Mathematics Allen

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CONTENTS
No. No.
1. Logarithm 01
2. Trigonometric Ration & Identities 02
3. Trigonometric Equation 10
4. Quadratic Equations 13
5. Sequences and Series 17
H ANDBOOK O F M ATHEMATICS
6. Permutation & Combination 23

7. Binomial Theorem 28
8. Complex Number 31
9. Determinants 39
10. Matrices 44
11. Properties & Solution of Triangle 52
12. Straight line 60 © All rights including trademark and copyrights and rights of
13. Circle 73 translation etc. reserved and vested exclusively with Allen Career Institute®.
14. Parabola 83 No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced, adapted, abridged or
translated, stored in any retrieval system, computer system, photographic or
15. Ellipse 91
other system or transmitted in any form or by any means whether electronic,
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17. Function 105 in any retrieval system of any nature. Any breach will entail legal action and
18. Inverse Trigonometric Function 124 prosecution without further notice.
19. Limit 132 This study material is sold/distributed by Allen Career Institute® subject to
20. Continuity 137 the condition and undertaking given by the student that all proprietary rights
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22. Methods of Differentiation 143 Materials and/or Test Series and/or the contents shall belong to Allen Career
Institute's Tests and neither the Study Materials and/or Test Series and/or the
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25. Tangent & Normal 157 distribute, sell in market, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form
26. Indefinite Integration 160 or by any means for reproducing or making multiple copies of it. Any violation
27. Definite Integration 166 or infringement of the propriety rights of Allen shall be specifically punishable
28. Differential Equation 170 under Section- 29 & 52 of the Trademark Act, 1999 and under Section- 51, 58
29. Area Under The Curve 176 & 63 of the Copyright Act, 1957 and any other Act applicable in India. All
30. Vector 178 disputes are subjected to the exclusive jurisdiction of courts, tribunals and
forums at Kota, Rajasthan only.
31. 3D-Coordinate Geometry 188 Note:- Due care and diligence has been taken while editing and printing this book/study
32. Probability 196 materials. Allen Career Institute shall not hold any responsibility for any mistake that
33. Statistics 203 may have inadvertently crept in. Allen Career Institute shall not be liable for any direct,
34. Mathematical Reasoning 210 consequential or incidental damages arising out of the use of this book.
35. Sets 215
36. Relation 220
Mathematics HandBook Mathematics HandBook
ALLEN ALLEN
LOGARITHM TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS & IDENTITIES

LOGARITHM OF A NUMBER :
The logarithm of the number N to the base ‘a’ is the exponent indicating 1. RELATION BETWEEN SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT OF
the power to which the base ‘a’ must be raised to obtain the number N. ANGLES :
This number is designated as loga N .
(a) logaN = x, read as log of N to the base a Û ax = N D G 2C
= =
If a = 10 then we write log N or log10N and if a =e we write 90 100 p
ln N or logeN (Natural log) 180
(b) Necessary conditions : N > 0 ; a > 0 ; a ¹ 1 1 Radian = degree » 57°17'15'' (approximately)
p
(c) loga1 = 0
(d) logaa = 1 p
1 degree = radian » 0.0175 radian
180
(e) log1 a a = -1
2. BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES :
(f) loga(x.y) = logax + logay; x, y > 0
(a) sin2 q + cos2 q = 1 or sin2 q = 1 – cos2 q or cos2 q = 1 – sin2 q
æxö
(g) log a ç ÷ = log a x - log a y ; x, y > 0 (b) sec2 q – tan2 q = 1 or sec2 q = 1 + tan2 q or tan2 q = sec2 q - 1
èyø
(h) loga xp = p loga x ; x > 0 1 1
(c) If secq + tanq = k Þ secq – tanq = Þ 2 sec q = k +
k k
1
(i) loga q x = loga x ; x > 0 (d) cosec2q – cot2q = 1 or cosec2q = 1 + cot2q or cot2q = cosec2q – 1
q
1 1 1
(j) log a x = log a ; x > 0, x ¹ 1 (e) If cosecq + cotq = k Þ cosecq – cotq = Þ 2 cosec q = k +
node06\B0AI-B0\Kota\JEE(Advanced)\Leader\Maths\Sheet\Handbook_Maths (E+L)\Formula Book (Eng)\Part-1.p65

