PTOE, Director of Transportation Engineering Programs, Northwestern University Center for Public Safety | Basics. 355 ‘A, Road User Information Needs 355 B. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. 356 I. Current Practice 357 A Signs 357 8, Sign Retroreflectivity 359 Signing Applications 364 D. Sign installation Practices 372 E. Pavement Markings 376 F Pavement Marking Applications. 381 G. Sign and Pavement Marking inspection and Maintenance Systems 385 I, Emerging Trends. 301 AA. Older Drivers and Pedestrians. 391 8. Inteligent Transportation Systems ; 392 IV. Information Sources 393 A. Works Cited. 393 B. References for Further Reading 394 References. 395 CHAPTER 12: TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNALS. 397 Frank D. Dobiszewski, RE, PTOE, Vice President—Engineering, Jen Electric Inc. lynn A. LaMunyon, PE., PTOE, Principal, CMX | Introduction 397 I. Basics 397 A. Definitions Arranged by Related Usage. 397 B. Overview. 403 . Signal Justification Engineering Study. 405 U, Current Practices 407 A. Operations 408 B, Design Considerations 417 C Types of Equipment. ay D. Temporary and Portable Traffic Signals. 446 , Beacons 447 X © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKSSBB EEE c Eis eset ass eee oseee aceee ce aeeeee aeeee aa eeetaeee eeaeeeee eee taetetatae F Lane-Use Control Signals. as 447 G. Ramp-Metering Signals. is - 449 H. Control at One-Lane, Two-Way Facilites 449 1. Signal Monitor Units (Conflict Monitors). 7 449 4. Electrical Protection Devices 450 IV. Emerging Trends... 450 A. Pedestrian Countdown Signal 450 B. Vandal-Resistant Pushbuttons with Latching LEDS. : 450 C. Global Positioning System Clocks . 450 . Flashing Yellow Arrow Signal indications 451 E. Pending ADA Signal Requirements... eet creo \. Information Sources. 451 A. Related Technical Document. ..0.00 ose 51 B. Publications 451 Organizations to Contact seco 452 References a 453 CHAPTER 13: ACCESS MANAGEMENT. Philip Demosthenes, Senior Planner, Parametrix Consulting Vergil G. Stover, Ph.D, PE., Professor Emeritus of Urban Planning and Civil Engineering, 455 University of South Florida |Lintroduction 455 Il. Historical Perspective eae 457 IIL Legal Issues in Access Management. 458 IV, Current Practice 5 459 A. Background. zs 459 8, Programs and Policies... Beco 459 . Access Program Structure 460 D, Design PraCtiC€S onsen pianist 400 V. Emerging Trends 468 Vi. Information Sources 468 ReFEIENCES ann a 470 ‘CHAPTER 14: PARKING Ransford S. McCourt, PE., PTOE, Principal, DKS Associates 473 |. Basics. 473 A, Definitions. 473 Il, Current Practice fe 475 A, User Characteristics 475 B, Types of Parking ri 479 C Dimensions. 481 | D. Layout. ea oA) E. Vehicle Access. Sceeeee reese 496 | Table of Contents «© 3ctF Pedestrian Access 504 G. ADA 505 H. Bicycle Issues. 508 | Transit issues sit J. Freight and Loading Issues 513 515 L Signs 519 M. MUTCD, 519 N. Wayfinding 921 ll Emerging Trends, 523 A. Smart Parking Pay Stations Replacing Parking Meters. 523 8. APMS 524 Mechanical Parking Systems 524 . The Return to Small Cars. 525 E Green Parking. 525 IV. Information Sources 526 References. 527 CHAPTER 15: TRAFFIC CALMING Reid H. Ewing, Ph.D., Professor, Rutgers Transportation Policy Jeff Gulden, Transportation Engineering, Fehr & Peers Associates Inc. 531 | Introduction 531 A. Purpose 531 8, Relationship to Other ITE Documents and Design Practices. 532 I, Basics, 933 A. The Right Process. 533 B. The Right Tools sat I. Current Practices 558 A besign 558 B. Signing and Marking 569 1. Emerging Trends. 573 A. New Engineering Techniques and Technologies. 873 8. Emerging Enforcernent Technologies 576 New Analysis Took. 57 D. Bicycle Boulevards 578 E, Pedestrian Prionty Streets. 579 F Topics of Research. 581 \. information Sources 582 References 583 xi © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKSm eceseeeeecteeceCaeeeeecaeeeeeCaeePeCCaee REECE eC eee aCe aC Uee CCE aCe Cea EEECC CHAPTER 16: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION FOR TRANSPORTATION PROJECTS nn. 585; Dana Newsome, Southeast Region Public involvement Manager, HNTB Corporation | Basics 585 A. Introduction to Transportation Communications. 585 B, Public Involvement oss ie a 585 Public Outreach 586 D. Media Relations sacsnintnne DP Public Affairs. 587 F Internal Communications 587 G. StAFFINGh wn H 590 Hcemomutaton bch wt data 590 |. Conclusion. icine SO Ml Current Practice 592 ‘A, Detailed Communications Panning: A Checklist. 592 B, Successful Media Interviewing, oe 592 Effective Media Writing, 594 D. Major-Event Planning and Execution for Transportation Frojects é 1596 E. Photography Tips and Tools. 599 F Presentation and Public Speaking Guidelines. ee 599 G. Wing Effectively: Tips for Stronger Writing 601 H. Communications Action Plan Example. 602 1. Case Study, 603 J. On the Road Again: Reaching Rural Communities 604 Ml Emerging Trends 606 AA Technology and Trends. 606 B. Computer Models and Animations 607 IV. Information Sources 608 ‘A. Resources and Web Sites for Reference. 608 Appendix 609 CHAPTER 17: TRAFFIC REGULATION AND CONTROL Kay Fitzpatrick, Ph.D,, PE., Senior Research Engineer, Texas Transportation Institute Gerald Ullman, Ph.D, PE., Senior Research Engineer, Texas Transportation Institute | Basics. 613 ‘A. Purpose of Traffic Regulations. 613 8, Federal Legistation ecttocanceeioa c 613 State and Local Legislation 615 . Uniformity of Traffic Regulations... sarin antithen O15 £. Lege Responsbity of Puble Agencies and Roadway User. 616 F Americans with Disabilities Act. 617 Il, Current Practice i : 618 A Lane Regulation and Control 618 B. Intersection Regulation and COMO. ..nssmsnnnnensnnenn e629 Table of Contents © lit rcaSpeed Regulations, D. Emergency Condition Regulations and Control li Emerging Trends. A. Managed Lanes B. Area-Wicle Congestion Pricing, . Speed Management. . Enforcement Technologies IV. Information Sources A. Works Cited. B. References for Future Reading References CHAPTER 18: MAINTENANCE-OF-TRAFFIC DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION STAGING David R. McDonald Jr, Ph.D, PE., PTOE, Senior Transportation Engineer/ Project Manager, Hanson Professional Services Ine. ‘Amber Huckfeldt, Transportation Engineer, Hanson Professional Services Inc |. Introduction U Basics A. Terminology. B. Speed and User Vehicle. Horizontal Geometric Vertical Geometries ross-Sectionel Elements F Delineating and Communicating. G. Upkeep II, Design Resources IV. Staging Plans, A. Sequencing. B. Traffic Control Plan Elements. C Urban Versus Rural V. Current Practice A, Detours Traffic Management Analysis. Construction by Halves. Staged Construction E Incident Management F Emergency Stop Lanes G. Special Provisions, Notes and Narratives VI. Emerging Trends A Night Work, B. Noise Requirements, C. Performance Specifications D. Lane Rental, User Cost and User Delay. © xiv « TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOK 635 641 a4 644 645 645 646 647 a7 651 651 655, 655 655 655 656 656 660 660 669 673 674 675 ors 676 680 681 eat 687 682 683 683 683 684 635 685 686 686 686E, Lane Closures. 687 F Transportation Management Plans, 688 G. Speed COMO! 688 Vil. information Sources 639 A. Recommended Reading. 6st References 692 Index. 696 Tabie of Contomts © xvTraffic Calming Reid H. Ewing, P.D., Professor, Rutgers Transportation Policy Jeff Gulden, Transportation Engineering, Fehr & Peers Associates Inc 1, INTRODUCTION Figure 15-1, State of the Art Report: he field of trafic calming in the United States has evolved since Residential Traffic Management. l the 1970s 10 become 2 commonly featured function on many a SeasrecrereeeerTn municipal organizational charts, Although various trafic calm- ing techniques date back to the late 1940s or early 1950s, it was not until the publication of the State of the Art Report: Residential Teac ‘Management (see Figure 15-1) that traffic calming caught on in the United States.! That publication reported that by 1978, more than 120 jutisdictions in North America had had experience with traffic calming in one form or another, A second widescale survey was conducted nearly ewo decades later. Taaffe Calming State of the Practice (see Figure 15-2) documented the history and practices of nearly 50 agencies nationwide, such as the Stevens neighborhood demonstration in Seatele, WA, USA (1971), Eugene, OR, USA’ adoprion of possibly che fist traffic calming pro- n and Berkeley, CA, USA's adoption of the first city-wide traffic agement plan? Other more focused surveys have dacumented the magnitude of usage in individual craffie calming projects, legal issues, the effec- siveness of devices and the results of independent case studies. One sutvey of approximately 120 agencies representing 27 U.S, stares ed whether before-and-after performance data were col- “Taff lected for nine trafic calming measures and the nature of legal is- Afanagemens Washing, Dees Usk Feder sues surrounding those measures. The survey results indicated chat Highway Admintation, 1980 nearly 60 percent of the respondents conducted before-and-after performance summaries, and six lawsuits were associated with the ‘nore than 1,000 devices reportedly installed. Only two of chose six lawsuits resulted in paid claims. A. Purpose 1 North America, raffc calming is part of a profound transformation in the way transportation systems are viewed. With the passage of the Invermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA), transportation planning vi engineering became more multimodal and sensitive co the social costs of automobile use. The latest surf jpontation act—the Safe, Accountable, Plexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act—A Legacy for Users (SAPETEA. |U)--makes uaffic calming eligible for funding under the Highway Safety Improvement Program and the Safe Homes co School Program. Hw states’ cole in traffic calming has also grown in recent years. Pennsylvania has an illustrated handbook on the sub- ievt, Massachusetts and New York have adopted traffic calming guidelines. California has made traffic calming cligible Funding under its Safe Rouces to School program. Several states have offered training programs aimed at local Tiaffic Calming « 531pograms were reactive. A traffic calming program may male spot improvements, street by street, or may plan and implement improvements on an area-wide basis, with multiple streets treated at the same time. The same Berkeley survey found that almost all programs operated on a spot-treatment basis. Traffic Calming State of the Practice predicted a more proactive, arca-wide approach to traffic calming in the ensuing yeats. A decade late, there is a definite trend coward ncighborhood-wide treatments because spot crearments tend to ‘imply shift traffic problems from one neighborhood street 1o another. This trend is evident by reviewing the list of traffic calming programs ac www.traficealming.org. However, project initiation has remained largely reactive: Projects are initiated mainly through complaints from resi dents. Even in Seattle, which is known for proactively eargesing high-collision locations, about 95 percent of projects are neighbor-initiated. A reactive process may be necessary, however, 16 maintain a high level of political support for A program. Within complaine-driven processes, different threshold levels of neighborhood support are required before any xe tion is taken, Some (Bellevue, WA and Hovvard County, MD, USA) allow individuals