x
k k
(k) loga x = logbx/logba ; x > 0, a, b > 0, b ¹ 1, a ¹ 1
3. SIGNS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS IN DIFFERENT
(l) loga b.logb c.logc d = loga d ; a, b, c, d > 0, ¹ 1
QUADRANTS :
(m) a loga x = x ; a > 0, a ¹ 1
log c
(n) a b = c logb a ; a,b,c > 0; b ¹ 1 90°, p/2
II quadrant I quadrant
(o) loga x < loga y Û ê
é x < y if a >1 S A
ë x > y if 0 < a < 1 only sine All + ve
(p) loga x = loga y Þ x = y ; x, y > 0 ; a > 0, a ¹ 1 & cosec + ve
x 180°,p 0°, 360°, 2p
(q) e ln a = ax only tan & cot only cos
(r) log102 = 0.3010 ; log103 = 0.4771; ln2 = 0.693, ln10 = 2.303 + ve & sec + ve
(s) If a > 1 then loga x < p Þ 0 < x < a p
(t) If a > 1 then log a x > p Þ x > a p T III quadrant IV quadrant C
(u) If 0 < a < 1 then log a x < p Þ x > a p
270°, 3p/2
(v) If 0 <a < 1 then loga x > p Þ 0 < x < a p
E E
1 2
ALLEN ALLEN
4. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ALLIED ANGLES : FG C + DIJ cos FG C - DIJ
(a) sin (2np + q) = sin q, cos (2np + q) = cos q, where n Î I (xiii) sin C + sin D = 2 sin H 2 K H 2 K
(b) sin (-q) = – sin q cos (–q) = cos q
F C + DIJ sin FG C - DIJ
sin C – sin D = 2 cos GH
2 K H 2 K
sin(90° – q) = cosq cos(90° – q) = sinq (xiv)
sin(90° + q) = cosq cos(90° + q) = –sinq
cos C + cos D = 2 cos GH
F C + DIJ cos FG C - DIJ
2 K H 2 K
sin(180° – q) = sinq cos(180° – q) = –cosq (xv)
sin(180° + q) = –sinq cos(180° + q) = –cosq
sin(270° – q) = –cosq cos(270° – q) = –sinq
cos C – cos D = 2 sin GH
F C + DIJ sin FG D - CIJ
2 K H 2 K
(xvi)
sin(270° + q) = –cosq cos(270° + q) = sinq
Note : 2tan q
(xvii) sin 2q = 2 sin q cos q =
(i) sin np = 0 ; cos np =(–1) ; tan np = 0, where n Î I
n 1 + tan2 q
p p 1 - tan2 q
(ii) sin(2n+1) = (–1)n; cos(2n+1) =0, where n Î I (xviii) cos2q = cos2q – sin2q = 2cos2q – 1 = 1 – 2 sin2q =
2 2 1 + tan2 q
5. IMPORTANT TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE :
(xix) 1 + cos 2q = 2 cos2 q or |cos q| = 1 + cos 2q
(i) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B. 2
(ii) sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B.
1 - cos 2q
(iii) cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B (xx) 1 – cos2q = 2 sin2 q or |sin q| =
2
(iv) cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

1 - cos2q sin2q
tan A + tan B (xxi) tan q = =
(v) tan (A + B) = sin 2q 1 + cos 2q
1 - tan A tan B
tan A - tan B 2tan q
(vi) tan (A – B) = (xxii) tan 2q =
1 + tan A tan B 1 - tan2 q
cot B cot A - 1
(vii) cot (A + B) = (xxiii) sin 3q = 3 sin q –4 sin3 q.
cot B + cot A
cot B cot A + 1 (xxiv) cos 3q = 4 cos3 q – 3 cosq.
(viii) cot (A – B) =
cot B - cot A
3 tan q - tan 3 q
(ix) 2 sin A cos B = sin (A+ B) + sin (A – B). (xxv) tan 3q =
1 - 3 tan 2 q
(x) 2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) – sin (A – B).
(xi) 2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A – B) (xxvi) sin2 A – sin2 B = sin (A+B). sin (A–B) = cos2 B – cos2 A.
(xii) 2 sin A sin B = cos (A – B) – cos (A + B) (xxvii) cos2 A – sin2 B = cos (A+B). cos (A – B).
E E
3 4
ALLEN ALLEN
(xxviii) sin (A + B + C) 3+1 p
= sinAcosBcosC + sinBcosAcosC + sinCcosAcosB (d) cos 15° = = sin 75° = cos
2 2 12
– sinAsinBsinC
= SsinA cosB cosC – Psin A p 3 -1 5p
(e) tan =2- 3 = = cot
= cosA cosB cosC [tanA + tanB + tanC – tanA tanB tanC] 12 3 +1 12
(xxix) cos (A + B + C)
= cosA cosB cosC – sinA sinB cosC – sinA cosB sinC 5p 3 +1 p
(f) tan =2+ 3 = = cot
– cosA sinB sinC 12 3 -1 12
= Pcos A – Ssin A sin B cos C 3p p
= cosA cosB cosC [1 – tanA tanB – tanB tanC – tanC tanA] b g
. ° = 2 - 1 = cot 675
(g) tan 225 b g
. ° = cot
8
= tan
8
(xxx) tan (A + B + C)
(h) tanb675
. °g = 2 + 1 = cotb225
. °g
tan A + tan B + tan C - tan A tan B tan C S1 - S3
= =
1 - tan A tan B - tan B tan C - tan C tan A 1 - S2 7. MAXIMUM & MINIMUM VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC
(xxxi) sin a + sin (a+b) + sin (a+2b) +... sin (a + n - 1 b) EXPRESSIONS :
RS FG n - 1IJ bUV sinFG nb IJ (a) a cos q + b sin q will always lie in the in terval
= T H 2 K W H 2K
sin a +
[- a 2 + b2 , a 2 + b2 ] , i.e. the maximum and minimum
F bI
sinG J
H 2K values are a 2 + b2 , - a 2 + b2 respectively.
(b) Minimum value of a2 tan2 q + b2 cot2 q = 2ab, where a, b > 0
(xxxii) cos a + cos (a+b) + cos (a + 2b) + .... + cos(a + n - 1b)
(c) Minimum value of a2cos2q + b2 sec2q (or a2sin2q + b2cosec2q) is