to initiace a needs study with a phone cal, writcen request, or online request. Others (Charlotte, NC, USA and Los Angeles, CA) requite peti signed by a specified number or percencage of residents. Still others (Monegomery County, MD and Vancouver, Brit ish Columbia, Canada) require the responsible neighborhood association (or city council member where no associa tion exists) ro request a study. A few (Broward County, FL, USA and Minneapolis, MN, USA} fist require a petition with signatures, then concurrence of a neighborhood association. ‘Ihe increased emphasis on neighborhood assox in tions isa trend thac has emerged since the publication of Tzafic Calming State ofthe Practice. Winitiaced by individual citizens, a threshold level of support should be demonstrated before a project enters the system, Once a project is nominated, staff should define the affected area, which becomes the seudy and the balloting, ea ‘This arca should include all steeess that might be affected by traffic calming treatments and should generally bounded by major features (main roads, topographic features and such). In one jurisdiction, a significant effet conservatively defined as a change of more than 100 vehicles per day (vpd) om any local street, more than 6D0 vp} 9 any minor collector and more than 1,000 vpd on all other residential streets The affected area may vary with the type of treatment or the factional classification of the treated street, Fur «nil fic citcles in Seattle, the affected area includes all properties within one block of the treated intersection, For uihet measures, itis delineated by staff on a case-by-case basis, For local and collector streets in Charlotcesville, VA, USA, the affected area includes all properties within one block of an intersection treatment and al properties on she be itself fora mid-block treatment. In addition, roads whose main access is from study blocks are included in dhe affect asea, For arterials in Charlottesville, che affected area is defined for local and cofleccor streets but includes potent affected parallel roads. In addition, ifthe study street passes drough more than one neighborhood, each nig) hood has a vore. “The affected arca will ordinarily be larger for volume-control measures than for speed-control measures. He will sb hi larger for severe speed-control measures, such as speed humps, than for mild measures, such as center ishine! navies ings. In projecting the affected area, staff may wish to consult volume impact information contained in Tui ste State ofthe Practice (see Table 15-4), Volume reductions on one street translate into volume increases on ncathyyavalel streets to which the trafic is likely diverted. Staff then collects “before” raffic data on all significant streets within the affected area, measuring all traffic vile required to determine funding priority (See “Priority Rating Systems”) and eligibility for different treatm Ay plication Guidelines"). In La Habra, dara collection includes speed and volume counts, otigin-destia a license place survey and multiycar collision data (sec Figure 15-4). These data are used to rank project toquet possible funding and, ultimately, 1o guide plan developmenc, Flected officals have the final decision. ‘hey in projects that are atthe top of che list or further down based on other considerations, ‘The selected projects ther to the plan development stage. 2, Plan Development Residents consider the streets they live on to be extensions of their homes. ‘They care deeply about conditions wis streets and about government actions affecting them. They harbor strong opinions about the nature sud cis traffic problems and about appropriate solutions. Iris a practical necessity 10 involve residents in the pw, implementation of traffic calming measures, 534 © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKIn the yeats since the passage of ISTEA, the public Figure 15-4, Cut-Through Traffic Volumes for the East hhas become inereasingly engaged in transportation Neighborhood Study Area, La Habra, CA, USA. planning, Plans are likely co be beter and more far ‘orably received if those most affected are significant patticipacors in their Formulation. Teffie Data i 70190. In about half of the areas surveyed in 2004, public involvement was limited ro passing petitions, vor- ing on plans, or voicing opinions at public heatings. “The public reacted to plans but did not participate in their development. ‘Thus, the only option avail- able to the public was to support or oppose the en tire plan, “The remaining areas involved citizens in planning in ‘one of two ways: informally through citizen surveys to solicit ideas, meetings with staff ro discuss ideas, ‘or open houses to get comments on a draft plan; o: formally through a neighborhood traffic committee (NTC) established to work wich staff oF consuleanes ona phn Since publication of Calming State of the Practice, the fast of these approaches has gained in popularity. U.S. practitioners include Albuquerque, NM, USA, Bellevue, Howard County, Los Angeles, Montgomery County and the City of Sacramento. ‘Ihe appropriate type of public involvement may de- pend on the nacure ofthe treatment. On simple speed ‘ump projects, the Portland staff prepares a plan and holds an open house while residents pass petitions nu gather funds. On complex projects, an NTC is fosmed and staf act as consultants to the committee reyarding policies, regulations and measur Source: Courtesy of Febr and Peas. Wan NTC is used, usually either volunteers are se ited or members are appointed by neighborhood associations. Committee size ranges anywhere from three or four niembers in Howard County to as many as 30 members in Albuquerque, The City of Sacramento believes that five «0 40 members is the ideal size for NTC. commistees (with provision for alternates) Ihere are many ways to involve the NTC in whar were once viewed as purely cechnical matters bese left to experts New techniques have been developed to help citizens visualize design alternatives and participate constructively in the design process, ‘These include visual preference surveys, compucer simulations, design charrerces and focus groups. Methods of involvement are described in Public Involvement Techniques for Transportation Decision-Making, from HIIWA and the Federal Transic Administcation (PTA). Another resource that has been pur ro good use in traffic ‘olluting is Participation Tooks for Better Land-Use Planning.” punity involvement in the form of an NTC was used in La Habra. The City frst held a neighborhood mecting owing projecc selection. This first meeting was widely publicized, and residents either attended and participated oF inbunitted written comments and concerns on a mail-in survey form. At the meeting, staf provided basic education ‘the process used to develop, approve and implement a neighborhood traffic calming plan. Residents and business ‘ovhers were given the opportunity to identify and discuss traffic problems within the neighborhood and to volunteer fu the NEC, which developed a neighbothood traffic calming plan with the help of sft lve entire affected atea needs ¢o be equitably represented on an NTC, Membership may include the original peti- nets for affic calming, residents appointed by che neighborhood association, citizens volunteering at an initial pride mecting, businesses within che affected area and any other stakeholders deemed important for balanced Traffic Calming # 535traffic enginccts. South Carolina and Virginia have adopted typical designs for trafic calming measures, and Delaware has # complete design manual, which this chaprer draws on, Figure 15-2, Traffie Calming State of the Practice. [At the local level, taffic calming has expanded from a few scattered ce : i “Trafic Calming portation engineering activity. As of May 2007, wwwatrafficcalming, State of the Practice e 61g had links to programs in 159 communities. A recent Laternet Be ater hice te search uncovered an additional 51 programs and, for every program fon the Internet, there are probably several programs chat operate anonymously. Additionally, streetseape enhancement or beautifica- tion projects abound across North America, particulatly in rejuve- nating urban cores such as Portland, OR’s Pearl Disttics; Denver, CO, USA's Lower Downrown (LoDo) District; Seattle's University Avenue; and San Francisco, CA’s Octavia Boulevard, This chapter provides professional engineers and planners general guidance on the appropriate use, design and signing and marking of italic calming measures with a goal of moving toward standardiza- tion of traffic calming practice in North America, Even with stan- dacdization, ample flexibility will remain. The chapter offers options rather than dictating single solution Source: Ewing, R. Tajfc Cabning State of se Practice. Washington, DC, USA: Instinue of Y feral Highovay B. Relationship to Other ITE Documents and Design Practices “This chapter is a companion to the Institute of Transportation En- gineer’s (ITE) 1999 report, Zinffie Calming State of the Practice, by the same author. The calming as follows: report defines tal rafic calming involves changes in sree alignment, installation of barriers and other physical measres tori ‘naffc speeds andlor cut-through volumes, in the interest of sree safety, livability and other public papas The ITE definition emphasizes the ultimate purposes of traffic calming—traffic speeds or volumes ate redhuces! means to other ends, such as improving the quality of life in residential areas, increasing walking safety in commer areas, or making bieycling more comfortable on commuter routes Osher publications have similar traffic calming definitions, such as the Canadian Guide to Neighborbond Tif ing, which follows the ITE international definition:* ‘Thaffe calming isthe combination of mainly physical measures that reduce the negative effects of moter w alter driver behavior and inyprove conditions for non-motorized street users Tiaffc Calming Stare of the Practice is a joint publication of ITE and the Pederal Highway Admi “This report contains background information on legal authority and liability, emergeney response concerns, the effects of traffic calming and many other subjects. It also contains 2 bibliography of traffic cals ji lications. The report can be downloaded at wwrwite.org. ‘This chapter also relies heavily on a 2004 survey of 20 jurisdictions that was conducted for Sacraments Cott. 4 and printed in JT Journal’ ‘The survey found that the field of traffic calming has matured considevably sinc: 1% Calming State of the Practice was published in 1999. Some of the most significane changes include maining programs within transportation ot public works departments; less apparent public controversy sturrownsting (0% greater reliance on private financing of consteucrion; more public involvement in planning throwysh weiphlveties! traffic committees; expansion of cligibility beyond local streets to collectors and in some cases arterials: and esjisn es of toolboxes to the full range of speed control 532 © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKFinally, this chapter relies on material from ITE’s Guidelines for the Design and Application of Speed Humps, a pro- pposed recommended practice from August 2007, and the Transportation Association of Canadas Canadian Guide 00 Neighbourhood Trafic Cabning from 1997. Both of these documents should be referenced for additional resources. Specifically, Guidelines fr the Design and Application of Speed Humps should be wtilized for additional detail regarding, speed humps? ‘This chapter is more prescriptive and less purely descriptive than the 1999 ITE report or the 2005 IE Journal article. Ie answers importane questions regarding who should be engaged in traffic calming, where traffic calming is appropti- ae, what measures are effective and how measures could be designed, signed and marked, The information in this chapter can help implement several ITE recommended practices, all of which call for lower rarger speeds on usban streets: Context Sensitive Solusions in Designing Major Urban Thoroughfares for Walkable Com munities: A Proposed Recommended Practice, Guidelines for Residential Subdivision Design, Siaart Growth Transportation Guidelines and Promoting Sustainable Transportation Through Site Design: An ITE Proposed Recommended Practice®?