R F n - 1IJ bUV sinFG nb IJ
cosSa + G
= T H 2 K W H 2K either 2ab (when |a| > |b|) or a2 + b2 (when |a| < |b|).
F bI
sinG J
8. IMPORTANT RESULTS :
H 2K 1
(a) sin q sin (60° – q) sin (60° + q) = sin 3q
6. VALUES OF SOME T-RATIOS FOR ANGLES 18°, 36°, 15°, 4
22.5°, 67.5° etc. 1
(b) cos q. cos(60° – q) cos(60° + q) = cos 3q
4
5 -1 p
(a) sin 18° = = cos 72° = sin (c) tan q tan (60° – q) tan (60° + q) = tan 3q
4 10
(d) cot q cot (60° – q) cot (60° + q) = cot 3q
5+1 p
(b) cos 36° = = sin 54° = cos 3
4 5 (e) (i) sin2 q + sin2 (60° + q) + sin2 (60° – q) =
2
3-1 p
(c) sin 15° = = cos 75° = sin 3
2 2 12 (ii) cos2 q + cos2 (60° + q) + cos2 (60° – q) =
2
E E
5 6
ALLEN ALLEN
(f) (i) If tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C, 11. GRAPH OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS :
then A + B + C = np, n Î I
Y
(ii) If tan A tan B + tan B tan C + tan C tan A = 1,
(a) y = sinx
1
p
then A + B + C = (2n + 1) ,n Î I –p /2 p/2 3p /2
2 X' X
–2p –p o p 2p
sin(2n q)
(g) cos q cos 2q cos 4q .... cos (2n – 1 q) = –1
2n sin q
(h) cotA – tanA = 2cot2A Y'
9. CONDITIONAL IDENTITIES :
If A + B + C = 180°, then
(a) tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C (b) y = cosx Y
(b) cot A cot B + cot B cot C + cot C cot A = 1 1
A B B C C A X' X
(c) tan tan + tan tan + tan tan = 1 –3 p /2 –p
o
p/2 p 3p /2
2 2 2 2 2 2
–1
A B C A B C
(d) cot + cot + cot = cot cot cot
2 2 2 2 2 2 Y'
(e) sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sinA sinB sinC

(f) cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C =–1–4 cosA cosB cosC Y

A B C (c) y = tanx
(g) sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos cos cos
2 2 2 3p p p 3p
– –
2 2 2 2
A B C X' o p X
(h) cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin sin sin
2 2 2
10. DOMAINS, RANGES AND PERIODICITY OF TRIGONOMETRIC
Y'
FUNCTIONS :
T-RatioDomain Range Period
sin x R [–1,1] 2p (d) y = cotx Y
cos x R [–1,1] 2p 3p p p 3p
– –
tan x R–{(2n+1)p/2 ; nÎI} R p 2 2 2 2
X' –2p –p o p 2p X
cot x R–[np : n Î I] R p
sec x R– {(2n+1) p/2 : n Î I} (–¥,–1] È[1,¥) 2p
Y'
cosec x R– {np : n Î I} (–¥,–1] È[1,¥) 2p
E E
7 8
ALLEN ALLEN
Y
TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION
y=1
(e) y = secx (-2p,1) (0,1) (2p,1)
–5p/2,0 –3p/2,0 –p/2,0 p/2,0 3p /2,0 5p/2,0

1. TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION :
X' o X
An equation involving one or more trigonometrical ratios of unknown
(–p,–1) (p,–1) angles is called a trigonometric equation.
y=–1
2. SOLUTION OF TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION :
Y'
A value of the unknown angle which satisfies the given equations is
(f) y = cosecx Y called a solution of the trigonometric equation.
(a) Principal solution :- The solution of the trigonometric equation
y=1 lying in the interval [0, 2p].
–
(b) General solution :- Since all the trigonometric functions are
–p,0 p,0
X' X many one & periodic, hence there are infinite values of q for
O
which trigonometric functions have the same value. All such
y=–1 possible values of q for which the given trigonometric function
is satisfied is given by a general formula. Such a general formula
Y' is called general solutions of trigonometric equation.
12. IMPORTANT NOTE : 3. GENERAL SOLUTIONS OF SOME TRIGONOMETRIC

(a) The sum of interior angles of a polygon of n-sides EQUATIONS (TO BE REMEMBERED) :

= (n – 2) × 180° = (n – 2)p. (a) If sin q = 0, then q = np, n Î I (set of integers)
(b) Each interior angle of a regular polygon of n sides p
(b) If cos q = 0, then q = (2n+1) ,nÎI
2
(n - 2) (n - 2)
= ´ 180° = p. (c) If tan q = 0, then q = np, n Î I
n n
(d) If sin q = sin a, then q = np + (–1)na, n Î I
(c) Sum of exterior angles of a polygon of any number of sides
(e) If cos q = cos a, then q = 2np ± a, n Î I
= 360° = 2p. (f) If tan q = tan a, then q = np + a, n Î I
p p
(g) If sin q =1, then q = 2np + = (4n + 1) , n Î I
2 2
(h) If cos q = 1 then q = 2np, n Î I
(i) If sin2 q = sin2 a or cos2 q = cos2 a or tan2 q = tan2 a,
then q = np ± a, n Î I
E E
9 10
ALLEN ALLEN
(j) sin (np + q) = (–1) sin q, n Î I
n
(e) Check that denominator is not zero at any stage while solving
cos (np + q) = (–1) cos q, n Î I
n equations.
(f) (i) If tan q or sec q is involved in the equations, q should not be
4. GENERAL SOLUTION OF EQUATION a sin q + b cos q = c :
p
Consider, a sin q + b cos q = c ................. (i) odd multiple of .
2
a b c (ii) If cot q or cosec q is involved in the equation, q should not be
\ sin q + cos q =
2 2 2 2
a +b a +b a + b2
2
integral multiple of p or 0.
equation (i) has the solution only if |c| £ 2
a +b2
(g) If two different trigonometric ratios such as tan q and sec q are
a b involved then after solving we cannot apply the usual formulae
let = cos f, = sin f & f = tan -1 b
2 2 2 2
a +b a +b a for general solution because periodicity of the functions are not
by introducing this auxiliary argument f, equation (i) reduces to same.
c (h) If L.H.S. of the given trigonometric equation is always less than
sin (q + f) =
a2 + b2 or equal to k and RHS is always greater than k, then no solution
Now this equation can be solved easily. exists. If both the sides are equal to k for same value of q, then
5. GENERAL SOLUTION OF EQUATION OF FORM : solution exists and if they are equal for different value of q, then
solution does not exist.
a0sinnx + a1sinn–1x cosx + a2sinn–2 × cos2x + .......... + ancosnx = 0
a0, a1,........an are real numbers

Such an equation is solved by dividing equation both sides by cosnx.
6. IMPORTANT TIPS :
(a) For equations of the type sin q = k or cos q = k, one must check
that | k | < 1.
(b) Avoid squaring the equations, if possible, because it may lead
to extraneous solutions.
(c) Do not cancel the common variable factor from the two sides of
the equations which are in a product because we may loose
some solutions.
(d) The answer should not contain such values of q, which make
any of the terms undefined or infinite.
E E
11 12
ALLEN ALLEN
(ii) If a = p + q is one root in this case, ( where p is rational
QUADRATIC EQUATION & q is a surd) then other root will be p – q.
1. SOLUTION OF QUADRATIC EQUATION & RELATION 3. COMMON ROOTS OF TWO QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
BETWEEN ROOTS & CO-EFFICIENTS : (a) Atleast one common root.
(a) The solutions of the quadratic equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0 is Let a be the common root of ax2 + bx + c = 0 & a'x2 + b'x + c' = 0
then a a 2 + b a + c = 0 & a' a 2 + b' a + c' = 0 . By Cramer’s
–b ± b2 – 4ac
given by x =
2a a2 a 1
Rule = =
(b) The expression b2 – 4ac º D is called the discriminant of the bc ' - b ' c a ' c - ac ' ab ' - a ' b
quadratic equation. ca ' - c ' a bc ' - b ' c
Therefore, a = =
(c) If a & b are the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, ab ' - a ' b a ' c - ac '
So the condition for a common root is
then ;
(ca' – c'a)2 = (ab' – a'b)(bc'- b'c)
(i) a + b = – b/a (ii) ab = c / a (iii) a - b = D /|a| a b c
(b) If both roots are same then = =
(d) Quadratic equation whose roots are a & b is ( x – a ) ( x – b )=0 a' b' c'
4. ROOTS UNDER PARTICULAR CASES
i.e. x2 – ( a + b ) x + ab = 0 i.e. x2 – (sum of roots) x + product
Let the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has real roots and
of roots = 0.
(e) If a, b are roots of equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, we have identity in (a) If b = 0 Þ roots are of equal magnitude but of opposite sign

x as ax2 + bx + c = a (x – a) (x – b) (b) If c = 0 Þ one roots is zero other is – b/a
2. NATURE OF ROOTS : (c) If a = c Þ roots are reciprocal to each other
(a) Consider the quadratic equation ax + bx + c = 0 where a, b,
2 (d) If ac < 0 Þ roots are of opposite signs
c Î R & a ¹ 0 then ; a > 0, b > 0,c > 0 ü
(e) If ý Þ both roots are negative.
(i) D > 0 Û roots are real & distinct (unequal). a < 0, b < 0,c < 0 þ
(ii) D = 0 Û roots are real & coincident (equal) a > 0, b < 0,c > 0 ü
(f) If ý Þ both roots are positive.
(iii) D < 0 Û roots are imaginary. a < 0, b > 0,c < 0 þ
(iv) If p + i q is one root of a quadratic equation, then the (g) If sign of a = sign of b ¹ sign of c
other root must be the conjugate p – i q & vice versa.
Þ Greater root in magnitude is negative.
(p, q Î R & i = -1 ) .
(h) If sign of b = sign of c ¹ sign of a
(b) Consider the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
Þ Greater root in magnitude is positive.
where a, b, c Î Q & a ¹ 0 then ;
(i) If a + b + c = 0 Þ one root is 1 and second root is c/a.
(i) If D is a perfect square, then roots are rational.
E E
13 14
ALLEN ALLEN
5. MAXIMUM & MINIMUM VALUES OF QUADRATIC EXPRESSION : 7. GENERAL QUADRATIC EXPRESSION IN TWO VARIABLES :
Maximum or Minimum Values of expression y = ax2 + bx + c is f(x, y) = ax2 + 2 hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c may be resolved into
-D two linear factors if ;
which occurs at x = – (b/2a) according as a < 0 or a > 0.
4a a h g
é -D ö æ –D ù 2 2
D = abc + 2fgh – af – bg – ch = 0 2
OR h b f =0
y Î ê , ¥ ÷ if a > 0 & y Î ç -¥, if a < 0.
ë 4a ø è 4a úû g f c
6. LOCATION OF ROOTS : 8. THEORY OF EQUATIONS :
Let f(x ) = ax2 + bx + c , where a, b, c Î R, a ¹ 0 If a1, a 2 , a 3 ,.........a n are the roots of the equation ;
(a) Conditions for both the roots of f(x) = 0 to be greater than f(x) = a0 xn + a1 xn–1 + a2 xn–2 + .....+ an–1 x + an = 0
a specified number ‘d’ are D ³ 0 and a.f(d) > 0 & (–b/2a) > d. where a0 , a1,......an are constants a0 ¹ 0 then,
D³0 D³0
a<0 a1 a
a>0 å a1 = - , å a1 a2 = + 2 , å a1 a2 a3
• a0 a0
• d
d a3 a
=- ,......., a1 a2 a 3 ......a n = ( -1)n n
a0 a0
(b) Condition for the both roots of f(x ) = 0 to lie on either side of Note :
the number ‘d’ in other words the number ‘d’ lies between the (i) Every odd degree equation has at least one real root whose
roots of f(x) = 0 is a.f(d) < 0. sign is opposite to that of its constant term, when coefficient of
highest degree term is (+)ve {If not then make it (+) ve}.