** This chaprer relates to other oadway design practices as outlined. Frequent reference is made co traffic calming in the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials’ (AASHTO) A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (the Green Book) and FHWA’ Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD).""" BASICS A. The Right Process At the heart of any traffic calming program is a structured process—from an initial determination that traffic poses a problem through implementation of devices and, in rare cases, 10 removal of traffic calming measures that have ‘noe met community or enginecring expectations. Traffic calming programs should strike a balance between extensive traffic studies and implementation without planning, and simply responding co neighborhood wishes based solely on technical judgment, They must be sufficiently process-oriented to avoid political and legal fallout yer sufficiently ‘ouiput-oriented co satisfy constituents A raffic calming process chat was originally developed for the Delaware Department of Tiansportation has been refined with each successive application. In the United States, Delaware was followed by Ithaca, NY, USA, then Sacis- mento, Denver and ultimately 2 doz- ‘en others, The guidelines contained in this chapter mest heavily reflect recene experience with La Habra, CA. Figure 15-3. Typical Flow Chart and Milestone Dates for Traffic Calming Process. there are four key steps in the process allie calming: project initiation, | plan development, plan approval and. | | }plan implementation, This section de Soetnata ae bes choices facing jurisdictions at — rach step, common practices and pre- fone monn wenn g ferred practices, The text is accompa | SH Mate Agnay | Reftinghbriood ran, Puic tro Peso died by a process flowchart (sce Figure 15-3). I sin 2a | thosses on Atocied Agency np") Nelghbornood Plan 1. Project Initiation ‘ssaliccalming program may be reae- +. sponding to citizen requests for «tion, Or proactive, with staff iden ‘ving problems and initiating action. 4 1997 survey by researchers at the Unversity of California ac Berkeley Jelermined that all bu a “handful” of | Source: C ‘=. Nohborhood Pian nwesy of Fer andl Pees Traffic Calming # 533representation. Representatives of emergency ser vices, school districts, che bicycling communi and transit agencies may also be invited to attend NTC meetings. Figure 15-5, Design Charrette for the East Neighborhood of La Habra, CA, USA. [Although the entive neighborhood has the oppor tunity to offer comments and suggestions as the process progresses, the NTC commits the time and effort necessary t0 develop a neighborhood traffic calming plan. Ata series of meetings, the NTC re- ceives basic training in traffic calming, reviews traf- fic data from the study area and formulates @ plan either through a design charrette or through review and comment on staff-generated plans, Using the charrette process, a preliminary plan was developed in a single evening for cach of the neighborhoods in La Habra. Figure 15-5 shows the NTC planning process in La Habra. Souree; Courtesy of Reid Ewing. Whether staffor the N guidelines specifying thos. (see “Application Guidelines’ generate and refine the plan, the choice of traffic calming measures is subject to application measures that are eligible for use on different streets with different trafic characteristics From the 2004 survey of leading jurisdictions, agency interests are most ofien accommodated by allowing affected agencies to review and comment on plans. This mechanism is used by at least nine of the surveyed jurisdictions. Once a preliminary plan has been generated, staf solicit feedback from affected agencies, which may include: + fire department, + police department; + cransit agencys + local school distcers s (garbage collection); + street division; + postal carriers; and + ambulance services. ‘Ac the agency meeting in La Habra, both the fire and the police departments expressed some opposition wo tah calming, particularly about the enforceability of turn rescriccions, the use of chicanes and che instalation of spred Jumps on a main road. The preliminary plan was modified accordingly. “The next step of the process is to hold a neighborhood meeting ro present the proposed plan to the neighborhood i large. The mecting in La Habra was well publicized by sending out fiyers with a plan map and posting mectiny sips withio the neighborhood. Ac the neighborhood meering, the NTC members (not staff) presented the proposed phi lund described the types and locations of measures proposed. Ar this point in she process, the plan belongs emtively the committe. ‘The public is invited to provide feedback on the plan, and the NTC should consider this input refine the plan once more, if deemed appropriate. In La Habra, NTC members had sufficient knowledge of wih calming and familiarity wich the plan tha they were able co successfully run the meeting with only moderate tance from staff and consultants. In the case of La Habra, the neighborhood plan required modification one more time co stay within budget. All cone member of the NTC approved the final plan. 56 © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOK3. Plan Approval ‘The main reason so few trafic calming measures are ever removed may be the show of neighboshood support requited to install measures in the first place, In most places, strong support must be demonstrated belore measures are even tested, Before they are installed permanently, 50, 60, or even 70 percent of property owners, tenant businesses andi or residents mast concur Petition requirements used to be the most common way of establishing support. ‘They served as a screening mecha- nism for depth of commitment because residents had co take the time to solicic signatures. Petition requizements also were easier wo administer than ballots or surveys. On the negative side, signed petitions were not always the best indicacor of public sentiment. Among surveyed communities, there have been cases of residents feeling pressured to sign or being misled into signing by advocates of tlic calming. Tn reponse, many communities have adopted (or switched 1) a balloting procedure ro determine public support for the plan, With three exceptions, all jurisdictions surveyed in 2004 conducted a mail-in survey (ballot) before plans ‘were adopted and implemented. Typically, all residents, both property-owners and centers, ate eligible o vore on traf fic calming plans. In about half the surveyed jurisdictions, chs eligibility is extended ro business proprietors. rey jsivon has ts wn plurality requirement fs pan approval. Minimum approval ats vat rom 30 erent ‘of those voting for temporary measures in Charlotcewille to 100 percent of those voting for permanent measures paid for with special assessments in Broward County. The median approval requirement for jurisdictions sucveyed is two- thirds of those voring. Some jurisdictions also have required response rates for those eligible vo vote. ich requirements are imposed to en- a degree of general public acceptance. For jurisdictions with such requirements, the median required response rate is 50 percent. Several programs have variable approval andlor response race requirements. ‘The City of Sacramento requires higher approval and response rates for volume-control measures than speed-control measures where the minimum response rate is 25 percent. Broward County has higher approval requirements for permanent than for temporary measutes. Charlottesville does as well, and ic adds a response rate requirement for permanent measures, Montgomery County has higher approval requirements for residents of treated streets than connecting steers. “the higher the requited response rate and approval margin, the more demand for traffic calming will be limited. In a community with excess demand fer beyond the supply of traffic calming funds, i is tempting to cxeare administrative Inurdles chat disqualify competitors. The problem with this approach is that raising administrative hurdles will not ensure that the most worthy projects ate built, It is more common to open the process and prioritize based on need (see “Priority Rating Systems’) In La Habra, neighborhood support for Figure 15-6. Mail-Back Survey Used in La Habra, CA, USA. the plans was assessed chrough ballot like, mail-in surveys. Surveyswere mailed | NEXGHBORHOOD TRAFFIC CALMING SURVEY twall neighborhood area residents, prop- | Peace compte he ietonea vey erty owners and business owners, Before | S04! tn the mal ipstge i ph the surveys were distributed, che City sJerted residents to their arsival through [7] Yes Lamintaver ot tne measures indicated public notices, mailers and newsletters. | tfc bet Hers) See No, 12m oti tevor of te measures indeated the surveys used in La Habra included CM onetsiet at ornran 1 description and map of the proposed | in aaston. piste arsor ie fotoning . pan tharindicated the typeand location | yeu youceeeeeaualte caring dove agacenayourpopery? SP of talc calming measures, The surveys | NM Yousreee sal 5 vo iso included a mail-back posteaed with | WebltyeusuPpeR tunng, i eny.of thive questions for residents to respond | comments: to (as shown in Figure 15-6): requested neigtotod plen? puree: Courtesy of Fehr and Pees + Do you support the proposed plan? Traffic Calming « 537+ Would you oppose a traffic calming measure adjacent to your property? + Would you support funding, iFany, for the requested neighborhood plan? ‘The mail-back postcatd also provided a space for residents to write comments about the proposed plan. Aminimum response rate and approval rate were established as part of initial program development in La Habra, For implementation of a plan, a minimum of $0 percent of all surveys had to be returned with 67 percent of residents in favor For the final step of the survey process, staf count a received surveys and determine whether the minimum response rate and support rate ate satisfied. If the minimum number of surveys is not received, staff can send out a second round of surveys because each survey form should be coded to allow identification of respondents. IFehe minimum response rate is met but che support rate is not, the NTC bas one opportunity to revise che plan, This would require modifying the plan to address aspects that were not favored by residents. Modifying the plan would also requize consulting the affected agencies, holding a public meeting to present the revised plan and redistributing surveys to the study area Ifthe minimum response rate and support rate are then met, the plan would continue to the implementation stage. In La Habra’ two neighborhoods, both the minimum response rate and the approval rate were met. The final tally of the surveys resulted in response and approval rates slightly greater than the required minimum. 