d d Ex. x3 – x2 + x – 1 = 0
•
(ii) Even degree polynomial whose constant term is (–)ve &
(c) Condition for exactly one root of f(x) = 0 to lie in the interval coefficient of highest degree term is (+)ve has atleast two real
(d,e) i.e. d < x < e is f(d). f(e) < 0 roots, one (+)ve & one (–)ve.
(iii) If equation contains only even power of x & all coefficient are
• •
d e (+)ve, then all roots are imaginary.
p
(d) Conditions that both roots of f(x) = 0 to be confined between (iv) Rational root theorem : If a rational number (p, q Î Z0) is a
q
the numbers d & e are (here d < e). root of polynomial equation with integral coefficient
D ³ 0 and a . f(d) > 0 & af(e) > 0 and d < (–b/2a) < e
anxn + an–1xn–1 +.......+ a0 = 0, then p divides a0 and q
d e divides an.
• •
• •
d e
E E
15 16
ALLEN ALLEN
(vi) (a) If each term of an A.P. is increased or decreased by the
SEQUENCE & SERIES same number, then the resulting sequence is also an A.P.
having the same common difference.
(b) If each term of an A.P. is multiplied or divided by the same
1. ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (AP) :
non zero number (k), then the resulting sequence is also an
AP is sequence whose terms increase or decrease by a fixed number.
A.P. whose common difference is kd & d/k respectively,
This fixed number is called the common difference. If ‘a’ is the
where d is common difference of original A.P.
first term & ‘d’ is the common difference, then AP can be written as
a, a + d, a + 2d, ..., a + (n – 1) d, ... (vii) Any term of an AP (except the first & last) is equal to half the
sum of terms which are equidistant from it.
(a) nth term of this AP Tn = a + (n - 1)d , where d = Tn – Tn–1
Tr -k + Tr + k
Tr = , k<r
n n 2
(b) The sum of the first n terms : Sn = [2a + (n - 1)d] = [a + l]
2 2 2. GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (GP) :
where l is the last term.
GP is a sequence of numbers whose first term is non-zero & each of
(c) Also nth term Tn = Sn - Sn–1 the succeeding terms is equal to the preceding terms multiplied by a
Note : constant. Thus in a GP the ratio of successive terms is constant. This

constant factor is called the common ratio of the series & is obtained
(i) Sum of first n terms of an A.P. is of the form An2 + Bn i.e. a
by dividing any term by the immediately previous term. Therefore a,
quadratic expression in n, in such case the common difference
ar, ar2, ar3, ar4, .......... is a GP with 'a' as the first term & 'r' as

is twice the coefficient of n2. i.e. 2A
common ratio.
(ii) nth term of an A.P. is of the form An + B i.e. a linear expression
in n, in such case the coefficient of n is the common difference (a) nth term Tn = a r n–1
of the A.P. i.e. A
(iii) Three numbers in AP can be taken as a – d, a, a + d; four a(r n - 1)
(b) Sum of the first n terms Sn = , if r ¹ l
numbers in AP can be taken as a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d r -1
five numbers in AP are a – 2d, a – d, a, a + d, a + 2d & six
terms in AP are a – 5d, a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d, a + 5d etc. (c) Sum of infinite GP when r <1 ( n ® ¥, r n ® 0 )
a+c
(iv) If a, b, c are in A.P., then b = a
2 S¥ = ; r <1
1-r
(v) If a1, a2, a3....... and b1, b2, b3 ......... are two A.P.s, then
a1 ± b1, a2 ± b2, a3 ± b3......... are also in A.P. (d) If a, b, c are in GP Þ b2 = ac Þ loga, logb, logc, are in A.P.
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
Note : 4. MEANS
(i) In a G.P. product of kth term from beginning and kth term from the
(a) Arithmetic mean (AM) :
last is always constant which equal to product of first term and
last term. If three terms are in AP then the middle term is called the AM
(ii) Three numbers in G.P. : a/r, a, ar between the other two, so if a, b, c are in AP, b is AM of a & c.
Five numbers in G.P. : a/r2, a/r, a, ar, ar2 n-arithmetic means between two numbers :
Four numbers in G.P. : a/r3, a/r, ar, ar3
Six numbers in G.P. : a/r5, a/r3, a/r, ar, ar3, ar5 If a,b are any two given numbers & a, A1, A2, ........, An, b are
(iii) If each term of a G.P. be raised to the same power, then resulting in AP then A1, A2,...An are the n AM’s between a & b, then
series is also a G.P. b-a
(iv) If each term of a G.P. be multiplied or divided by the same A1= a + d, A2 = a + 2d ,......, An= a + nd, where d =
n +1
non-zero quantity, then the resulting sequence is also a G.P. Note : Sum of n AM's inserted between a & b is equal to n times
(v) If a1, a2, a3 ..... and b1, b2, b3, ....... be two G.P.'s of common n
ratio r 1 and r 2 respectively, then a 1b 1 , a 2 b 2 .... . and the single AM between a & b i.e. å Ar = nA where A is the
a1 a2 a3 r =1
, , ...... will also form a G.P. common ratio will be r 1 r2
b1 b2 b3 a+b
single AM between a & b i.e.
r 2
and 1 respectively.
r2 (b) Geometric mean (GM) :
(vi) In a positive G.P. every term (except first) is equal to square root If a, b, c are in GP, then b is the GM between a & c i.e. b 2 = ac,
of product of its two terms which are equidistant from it.
therefore b = ac

i.e. Tr = Tr - k Tr + k , k < r
(vii) If a1, a2, a3.....an is a G.P. of non zero, non negative terms, n-geometric means between two numbers :
then log a1, log a2,.....log an is an A.P. and vice-versa. If a, b are two given positive numbers & a, G1, G2, ........, Gn,
3. HARMONIC PROGRESSION (HP) : b are in GP then G1, G2, G3 ,......Gn are n GMs between a & b.
A sequence is said to HP if the reciprocals of its terms are in AP. G1= ar, G2 = ar2, ....... Gn= arn, where r= (b/a)1/n+1
If the sequence a1, a2, a3, ...., an is an HP then 1/a1, 1/a2,...., Note : The product of n GMs between a & b is equal to nth
1/an is an AP & vice-versa. Here we do not have the formula for n
the sum of the n terms of an HP. The general form of a harmonic power of the single GM between a & b i.e. P Gr = (G) n where
r =1
1 1 1 1
progression is , , ,......... G is the single GM between a & b i.e. ab
a a + d a + 2d a + ( n - 1) d
(c) Harmonic mean (HM) :
Note : No term of any H.P. can be zero. If a, b, c are in
2ac a a-b 2ac
HP Þ b = or = If a, b, c are in HP, then b is HM between a & c, then b = .
a+c c b-c a+c
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
Important note : 7. RESULTS
(i) If A, G, H, are respectively AM, GM, HM between two positive n
n(n + 1)
number a & b then (a) år =
2
(sum of the first n natural numbers)
r =1
(a) G2 = AH (A, G, H constitute a GP) (b) A ³ G ³ H
(c) A = G = H Û a = b n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
(ii) Let a1, a2,...... ,an be n positive real numbers, then we define
(b) å r2 =
6
(sum of the squares of the first n natural
r =1
their arithmetic mean (A), geometric mean (G) and harmonic
numbers)
a + a2 + ..... + a n
mean (H) as A = 1 2
n n
n2 (n + 1)2 én ù
(c) å r = = êå r ú
3
(sum of the cubes of the first n
n r =1 4 ër =1 û
G = (a1 a2.........an) 1/n
and H =
æ 1 1 1 1ö
ç a + a + a + .... + a ÷ natural numbers)
è 1 2 3 n ø
n
n
It can be shown that A ³ G ³ H. Moreover equality holds at either (d) å r4 = 30 (n + 1)(2n + 1)(3n2 + 3n - 1)
r =1
place if and only if a1 = a2 =......= an
5. ARITHMETICO - GEOMETRIC SERIES :

Sum of First n terms of an Arithmetico-Geometric Series :
Let Sn = a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r 2 + .......... + [a + (n - 1)d]r n -1

a dr(1 - rn-1) [a + (n -1)d] rn
then Sn = + - , r ¹1
1- r (1 - r)2 1- r
Sum to infinity :
a dr
If r < 1 & n ® ¥ then Lim r n = 0 Þ S¥ = +
n®¥ 1 - r (1 - r)2
6. SIGMA NOTATIONS
Theorems :
n n n n n
(a) å (ar ± br ) = å ar ± å br (b) å k ar = k å a r
r =1 r =1 r =1 r =1 r =1
n
(c) å k = nk ; where k is a constant.
r =1
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
(b) The number of permutations of n things taken all at a time when
PERMUTATION & COMBINATION p of them are similar of one type, q of them are similar of
second type, r of them are similar of third type and the remaining
n!
1. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING (counting n – (p + q+ r) are all different is : .
p! q! r!
without actually counting):
(c) The number of permutation of n different objects taken r at
If an event can occur in ‘m’ different ways, following which another
a time, when a particular object is always to be included is
event can occur in ‘n’ different ways, then the total number of different
r! . n–1Cr–1
ways of (d) The number of permutation of n different objects taken r at a
(a) Simultaneous occurrence of both events in a definite order is m time, when repetition be allowed any number of times is
x n. This can be extended to any number of events (known as n × n × n .............. r times = nr.
multiplication principle). (e) (i) The number of circular permutations of n different things
(b) Happening of exactly one of the events is m + n (known as Pn n
taken all at a time is ; (n – 1)! =.
addition principle). n
If clockwise & anti-clockwise circular permutations are
2. FACTORIAL :
(n - 1)!
A Useful Notation : n! = n (n – 1) (n – 2) ...... 3. 2. 1; considered to be same, then it is .
2
n! = n. (n – 1)! where n Î W (ii) The number of circular permutation of n different things
taking r at a time distinguishing clockwise & anticlockwise
0! = 1! = 1 n
Pr
(2n)! = 2n . n! [1. 3. 5. 7........(2n – 1)] arrangement is