4, Plan Implementation Final designs ate prepared almost exclusively in-house by city ot county staff, This is the case even where consultants prepare traffic calming plans. One exception is Vancouver, where consultants design complex devices when time anu! funding permit, Within local governments, responsibilities for traffic calming are sometimes divided among sub-nits. In Portlan speed hump projects are implemented by the maintenance bureau. More complex treatments in Portla by the design section of the transportation bureau. In Charlottesville, the Department of Neighborhood Develop iment Services designs treatments, and the Public Service Deparement installs cher. are design “Traffic calming measures are constructed in accordance with geometric, aesthetic, signing and marking guideline Construction is subject to nattow tolerances. For example, plus or minus one-eighth inch is not an unrealistic voles ance for the height of a 3-inch speed hump." “The performance of the traffic calming measures is assessed after installation to learn from each project and cap impact daa for use in subsequent budger deliberations, At a minimum, speed and volume measurements ate oles taken after permanent installation to permit before-and-after comparisons. Collision and resident satisfaction suivey «daca may also be gathered. A liele over one-half of the surveyed jurisdictions use tral periods to test treatments. Seattle topped doing, so for iil fic circles (which are hardly ever removed) but continues to hold trials for partial closures and speed humps. Vordsnit no longer conducts trials for speed-contro] measures but continues to do so for volume-control measures meant divert traffic, Among surveyed jurisdictions, rhe minimum time ofa trial is 1 month, the maximum is 1 yeat el the ‘most common tange is 1 10 6 months. In areas with a range of tial times, the exact length of time depend si il inacure of the treatment. “Trial installations may be wartanced when implementing complex area-wide plans whose trafic diversion pwc difficult to predict. Trial installations may also be wacranced when deploying, novel traffic calming messes, scl» ‘when vertical measures with aisconventional profiles are first used, "The fact that installation is on 2 tral ashy ‘mean that unsightly materials may be used. The national experience suggests the importance of aesthevies for jit acceptance. In La Habra, after an affirmative survey process, che city council is asked ro approve the plan and alloca (ide its design and construction. [Fit docs, engineering designs are prepared and, if necessary, envizonmental wie 538 © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HAND3OOKcomplered. If for some reason the city council does not approve the plan, it may be modified one more time by the NTC and the process repeated. ‘The traffic calming measures may be constructed either as eemporary or permanent devices. Temporary measures can be constructed at staffs discretion based on previous experience. Temporary measures can be converted ta permanent measures after 4 to 6 months of acceprable performance. After construction, staff monitors che performance of constructed measures and collects “after” data in 3 ¢0 6 months. If the constructed plan has noc produced satisfactory results (consistent wich initial expectations), staff can recom mend one or more of the following actions: + Collect additional traffic data + Modify constructed measures as deemed appropriate. + Construct additional, less intrusive measures as deemed appropriate. + Rerurn to plan development and modify the plan. Traffic calming measures may be removed, at staf discretion, if proven ineffective. 5, Priority Rating Systems Both Taffc Calming State ofthe Practice and the 2004 follow-up survey reviewed priority rating systems used by dif- ferent jurisdictions to allocae fands among competing projects. The majority of leading jurisdictions have adopted priority rating systems, ‘The main alternacives are first come first served and city council earmasks, Priority rating reduces political influences and increases program effectiveness in the face of public demands that exceed the supply of available funds. The most common factors used to prioritize projects are traffic speeds, traffic volumes and crash rates, The next most common are residential density, lack of sidewalks, proximity to schools and proximity to other named pedestrian Ithaca used a rating system to prioritize projects in its pilot program. Because factor values for individual projects were expressed in different units (wpd, miles per hour and so forth), they were converted into numbers of stanclard devia~ tions above or below the average values. Overall priority scores were then computed with the formula PRIORITY SCORE = ADT + 850h Speed + Collisions + Generators as) In the above equation, the italics represent standardized values of priority rating factors. Applied to the set of projects in Table 15-1, the average value of average daily trafic (ADT) for competing projects was 7,729, and the standard sleviation from the average was 4,314, For the fist project, Fall Creek Avenue, the normalized value of the ftst factor DT gycgs * 4950 ~7,729)/4,314 =-0.64 (15-2) Repeating this calculation for other factors and projects and summing standardized values for individual projects (see able 15-2), this procedure assigned South Aurora Strect the highest priority, with an overall score of 3.66. South Naker Street was assigned the lowest priority, with an overall score of ~3.38. The five highest-priotity projects were «lected for the pilot program. Planning chasrettes were conducted forall five, and plans were ultimately developed for fianding in thee of the five, Figures 15-7 and 15-8 illustrate portions of the first plan implemented in Ithaca, Taific Calming # 539a a Project ADT ‘85eh Speed ‘Annual Collisions | Number of Generators Fall Creek Ave 4.950 28.8 192 3 Sous Bakor Se 5.770 160 0.00) 0 North Baker Se 7,760 183 159 4 Hector St 5.250 148 0.00) 1 South Aurora Su 15,000) 31.0 073) 6 Hudson St 2.870 236 354 2 Chiff Se 6,600 35.0 0.00 4 Univessgy Ave 13,630, 375 0.22 0 Sounce: Courtesy of Fehr andi Pees. 5 Mimi Tne c= g Project ‘ADT ‘B5th Speed | Annual Collisions | Number of Generators | Overall Tall Creek Ave 0.64 037 035 023) 031 Sous Baker St =0.45 a) =0.66 a7 3.38 Nowth Baker Su 01 ~083 08 070 0.05 Hector St 057 a1 0.66 070 =a South Amora St 1.69 0.62 ~028 Ls 3.66 Hudson St a3 ~0.23 2.27 023 0.68 Chis =026 1.07 0.66 0.70 0.85 Univesity Ave 137 1.36 “0594 =1a7 LoL Source: Courtesy of Fehr and Peet. For area-wide projects, values of priority rating fac- Figure 15-7. First Implemented Plan in Ithaca, NY, USA, sere te cvcragedserom che sro proposed for [DUNNE Sum Ce traffic calming, or the value for the worst steer in the neighborhood may determine its relative priority. In the preceding, example, if South Aurora Street and South Baker Street were ineluded in the same area~ wide caffic calming proposal, heir traffic volumes, speeds and other factors could be averaged and the average values substicuted into the formula to de- termine the project’ telaive priority. The neighbor- hhood might or might nox remain a priotity when che Jow rating of South Baker Street was factored in. 6. Program and Project Funding “The general fund semains the main source of funds for traffic calming, often in combinacion with gas tax revenues. Therefore, traffic calming competes with all other local governmental priorities, oF at ‘ Jeast with other local transportation priorities, Source: Coureesy of Fischer Associates. ‘A few places have dedicated revenue sources. Gwinnett County GA, USA, basa -percent sales tax from which wall Calming and ocher transportation programs are funded: the City of Sacramento funds its program through fn Hit transporeation sales taxes (Measure A). Albuquerque and Howard County both rely on local bond funds, which hav: certain logic for longer-lived investments 540» TRAFHC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKFigure 15-8. Raised Intersection as Part of First Plan. Source: Courtesy ofthe City of Ithaca, NY, USA, Willingness co fund citizen-approved trafic calming plans may be che ultimate test of public support. Yee, whether cost-sharing is a good idea or a bad one is subject 10 debate, Also debated is the appropriate level of cost-sharing — whether the level should vary with circumstances and whae citeumstances are relevant. ‘One change noted in the 2004 survey is an increasing reliance on neighborhood residents to help finance their own traffic calming projects. When Thaffc Calining State of the Practice was published, many jurisdictions were uncomfort- able with any funding mechanism that might favor wealthy neighborhoods over paorer ones. Now, perhaps duc 10, local fiscal constraints, about one-half of the governments surveyed rely partially or folly on private financing: Belle- ‘wue (fully for gateway treatments but not other measures), Broward County (fully), Charlottesville (fully in the speed hump program), Minneapolis (fully) and Seactle (partially through matching requirements). Localities that ely om private financing mostly allow local residents to pay for aesthetic upgrades. This too represents @ change ftom Traffic Calning State of the Practice, when equity considerations ruled. In Charlotte, NC, USA. for example, residents can opt o pay for decorative eatures and thereby move themselves to the head of the list offanded projects. While Albuquerque offers the same option, no neighborhood has ye cen advaneage of ie. This is one advancage of private Anane- ing schemes: Asking residents to pay for traffic calming measures is che surest test of the value they place in them, B, The Right Tools ‘haffic calming involves first identifying the nature of traffic problems on a given street or in a given neighborhood, then selecting tralfic calming measures capable of solving identified problems cost-effectively. ‘the measures come from a toolbox of possibilities. Ifthe problem is cut-through traffic on local streets, one set of measures should be con sidered. IF the problem is speeding on streets whose abutting uses are adversely affected, another set is appropriate. IF the problem is a high rate of collisions, athied set may be preferred. 1. Physical Measures Ie emphasis ison physical measures because of their proven effectiveness in reducing traffic speeds, volumes and/or collisions. Physical trafic calming measures are usually classified according to cheir dominant effect. Velurne-control Tiatfie Calming # 544measures use barriers to preclude one or more movements along a street or at an intersection. Their primary purpose is to discourage oF eliminate cut-thiough traffic. Full- and half strcer closures, cliverters of various types, median barriers and forced-turn islands are classified as volume-control measures Speed-conirol measures use deflection of vehicle travel paths to moderate speeds. Their primary purpose is to slow traffic to the posted speed limi. Speed humps, speed lumps, speed tables, raised intersections, traffic circles, chicanes, chok- «xs lateral shifts and realigned intersections are classified as speed-consvol measures. “The following subsections describe, illustrate and assess each of the commonly used physical measures, Volume-Control Measures, Full-stret closures are bartiers placed across a roadway to completely close the street 10 through waffic, usually leaving only sidewalks and bikeways open (see Figure: 15-9). The fall-seret closure bartier can be placed mid-block or at an intersection, “The barriers may consis of landscaped islands, walls, gates, side-by-side bollards, ot any other obstructions that leave ‘openings smaller than che width of a passenger car. They may be Gxed or have the ability to open or retract for ser vice providers. Because they divert traffic problems and reduce street connectivity, they ate typically a uaffic calming, measure of las resort. Half clagures ave barriers that block travel in one disection for a short distance on otherwise wo-way streets (see Fig une 15-10). They ate, therefore, less restrictive than full closures and seem to have replaced full closures as the most popular yolume-control measure, When nwo half closures are placed across from one another at an intersection, the result is @ semi-diverter that blocks through movement on a eross-street, Half closures can be placed at « mid-black location at an intersection Diagonal diverters ae barriers placed diagonally across intersections, blocking all through movement and turns in one direction (see Figure 15-11). “Taf Calming State of the Practice, Washingron, DC, USA: Instcae of Transportation Fingers Ths Highway Administration, 1999. 542 © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKFigure 15-10. Half Closure, Figure 15-11. Diagonal Diverter. vice: Courtesy of Reid Evin, Traffic Caiming « 543‘Median barriers are raised islands or raised obstructions (decorative bollards are shown as an example jn Figure 15-12) located along the centesline of a street and continuing through an intersection s0 a5 to block through movement ar cross-streets Forced-turn islands ate raised islands on approaches to intersections thar block certain movements (see Figure 15-13) In cheir most common incarnation, they are right-turn islands Speed Control with Vertical Measures. Speed bumps are rounded raised areas placed across the roadway (see Figure 15-14). When used in close proximity, they are also referned co as undulations. Speed humps ate the only speed-conttol ‘measure, at present, for which ITE provides design and application guidance (see ITE's Guideline for the Design ana Application of Speed Fhumps).!° Hump profiles longer than the Warts Profile—a 12-foot (F.) hump (in the direction of travel) chat rises 3 inches—have been found to result in higher design speeds and smoother transitions, which may bbe more appropriate on main roads Speed lumps (also called speed cushions) are rounded or flat-topped saised areas placed across the road with whee ‘cut-outs designed to allow large vehicles, such as fire crucks and buses, to pass with minimal slowing or rocking (se Figure 15-15). ‘The center Jump is often narrower than the outside lumps, allowing emergency vehicles to straddle i by ctossing the centerline. Smaller vehicles, wherever they cross, and larger veicles that stay in their travel lanes havt atleast one set of wheels up while passing over che outside lumps, Speed lumps are beginning to replace speed hump: as the traffic calming measure of choice on emergency response routes. Speed tables axe flar-copped speed humps often constructed with brick or other textured materials on the Bat seetior {see Figure 15-16). Speed tables are typically long enough for the entire wheelbase of « passenger ea co test on cop Longer ones may even accommodate trucks and buses. Their length and extencled flat-topped sections give spec tables higher design speeds and smoother rides than humps, hence they rend to be used on higher-order roads. Rats croseale are speed tables marked and signed as pedestrian crossings (sce Figure 15-17) ‘Ihey often rise to side valk evel or slightly below (co provide a “lip” for the visually impaired). Their height increases pedestrian visibility Figure 15-12. Median Barrier. 544 © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HAND3OOKFigure 15-13. Forced-Turn Island. Source: Ewing, R. wing State ofthe Practice, Washi Highway Administration, 1998. Figure 15-14. Speed Hump with Neckdown, eee affic Calming © 545Figure 15-15. Speed Lumps. I Source: Couresy of Fischer Associa Figure 15-16. Speed Table. Source: Ewing, R, Tnaffe Calming State ofthe Practice, Washington, DC, USA: Insticute of Transportation Engineers/Peder at Highway Administration, 1999, 5A6 © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKFigure 15-17. Raised Crosswalk, Source: Courtesy of the City of Tucseon, AZ, USA, ‘Their la sections, often brick or other eextured materials, increase the visibility ofthe crosswalks themselves, “The ewo together convert the crossing into pedestrian tertitory. Raised intersections ate flat, raised areas covering entire intersections with ramps on all approaches and often with tex- tured crosswalks across the fat sections oF plateau (ace Figure 15-18). they make entire intersections, including the ‘crosswalks, pedeserian territory. While selatively expensive, they have the advantage of calming two streets at once, Speed Control with Horizontal Measures, Mist ixafic circles are raised islands placed in intersections around which traffic circulates (see Figure 15-19). They ate usualy circular in shape but may be oval to fc the given intersection, and they are usually landscaped in theit center islands for better aesthetics, In many eases, mini-cecles result in horizontal clearances that are too stall for lefe-urning crucks to circulate counterclockwise, even with partially mountable center islands, Instead, left eurns are made in fiont of the islands. I not uncommon to use STOP sign control in conjunc: tion with circles, particularly where STOP signs pre-dlate trafic circle installation, Roundabouts axe similar to mini uaic circles in that taffic circulates around a center island, bue they are used at higher-volume intersections to assign che right of way ro waffc already inthe roundabout and to require entering tra. fic to yield, if necessary (see Figure 15-20). Roundabouts are large enough for truck trafic to circulate counterclocte. wise. ‘They are YIELD-contvolled on all approaches to minimize delay. Roundabouts should not be confused with the oldes, even larger sotaries that operate on different principles and are gradually being replaced in the northeastern Uniced States, Roundabouts force traffic to slow down as ic enters an intersection, while trafic can speed around ol fashioned traffic circles. Lateral shifes ave realignments on otherwise straight streets that cause travel lanes to bend one way and then the other tw bead in the original ditection of tavel (see Figure 15-21). Lateral shifts, with just che right degiee of horizontal curvature, are one ofthe few measures that can be used on collectors or even arterials where high traffic volumes and ‘righ posted speeds preclude more abrupt measutes. They have become a mainstay of traffic calming on European thoroughfares. (Chieanes ase cut extensions or edge islands that alternate from one side of the street to che other co form s-shapedl sueves, They are often designed as. series of lateral shifts rather than continuous curves (see Figure 15-22), Traffic Calming » 547548 © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOK FREER eee EE eee Cee eee eeeFigure 15-20, Roundabout with a Mountable Apron. Source: Courtesy of Fehr and Peers, Figure 15-21. Lateral shift, nice: Courtesy of Reis Ewing, Traific Calming # 549re 15-22. Chicane with Median. Souice: Courtesy af che City of Austin, TX, USA, Realigued intersetions are changes in alignment chat converc‘L-intersections with straight approaches into curving stcets ‘meeting at right angles (sce Figure 15-23). A ditecr path along the top of the T becomes a turning movement. Speed Control with Narrowings. Neckdowns ate curb extensions at intersections that reduce roadway wideh from ccurb to curb (see Figure 15-24) "They are sometimes called rubs or budbouts. Combined with on-street parking, they create protected parking bays. Placed at the entrance to a neighborhood, often with textured paving between ther, they ate called gateways or entry features, Theis effect on vehicle speed is limited by the absence of pronounced vertical ‘or horizontal deflection. Instead, theie primary purpose is to “pedestrianize” interscetions. They slow vehicle eusning speeds, shorten pedestrian crossing distances and increase pedestrian visibiliy. Chokers are curb extensions or edge islands ac mid-block thac narrow a street at that location (see Figure 15-25), Un like neckdowns, which ate limited to interscetions, chokers ean be located at any spacing desired for traffic calming, IF marked as crosswalks, they are also called sf crosses. They are often combined with on-street parking co create protected parking bays, Chokers can leave the stret cross-section with two lanes, albeit narrower lanes than be reduce it to one lane. One-lane chokers fosee two-way traffic to alternate going through the pinch point. Center iddand narrowings are raised islands located along the centerlines of streets and narrow the street at those loca tions {see Figure 15-26). They are also called median chokers. Straddling the centerline, they may introduce slight deflection into travel paths on otherwise straight streets. Placed ar the entrance to 4 neighborhood, often with textured paving on either side, they create gateways or entry features. They may serve as pedestrian refuges ar marked crossiny Combined Measures. ‘The search for che optimal craffic calming measure may lead to various combinations of me sures at single slow points. A hallmark of European practice, which may account for the greater reported impacts if traffic calming in Europe, is combining two or chree measures ata single poine. A standard «raffie circle cannot cant speeds on the top of a T-interscction, so curb extensions may be added on the approaches to achieve some horizanti deflection. A choker cannot control speeds in the absence of opposing traffic, so speed humps may be edded in the yi: between the curb extensions Individual measures can be combined in any number of ways (illustrated in Figure 15-17) There is limited available evidence co suggest chat when measures are combined they directly compound the ellos ws crossing speeds 550 » TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKsee: Courtesy of Reid Ewing, Taaffic Calming « $51Source: Ewing, R. Ziaffie Calming Sinte ofthe Practice. Washi wvay Administration, 1999, Source: Courtesy of Reid Ewing, 552 © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKFigure 15-27. Raised Crosswalk with Median Choker. . Calraiag State of th Highway Adminiseation, 1999 2. Effects of Traffic Calming Measures Tallic calming involves matching physical measures co specific trafic problems, From the toolbox of measures dex scribed, the designer (or NTC) attempts to choose the most cost-effective and conservative measures that will do the job. For this teason, low-cost measures, such as speed humps and speed tables, are more common than high-cost measures, such as raised incersections and chicanes. To assist with this choice, effectiveness data are presented in Tables 15-3 through 