r
Note that : 4. COMBINATION :
(i) Factorial of negative integers is not defined. (a) nCr denotes the number of combinations (selections) of n different
n
(ii) Let p be a prime number and n be a positive integer, n! P
things taken r at a time, and n Cr = = r where r £ n
then exponent of p in n! is denoted by Ep (n!) and is given by r!(n - r)! r!
æ nö
én ù é n ù é n ù ; n Î N and r Î W. nCr is also denoted by ç ÷ or A nr or C (n, r).
Ep(n!) = ê ú + ê 2 ú + ê 3 ú + ..... èr ø
ëp û ëp û ëp û (b) The number of combination of n different things taking r at a
3. PERMUTATION : time.
(a) nPr denotes the number of permutations (arrangements) of n (i) when p particular things are always to be included = n – pCr–p
different things, taken r at a time (n Î N, r Î W, n ³ r) (ii) when p particular things are always to be excluded = n – pCr
n
n! (iii) when p particular things are always to be included and
Pr = n (n – 1) (n – 2) ............. (n – r + 1) =
(n - r)! q particular things are to be excluded = n – p – qCr–p
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
(c) Given n different objects , the number of ways of selecting atleast 6. DIVISION INTO GROUPS AND DISTRIBUTION :
one of them is, nC1 + nC2 + nC3 +........+ nCn = 2n – 1. (a) (i) The number of ways in which (m + n) different things can be
This can also be stated as the total number of non-empty divided into two groups containing m & n things respectively
combinations of n distinct things. (m + n)!
is : (m ¹ n).
m! n!
(d) (i) Total number of ways in which it is possible to make a selection
(ii) If m = n, then number of ways in which 2n distinct objects
by taking some or all out of p + q + r +......things, where p
are alike of one kind, q alike of a second kind, r alike of third (2n)!
can be divided into two equal groups is ; as in
n! n! 2!
kind & so on is given by : (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1).........–1.
(ii) The total number of ways of selecting one or more things any one way it is possible to inter change the two groups
from p identical things of one kind, q identical things of second without obtaining a new distribution.
kind, r identical things of third kind and n different things is (iii) If 2n things are to be divided equally between two persons
n
(p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) 2 –1
(2n)!
then the number of ways = ´ 2! .
5. DIVISORS : n! n! (2!)
Let N = pa. qb. rc .......where p, q, r........ are distinct primes & a, (b) (i) Number of ways in which (m + n + p) different things can
b, c....... are natural numbers then : be divided into three groups containing m, n & p things
(a) The total numbers of divisors of N including 1 & N is (m + n + p)!
respectively is , m ¹ n ¹ p.
= (a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1)....... m! n! p!

(b) The sum of these divisors is (p0 + p1 + p2 + ....+ pa) (ii) If m = n = p then the number of such grouping
(q0 + q1 + q2 + ....+ qb) (r0 + r1 + r2 + ....+ rc)... (3n)!

= .
(c) Number of ways in which N can be resolved as a product of two n! n! n! 3!
factors is (iii) If 3n things are to be divided equally among three people
1 (3n)!
(a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1)...... if N is not a perfect square
2 then the number of ways in which it can be done is .
(n!)3
1
2
[ (a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1)...... + 1] if N is a perfect square (c) In general, the number of ways of dividing n distinct objects into
l groups containing p objects each ,m groups containing q objects
(d) Number of ways in which a composite number N can be resolved
n!
into two factors which are relatively prime (or coprime) to each each is equal to l
other, is equal to 2n–1 where n is the number of different prime
( p!) ( q!)m l!m!
factors in N. Here lp + mq = n
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
(d) Number of ways in which n distinct things can be distributed to
p persons if there is no restriction to the number of things received BINOMIAL THEOREM
by them is pn
(e) Number of ways in which n identical things may be distributed
(x + y)n = nC0xn + nC1xn-1 y + nC2xn-2 y2 + ..... + nCrxn-r yr + ..... + nCnyn
among p persons if each person may receive none, one or n
more things is n+p–1Cn. = å
r =0
n
Cr xn-r yr , where n Î N.
7. DERANGEMENT :
1. IMPORTANT TERMS IN THE BINOMIAL EXPANSION
Number of ways in which n letters can be placed in n directed
ARE :
envelopes so that no letter goes into its own envelope is
1 1 1 1 1ù (a) General term: The general term or the ( r +1)th term in the
é
= n! ê1 - + - + - ........ + ( -1)n ú expansion of (x + y)n is given by
ë 1! 2! 3! 4! n! û
8. IMPORTANT RESULT : Tr +1= nCr x n-r. yr
(a) Number of rectangles of any size in a square of size n × n is (b) Middle term :
n n
The middle term (s) is the expansion of ( x + y) n is ( are) :
år
r =1
3
& number of squares of any size is år
r =1
2
.
(i) If n is even, there is only one middle term which is given by
(b) Number of rectangles of any size in a rectangle of size n × p T(n +2)/2= nCn/2. x n/2. yn/2