15-5. ‘They are mostly taken, with some updating, fiom ITE’ Thafie Calming State of the Practice, which draws on hundreds of before-anct-afterstactics On average, the different trafic calming measures all reduce speeds, volumes and collisions. However; certain men. sures are more effective than others and produce statistically significant effects, Sample averages, while not a substitute for detailed analyses of proposed treatments, can be used to initially screen trafic calming measures for further con. sideration. Speed Effects. Speed effects of traffic calming measures depend primarily on geomerrics and spacing. Geomettics determine the speeds at which motorists crass slow points. Spacing determines the extent to which motorists speed up becween slow points the speeds reported in Table 15-3 are midpoint speeds after craic calming. OF al traffic calming measuses, speed bumps have the greatest effect on 85th-percentile speeds at che midpoint (beween devices), reducing them by an werage of more than 7 miles per hou (mph), or 20 percent. Among speed-control measures, aised intersections an »arrowings have the leas effect. Interestingly, half closures—a volume-control measure—have as comparable an effect tin speeds as speed tables. Tratfie Calming * 553sae ce ae ‘Average Speed Afier | Average Change in Speed | Average Percent Change in “Tallic Calming with Trafic Calming | Speed with Traffic Calming (standard deviation from | (standard deviation from | (standard deviation feom Sample Sine the average) the average) the average) TDFe thumps | 184 27.3 mph 7.8 emph ~22 percent Gomph) G7 mph) ES percent) Vie Bamps | 15 23.6 77 -B . Ga) ay o Lamps 8 26.9 9,0 =20 Ga) 63) ® 22-Fe Tables 78 29.2 “73, 20 6.) Ga © Longer Tables | 11 313 36 =10 es) 26) @ Raised 3 343 <3 1 Intersctions 0) 68) (0) Mini-Circles 6 303 “39 = aa 62h oo) Narowinge 7 32.3 ~26 7 2.8) 65) 2 ‘One-Lane 3 28.6 48 =14 Slow Points 6.) a3) @ Half Closures 16 263 6.0 “19 62) 66) an | Diagonal 7 279 “1A a | Divertrs 62) on on J "Note: Values in parentheses ae standatd deviations from the average, Source: Ewing, R. Trafic Calming Star of she Poatice. Washington, DC, USA: Insticuse of Transportation Engineers/Federal Highway Administration, 1999, p. 104, ‘Volume Effects. Volume effects are much more complex and case-specific than speed impacts. They depend on the entire network, of which a street is a part, not just the characteristics of the street itself. The availability of alvernate routes and the application of other measures in area-wide «reatments may have as large an impact an volumes asp metrics and spacing of slow poines Volume impacts depend fundamentally on the splic between local and through traffic. Traffic calming messutes will not affect the amount of local waflic unless chey are severe. With rare exceptions, traffic calming measures in Nor America are unlikely to be restrictive enough to affect motor vehicle wip rates. What traffic calming micasiies dh instead is reroute non-local craffic. As expected, the largest volume reduetions occur with street closures and orher volume-control measures (see ab 15-4), However, significant reductions also occur with humps and other speed-concrol measures. The distinction li tween volume controls and speed controls becomes blurred in practice, 554 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDEOOKpOuebe mcr Lo ee ee ‘Average Change in Volume with |” Average Percent Change in Volume Trafic Calving with Traffic Calming (standard deviation from (standard deviation from Sample Size the average) the average) 12-74, Humps 143 ~355 vpd =18 percent 691) (24 perceno T4-Fe Humps 5 529 2 way 6) Lamps 18 165 ° gu) 0) 22 Tables 46 15 -12 49) 20) Mini-Cincles ® -293 -5 (584) ro) - Navronings ny -263 —10 7s) 6», ‘One-Lane Slow Poines 5 392 “20 er «9 Fall Closures 9 or id (786) 36) Half Closures 3 “1611 42 (2444) ) Diagonal Dienere 2 “501 35 (2 4s) Other Volume Convo | 10 “1167 31 areal) 36) Note: Values in parentheses are scandal deviations from the average. Pouce: Ewing. R. Tinie Cabning State ofthe Practice. Washingron, DIC, USA: Insite of Transportation Engincers/Federal Highway Administation, 1999, p, 106. Safety Effects. By slowing traffic, climinating conflicting movements andJor sharpening divers attention, trafic calming may result in fewer collisions. Due to lower speeds, collisions may be less serious when they do occut, What inakes safety efecs so consequential politically is chat opposition to trafic calming is based principally on safety concerns—concerns related to emergency response. Collision effects of trafic calming measures, with and without adjustments for trathe diversion, paired samples was used to check for significant changes i 15-5. A difference-oF means test for after traffic calming, As a whole, collisions decline to a significant degree alter statistically significanc at che .001 probability which volume data are not available, the conventional .05 level). This deop tables and traffic cireles produce differences far the bese performers level), Adjusting for changes in traffic vo collisions decline to a less significant degree (bur in statistical significance has as much to do with the exclusion of Seatele’s circles {with cheiramaaing safety xcord) as with the adjustment for lower cai volames after uaffc calming, are presented in Table in collision frequencies traffic calming (che difference being tes and dropping cases for still statistically significant at As for individual traffic calming measures, all reduce the average number of collisions on tested streets, and 22 ‘that are statistically significant, Including the Seattle data, circles are by : Taaffic Calming « 555iss ue Sie es ‘Average Number of | Percent Change in Collisions Before/ | Collisions After | Statistic (Significance Sample Size | _After‘Treatment Treatment —_| Level—Two- Tailed Test) Humps 54 28/24 a4 =12 (22) 22-Fe Tables 3 1528 AT ~3.0 (005) Mini-Ciel without Seattle 7 5.9/6.2 29 -22.(08) | _with Seaeee 130 2216, a3 =10.8 (001), Roundabouss a 9315.9 37 NIA ‘All Measures? without Volume Adjustments 235 22a 8.6 (001) swith Adjustments a7 1/2 =25 (05), ‘Note: These figures do nor include data for roundabouts, In che second line, collision frequencies were adjastel propestionally for changes in trafic volumes and, therefore exposure afc alc calming. Source: Al buc the roundabout dat ate tale fiom Ewing, R. Tic Cabning State of the Pracie. Wasainggon, DC, USA, Insitute of Transportation Engineers! Federal Highway Administaton, 1999, p. 112. "the roundabout data come from Troutbeck, Rectal. Roundabouts: Iformational Guide. Washington, DC, USA: Federal Highway Administration, 2000, p. 112. 3. Application Guidelines ‘Application guidelines ae traffic calming measures that are appropriate for use on sacets of diferent types with dif ferent traffic characteristics. Application guidelines are advisory only. They do not constitute a set of warrants or mini mum requirements bur tather can be overvicden in specific eases by engineering judgment. In waffie calming, there is acrend away from warrants and toward guidelines. Application guidelines have been adopted by many jurisdictions, Summarizing practices from the 2004 survey: + Tinffc Calming State of the Practice predicted an expansion of U.S. programas to streets higher up the func- tional hierarchy, To a limited degree, this has occurred. Many surveyed jurisdictions now treat collector streots, Six jurisdictions—Bellevue, Charlottesville, Eugene, Howard County, Portland and Vancouver— have extended cligibility ro arterials. This is mostly done on an exception basis with a limied array of measures deemed appropriate. + Moving up the roadway hieeatchy from ro local streets co arterials, she set of eligible trafic calming me sues becomes more limited. Howard County has a complete toolbox for local streets but limits majos collectors to restriping, roundabouts, chokers and medians (and then only if enforcement and education have proven ineffective). Vancouver is similar with respect to local streets bur limits arterials to landseapins, high-visibiliy striping, roundabouts, chokers, medians and photo enforcement, + Volume-control measures are available only under limited circumstances. In Sacramento, they come into play in the second phase of uaffic calming, only afier speed-control measutes have been applied. Full closures have been dropped from the toolboxes of several agencies because they are 00 restrictive to wall flow, emergency access and public service in general. [F volume controls are used at all, they typically ke the form of half closures or forced-nurn islands. + Among speed-control measures, speed humps, speed humps and one-lane chokers are applicable co the low ‘st traffic volumes and speeds; speed tables, chicanes and realigned intersections are applicable ro interme diate volumes and speeds; and lateral shifts, roundabouts and narrowings are applicable to higher voles and speeds (though nor to the highest volumes or speeds). ‘One particularly complete set of guidelines adopred by che City of Sacramento is reproduced in Table 15-6. Sut guidelines may be cailored to other jurisdictions through the process described in “The Right Process.” 556 © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKTable 15-6. Application Guidelines for the City of Sacramento, CA, USA. Roadway Classiicaiion Bus or i‘ Emergency| Other eteeeeaerens Arterials |Cottectors| C9! | ‘Response | Considerations streets | *5S ute Phase TWen-Resticive Measures as 5 lFegefine/Centerine ADT < 10,000 Ktiping Speed Unit 8 mph ox one) langied Faxing ADT < 4.000; Width 48 Teer No Rot wea wai Bia} [phase | Verlical Measures Speod timt - 30 mph lanes ‘ADT < «000; peed Humos No Ne peed Hummes BO] soedttint S0mon [Be Saeed Tables ead BET] Geode 68 Raised Crosswalks ADT < 7-500: OK sc Speed Un meh Rosed inferoctions oe [lextured Pavement ‘Yes OK {None} [Phase | Horizontol Measures ee perecnanea Daly evenng Varin < bratc Cices wo SzBeE seed HSS] no | Grace 108 meh 3 Grade = 6%; On i Daly Eoeing Vaume « desea | o ’ Roundabouts 18.000: Speed Limit 45] No I design radius PME toutes. desig [Siledene} se ign rods Pn ocr Obs iH laccommodations| [eters no PSR SETH ox | crs ton ABT E5.006; Spead it ae chicanes No eer OK Grade + 8% Baty Eaing voumeZ Rectonecintasectons | No S00 ox | Geode: ax Seeed tint 38:mgh [Phase | Narrowing Measures ee 20 Neckdowns for 700k: Ontite routs, iwo-Lane Chokers Speed Limi! + 35 mph design wilh clear (Center island Nanowings) “ADT = 20,000: al bike edestion Reluges Speed ink neh err ib Waits a i review Soh lone-tane Chokers 80 Hors30094 no | abtence: Ser oiracal ee hase 1 Restrictive Measures’ = e ee Ful Closures No] —No Yer ‘None! Fase Was Half Closures No & RT must {None}, 2 ADT < 5,000; review [Diagonal Biverters No. > 25% Non-Local Traffic No {None} IMedicn Borers Ao ne ‘None Forced Tum isiands No No (None) Since; Courtesy of the Deparement of Public Works, C yy of Sacramento, CA, USA, 2003, Combined Measures ‘Subject to Constraints of Component Measures INote:_* Only if other meosures ore deemed unsatisfactory. Nol 19 be used on new streeks Talfic Calming « 557Ml, CURRENT PRACTICES A. Design 1. General Guidance Gcomeuric design of erafic calming measures is based primarily on the desired speed at slow points, which is the design speed for this design activity. Once this speed is set, appropriate spacing of slow points can be determined based on target speeds midway between such points. Ordinatily, crossing speeds ar slow points are no more than 5 miph below the posted speed limit (although with advi- sory speed signs, greater differences are acceptable). Also, asa rule, micipoint speeds should be no more than 5 mph above the posted speed limi. The speed differential on a given stretch of roadway is thus limited to 10 mph in the interest of trafic safety, noise control, fuel conservation and driver acceptance. This also limits the spacing of slow points because midpoine speeds increase as spacing increases. Geometric design is also based on the dimensions of vehicle in che traffic stream. For most typical designs, a passenger ‘ar oF single-unic truck is the design vehicle. Geometries of slow points are set so a design vehicle can negotiate them at sn speed. Larger trucks and buses are accommodated in different ways, such as with mountable overrun areas large vehicles may be forced to eross slow points at a craw speed, this is acceptable given che relacively few large vehicles on sereetstteated with the most restrictive measures. In application guidelines, the most testrictive measures are reserved for the lowest-order streets. “Typical designs of traffic calming measures are described in the following subsections, ‘The designs come with gco- metric details and markings. Signing conventions are described in the next section. Typical designs were originally developed for the Delawave Traffic Calming Mansel but have since been updated for the manuals of Sacramento and other California communities. 2. Volume-Control Measures Full closures ase ordinatly considered only when other volume-control measures have proven inadequate. Given the tatity of such cases and the fact that turnarounds can be designed in so many ways, no typical design has been devel oped for a full-street closure ‘The typical half closure has two geometric Features designed to encourage compliance with the one-way restriction (ce Figure 15-28). Proper design is important to deter illegal maneuvers around the device. Fitst, the cutb extension for edge island extends more than a cat length along the roadway. Motorists traveling the wrong way through the hall closure are doing so for an uncomfortable distance. Second, the curb extension or edge island extends all che way 10 the centerline of the street or beyond on a wide street. This leaves a relatively tight opening for wrong-way trafic ‘To farther enhance compliance with the one-way designation, half closures should be locaced at intersections, One through-traffic is already traveling down a street in the restricted direction, there is a strong tendency to continue through a half closure. ‘Along bicycle routes, the preferred design isa bicycle pass-through lane through the half closure. When bicycle | ate bordered on both sides by vertical curbs, their channel widths should be 4 to 5 fe, which is wide enough to provide ‘learance for bicyclists but narrow enough to exclude passenger cars Diagonal diverters, median barriers and forced-tumn islands have clear widths sufficient for the design vehicle to make tre at eated intersections withous encroaching into opposing lanes. At pedesttian erossing points, at-grade pedestrian cut throughs or Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)-complianc ramps and plateaus need to be provided. Diagonal diver cers should have openings 4 ro 5 fe. wide, sufficient for bicyclists —but not motorists—to passthrough. Median bavi should excend far enough through the intersection to prevent motorists on crass-sreets from going around the barter Foxced-ruan islands should be sharply angled toward the right on the approach to discourage wrong-way movement 3. Vertical Speed-Control Measures The profile of vertical devices may vary depending upon che most pressing concerns (speed reduction, snow cai ment accommodation, bicyclist accommodations and so forth), Three typical types of vertical curves are used in he approach and departure to vertical devices (see Figure 15-29): BSB © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKFigure 15-28. Partial Closure, Source: Courtesy of Feb and Peet, ‘+ Sinusoidal profiles reduce speed slightly less than circular or parabolic profiles but provide greater comfort levels for drivers and bicyclists. They are typically more difficult and expensive co consttuct. Snow clearance may also be facilitated by the sinusoidal profile. + Circular profiles reduce speed moderately (compared to the other two profiles) and provide moderate com fort levels for drivers and bicyclists + Parabolic profiles reduce speed the most but ate the least comforcable for drivers and bicyclists. LES Guidelines for she Design and Application of Speed Hiemps recommends either sinusoidal or parabolic profiles for peed humps." Traffic Calming © $59pane Figure 15-29. Profiles for Vertical Devices. Baggae bt ———— } vrrre | Te ee | £16 of Aneroach length | ie ee Segn aS oo | st approach ength Parabolic Profie & GbE ret so \ st Apron lean Source: Courtesy of Fehr and Pees. Speed humps were developed and tested by Britain's Transport and Road Research Laboratory. They are the only eaf fe calming measure sanctioned by ITE, which has issued a recommended practice. The typical speed hump is 12 v0 14 fein the direction of travel, 3 inches high, with construction tolerances ranging from a minimum of 2.75 t0 3.5 inches. ITE’ proposed Guidelines for the Design and Application of Speed Hlumps provides derailed recommendations about speed hump installation, “To achieve particular crossing speeds, humps may range in height. Less than 2 inches produces litde speed reduction: more than 4 inches greatly increases the risk of grounding. Humps may be longer than the typical design. Portland! 14fe, hump has received a measure of acceptance nationally. ‘Speed lumps ace usually the same basic parabolic shape, same length in the direction of cravel and same 3- to 4-inch height as speed humps (see Figure 15-30). The difference is that chey have gaps, or cur outs, spaced such that emer gency and transit vehicles can straddle individual lumps, while passenger cars and mid-size sports utility vehicles mus 560 + TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKFigure 15-30. Speed Lumps Design, (we) spe ae 808 ach cae custion ony one hon 12 de, 2s! bowean ster umps and cant Ln oe est 2 fe rom cub ond Sige. maybe necessary or ‘pelo gana ow on opoang eereney /augh nt poo fun on sient abet, one ‘nay bectnoed fea stor Strebel nd ath ur “Tishas ben ose discourage metre tom wang out etre an aap space the crt np “nese, eth cpng Nas Boonmoorpetued nso ‘pel dean | Q | | EN Iai inesy of Feh Sour tide up and over them on atleast one set of wheels, In che typical design, che center lamp i 6 fe. wide and the opening for the wheels is 2 ft. wide. The number and width of lumps required on a given cross-section is a function of street width, Alternative designs ate flat-topped like speed tables and/or shorter in the direction of travel. Asphalt permanent lumps and rubberized temporary lumps are about equally popular Speed tables come with ovo different profiles, The original profile, from Seminole County, EL, is modeled after the 12-f.. hump, It has 6-f. ramps with the same parabolic shape as the rises of a 12-ft. hump; a Bat 10-ft, placeau has simply been inserted between the two ramps to create 2 speed rable. Having the same vertical rise as che 12-fe. hump Traffic Calming © 561over almost twice the length and having a flat section upon which the wheels of a passenger car can test, the 22-ft speed table has a much higher design speed and gentler ride than a 12-f. speed hump. For vatious reasons, including aesthetics and ease of construction, Gwinnese County developed an alternative design that seems to be gaining popwlarity. Ie uses straight rather than cutved ramps, making them trapezoidal in shape like European and British speed tables. ‘The plateau is made of asphalt, concrete, brick or concrete pavers, stamped asphals, ‘or other paccerned materials Raised crosswalks are speed tables marked and signed for pedestrian crossing (see Figure 15-31). The main difference between the two is their placement. Raised crosswalks are located at pedestrian crossings. Ifbuilt to eypical speed table specifications, a raised crosswalk will stop 2 to 3 inches short of standard curb height and sidewalk level, A raised Figure 15-31. Raised Crosswalk Design. <+y POA pesestian amp ‘Senet IW t / vacant Pea £8 [sssasem 4 =| \ € * le! rimterintings cia av noel = eee uae ae & — re neg ‘| £ rea. 1 L exetng roadway Section BB ADAPedestianranp L Depressed ee Source: Courtesy of Fehrand Peers 562 © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKcrosswalle may extend all the way co the sidewalk or may dip down and then up again to maintain drainage channels. The sidewalk must connect to the erosswalk via curb ramps that meet ADA standards for accesible design. Raised intersections ate speed tables that cover entire intersections. ‘They have ramps on all approaches and, in the typi- cal design, they also have crosswalks on all approaches. All other geometric requirements for speed tables also apply to raised incersections. ‘With both raised crosswalks and raised intersections, the visually impaired must be wamed at the street edge that they are entering a hazardous area. This warning is usually accomplished through truncated domes or compasable tactile surfaces. These may be supplemented by bollards or other street farniture ro protect waiting pedestrians and to prevent corner-cutting by mocorists Encroachment of a raised crosswalk or taised intersection into the gutter area will block normal drainage flows and may add considerably to the cost of installation. Drainage nccds to be provided on the uphill side of the raised cross- walk, ot a drainage pipe may be embedded in the pavement to carry stormuater, Because drainage pipes tend t0 become clogged with debts, they require frequent maintenance. 4, Horizontal Speed-Control Measures Mini traffic civcles were pioncered in Seattle in che 1980s, Because Seattle circles are sized co fit incexsections, they cannot have a single geomettic design, Rather, standard specifications are defined by intersection geomettics, Seatcle's standard specifications were developed using a single-unit truck as the desiga vehicle. Dimensions of the cirdles are sufficient for the truck to circulate clockwise around the center island larger vehicles must mount the curb on the cconter island or turn left in front of the center island, ‘This unconventional circulation pattem in advance of the circle is workable if ts use is limiced to intersections with low lef-tarning volumes, “The wider the intersecting streets, che bigger the cemter island must lateral deflection (see Figure 15-32). If the intersecting streets have different widths, che center island muse be oblong to achieve adequate deflection on all approaches, Seattle's design parameters are also being used in places such as Dayton, OH, USA, and Madison, WI, US. be to achieve adequ: Most traffic citcles are deployed at four-way intersections because this is where they generate the greatest safety ben: clits, For traffic circles at T-intersections, curbs should be either extended at the entrance and exit to the in oo reconstructed within the intersection to ensure adequate deflection of vehicle paths along the top of the T. Design of taffc circles has a vertical dimension as wel. ‘The cross-slopes at ineersections are usually away from center islands. ‘This males center islands more visible to approaching motorists and also helps with drainage. Ceneer islands typically have mountable outer curbs (or aprons) with vertical inner curbs thar protect landscaped centers. The outer, mountable carbs allow circles to be negotiable by larger vehicles but discourage passenger cars from fallowing a racing Jine to minimize lateral defection. Rinndabouts ate distinguished from mini-circles by larger radié; correspondingly higher design speeds and capacities; anid spliter islands on all approaches to slow traffic and discourage wrong-way movements. ‘They usually have outer rings (called truck aprons) thac are mountable to accommodate the largest vehicles. Roundabout enery and Form the envelope of each splitter island. Pavement markings and a raised island fill che envelope |ike mini-circles, roundabouts may be elongated to better fic into intersections whose entering roadways have differ ‘ont widehs. Skewed intersections, offset intersections and combinations of two or more close intersections arc com mon teasons that a roundabout might not be an ideal circle. However, non-circular design is not preferred because laropean experience suggests that oval-shaped roundabouts have higher collision rates than circular ones. ' peclostians are anticipated, the splitter islands should extend back from the intersection, and the pedestrian crossing Jooians should be set back at least one car lengch from the yield fine so that pedestrians can cross behind waiting cars, Ihe pedestrian crossing points should be marked as crosswalks, | acval shifis ate changes in roadway alignment that create reverse curves. The shift in alignment is typically one lane idth or mote over a shore distance longitudinally (sce Figure 15-33), Its created by bending or angling curb lines, ot bby moans of edge and center ishands. Edge islands leave existing drainage channels open and tend to be less expensive fo vonstruce fc Calming © 563Figure 15-32. Traffic Circle Design. Ccountereasai. ‘rcvton niin oe Fortis sec NOTES: 1. Distance Xis ferences tom {he corer otters thabpes gute 2, dsatnes eq es wits Fung sow wos use fuse uring rine #ASHTO toes rae Senn rare adequate ura rh or fe desios desan whic Source: Counesy of Fehr and Peers. “The curb excensions or edge islands may be semi-circular or trapezoidal. The typical lateral shift has trapezoidal islam: swith edge line tapers thar conform to the MUTCD taper formula. A center island separates opposing trafic. Absewt such an island, some duivers will cross the centerline to minimize deflection. Lateral shifis may be formed with ales nating parking bays. Chicanes ate s-shaped curves on otherwise straight roads (see Figure 15-34). They are often designed as a series o lateral shifis rather than continuous curves and can be created either by means of curb extensions or edge islands, He typical chicane is juse ewice the typical lateral shift Ic has crapezoidal edge islands based on the finding that this shy is more effective in reducing speeds than is a semi-circular shape. Because the roadway alignment shifts twice, the pica chicane has a lower design speed than the equivalent lateral shift 564 © TRAFAC ENGINEERING HANDSOOKFigure 15-33. Lateral Shift Design. Zt Source: Coursesy of Reid Ewing, Figure 15-34. Chicane Design. ] | | | L—— veto Source: Courtesy of Reid Ewing. Traffic Calming © 565‘Mountable curbs are often used on curb extensions and edge islands that form chicanes. The use of mountable curbs is prompted by the complexity of movement through chicanes and the fact thar curb extensions and edge islands within chicanes are not expected 1o serve as pedestrian refuges. 5. Narrowings ‘Neckdowns ate sized to minimize cross distances for pedestrians while stil allowing right turns to be made safely by larger vehicles. When stcets are wide to begin with, and have parking lanes on main and cxoss-streets, intersections can be necked-down without forcing tning vehicles to encroach on opposing lanes. When strets are narrow and/or ‘without curbside parking, some encroachment may be unavoidable. Neckdowas are usually built in combination with on-street parking, so curb extensions can follow the inside tur ing radius of « smaller vehicle. In the typical design, the curb return radii and street widths are such that the design vehicle can stay to the right of the centerline when making right curns, but larger vehicles have to encroach. Stop lines fon eross-strcets can be set back from the intersection to avoid conflicts with opposing traffic (these are referred ro as advance stop lines) Chokers can be created either by means of curb extensions or edge islands. ‘The latter are ess aesthetic bu leave existing drainage channels open. They also make it possible to provide bicycle bypass lanes on streets without curbside parking. Chokers can be hazardous 10 bicyclists who gee squeezed by passinig motorists. For this reason, bypass lanes should be considered when both bicycle and motor vehicle trafic are heavy and curb-to-curb width allows. Chokers should have vertical elements to draw attention and form a visual street edge (see Figure 15-35). When used in connection with curbside parking, chokers may extend to the edge of the travel ane co Form protected parking bays. Chokers should extend far enough to fully shadow parked cars. If roadway with is insulficient ¢o allow curb extensions and parked cars on both sides, they can be provided on only one side of che steer. Conter island narrowings are most effective in reducing speeds when they are short interruptions to an otherwise open street section, rather than long median islands. The facter may actually increase travel speeds by channelizing trafic and separating opposing flows, while the former slow craffc to a degree by deflecting vehicle travel paths. Stubby jslands have the added advantage of keeping driveway access open and no-parking zones short, which is desirable at ower fanctional classification levels where trafic calming is most often practiced. Like chokers, center islands should Ihave vertical clements to draw attention to themselves. “The eypical center island narrowing incorporates three Features (see Figute 15-36); ‘The centet island is large enough to command attention; the approach nose is offser o che lef from the perspective of approaching traffic; and the center island curb forms a diverging taper to deflect traffic toward the right. Figure 15-35. Choker Design. FER ated Source: Courtesy of Reid Ewing, 566 © TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOKFigure 15-36. Center-Island Narrowing Design. Source: Courtesy of Reid When center islands are placed at pedestrian crossings, ADA requires that they have pass-throughs that are travers- able by the disabled. ‘This requizement is usually fulfilled with cut-thzoughs flush with the roadway to provide a level crossing, For cencer islands that serve as pedestrian refuges, vertical curbs are used to provide an added measure of pedestrian comfort and safety. Otherwise, mountable curbs are preferred 6. Accommodation of Bicyelists Bicycliss tend to get squeezed or cut off at horizontal measures and narvowings. On screets with litle bicycle crffic and/or low-volume motor vehicle traffic, special accommodation of bicyclists is typically not necessary. Where vol- tumes of both bicycle and motor vehicle trafic are high, special accommodation should be made. ‘ypical designs assume that bicycle lanes will end 70 to 100 fe. upstecam of slow points. ‘this provides ample oppor- tunity for bicyclists to merge into the traffic stream. At higher traffic volumes, bypass lanes should be considered, If bypass lanes are used, they should be separated from the main travel lanes by raised islands, 7. Speed Estimates Speeds on 2 calmed roadway should be lowest at the location of the traffic calming measures and approximately e to the design speed of such measures, Design speed depends on geometries, most importantly on the vertical and horizontal curvature of traffic calming measures. Speed on a calen 1 roadway will veach a maximum midway berween trafic calming measures, and the magnitude depends on both the design speed and the spacing of devices. ‘Ihus, itis possible to back into geometric design and spacing requirements by setting design speeds fist, rhen using those co estimate maximum spacing of measures. For vertical measures that are approximately circular in shape~—For example, speed humps with standard profles— crossing speeds can be estimated using a formula from Traffic Calming State of the Practice, The formula was derived using the standard 12-f. speed hump as a reference point. Whatever forces of centrifugal acceleration arc tolerable over chis hump at its B5th-percentile spced should be tolerable going over other vertical measures at chee 85th- percentile speeds. the following formula applies to any vertical measure of approximately circular shape: Ro V95.81 05-3) whee: 1. radius of a vertical curve (Fe) at which the curve is traversed (mph) Traffic Calming # 567or, equivalently: V=241(R)” (15-4) Insett values of V and co obtain the necessary R, or values of R to achieve che resulting V. For speed tables and raised crosswalks with circular (or near-circulat) ramps, speeds can be estimated using the methodology introduced in ITE Traffic Calming State of he Practice. For vertical measures with taperoidal shapes, field resting should be used. Empirical observations are summarized in the Delaware Tinie Calming Manual. ‘Most horizontal speed-control measures, including chicanes, lateral shifis and even traffic circles, consist of reverse carves. They require a turn in one dizeetion and then back in the original direction, sometimes more than once. The physics of movement is complex in reverse curves. No standard highway design text or manual provides insight into comfortable speeds on such curves. Fortunately, reverse curves can often be analyzed as a series of simple curves, and where they canner, there has been enough field eesting to make speed estimates possible. For simple hotizontal curves, crossing speeds can be estimated with graphs and tables from AASHTO'’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (che Green Book).” All of these graphs and tables are based on the formula from mechanics: R= VY15(e + £) (05-5) where: Re horizontal curve radius (fi.) V « speed of travel around a curve (mph) ¢= superelevation rate F = side friction factor For horizontal traffic calming measures on low-speed streets, ¢ is usually close to zero. Therefore, equivalently: V=3.871RA'" (15-6) Friction factors can be obtained fiom A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. At locations with super- clevation or reverse superclevation, these can be inserted into che above equations. For horizontal measures with short reverse curves, such as chicanes and lateral shifts, empirical observations are summarized in the Delaware Traffic Calming Manual. 8, Landscaping and Drainage “The previous sections have called for vertical elements on citcles, roundabouts, chokers and center island narrow- ings, Ii most cases this means landscaping. Landscaping contributes to both the aesthetics and the identification of traffic calming measures. Landscaping should be carefully planned to allow unrestricted visibility. To preserve sight lines, trees should have

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