np (ii) If n is odd, there are two middle terms which are T (n +1)/2 &
(n < p) is (n + 1)(p + 1) & number of squares of any size is
4 T[(n+1)/2]+1
n
(c) Term independent of x :
å (n + 1 - r)(p + 1 - r)
r =1
Term independent of x contains no x ; Hence find the value of
(c) If there are n points in a plane of which m(<n) are collinear : r for which the exponent of x is zero.
(i) Total number of lines obtained by joining these points is
n 2. SOME RESULTS ON BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS :
C2 – mC2 + 1
(a) nCx = nCy Þ x = y or x + y = n
(ii) Total number of different triangle nC3 – mC3
(b) Cr–1 + Cr = n+1Cr
n n
(d) Maximum number of point of intersection of n circles is
n n
n
P2 & n lines is nC2. (c) C0+ C1+ C2 +...... = Cn = 2 , Cr = Cr
E E
27 28
ALLEN ALLEN
n
(d) C0+ C2+ C4 +...... = C1+ C3+ C5 + ...... = 2 , Cr = Cr
n-1
x x 2
x 3
(b) ax = 1 + lna + ln2 a + ln3 a + .......¥ , where a > 0
1! 2! 3!
(2n)! n
(e) C02+ C12+ C22 +......+ Cn2 = 2nCn = , Cr = Cr
n!n! 6. LOGARITHMIC SERIES :
3. Greatest coefficient & greatest term in expansion of (x + a)n :
x2 x3 x 4
(a) ln(1 + x) = x - + - + .......¥ , where –1 < x £ 1
(a) If n is even, greatest binomial coefficient is Cn/2
n
2 3 4
n n
If n is odd, greatest binomial coefficient is C n -1 or C n +1 x2 x3 x4
2 2
(b) ln(1 – x) = – x - - - - .......¥ , where –1 £ x < 1
2 3 4
(b) For greatest term :
(1 + x) æ x3 x5 ö
ì n +1 (c) ln = 2ç x + + + .......¥ ÷ ,|x| < 1
ïTp & Tp+1 if x is an integer equal to p (1 - x) è 3 5 ø
ï +1
ï a
Greatest term = í
ïT n +1
if is non integer and Î (q, q + 1), q Î I
ï q+1 x
ï +1
î a
4. BINOMIAL THEOREM FOR NEGATIVE OR FRACTIONAL

INDICES :
n(n - 1) 2 n(n - 1)(n - 2) 3
If n Î ¡, then (1+ x)n = 1 + nx + x + x +....

2! 3!
¥ provided | x | < 1.
Note :
(i) (1 – x)–1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ............ ¥
(ii) (1 + x)–1 = 1 – x + x2 – x3 + ............ ¥
(iii) (1 – x)–2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + ............ ¥
(iv) (1 + x)–2 = 1 – 2x + 3x2 – 4x3 + ............ ¥
5. EXPONENTIAL SERIES :
x x2 x3
(a) ex = 1 + + + + .......¥ ; where x may be any real or
1! 2! 3!
n
æ 1ö
complex number & e = Lim ç 1 + n ø÷
n ®¥ è
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
(iv) If z is purely real then z – z = 0
COMPLEX NUMBER (v) If z is purely imaginary then z + z = 0
3. REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER IN VARIOUS

1. DEFINITION :
FORMS :
Complex numbers are defined as expressions of the form a + ib
(a) Cartesian Form (Geometrical Representation) :
where a , b Î R & i = - 1 . It is denoted by z i.e. z = a + ib.
Every complex number z = x + iy can Imaginary
‘a’ is called real part of z (a = Re z) and ‘b’ is called imaginary P(x, y)
be represented by a point on the axis
part of z (b = Im z).
cartesian plane known as complex
Every Complex Number Can Be Regarded As r
plane (Argand diagram) by the
ordered pair (x , y).
Purely real Imaginary Length OP is called modulus of the q
if b = 0 if b ¹ 0 complex number denoted by ½z½ & O Real axis
q is called the principal
Purely imaginary
argument or amplitude, (q Î (–p, p]).
if a = 0
Note : y
(i) The set R of real numbers is a proper subset of the Complex e.g.½z½= x 2 + y 2 & q = tan-1 (angle made by OP with
x
Numbers. Hence the Complex Number system is positive x-axis), x > 0
N Ì W Ì I Ì Q Ì R Ì C. Geometrically ½z½ represents the distance of point P from origin.

(ii) Zero is both purely real as well as purely imaginary but ( ½z½ ³ 0)
not imaginary.
(b) Trigonometric / Polar Representation :
(iii) i = - 1 is called the imaginary unit. Also i² = - l ; i3 = -i ;
z = r (cos q + i sin q) where ½z½= r ; arg z = q ; z = r (cos q - i sin q)
i4 = 1 etc.
Note : cos q + i sin q is also written as CiS q.
(iv) a b = a b only if atleast one of a or b is non-negative. Euler's formula :
2. CONJUGATE COMPLEX : The formula eix = cosx + i sin x is called Euler's formula.
If z = a + ib then its conjugate complex is obtained by changing
e ix + e - ix e ix - e - ix
the sign of its imaginary part & is denoted by z . i.e. z = a - ib. Also cos x = & sin x = are known as
2 2i
Note that : Euler's identities.
(i) z + z = 2 Re(z) (c) Exponential Representation :
(ii) z - z = 2i Im(z) Let z be a complex number such that | z | = r & arg z = q,
(iii) z z = a² + b² which is real then z = r.eiq
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
4. IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF CONJUGATE : 7. DE'MOIVER’S THEOREM :
(a) ( z ) = z (b) z1 + z2 = z1 + z 2 The value of (cosq + isinq)n is cosnq + isinnq if 'n' is integer & it is
(c) z1 - z2 = z1 - z2 (d) z1 z2 = z1 . z2 one of the values of (cosq + isinq)n if n is a rational number of the form
æ z1 ö z p/q, where p & q are co-prime.
(e) ç ÷ = 1 ; z2 ¹ 0
è 2ø
z z2 Note : Continued product of roots of a complex quantity should be
(f) If f is a polynomial with real coefficient such that f(a + ib) = x + iy, determined using theory of equation.
then f(a - ib) = x – iy.
8. CUBE ROOT OF UNITY :
5. IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF MODULUS :
(a) |z| ³ 0 (b) |z| ³ Re (z) (c) |z| ³ Im (z) -1 + i 3
2
(a) The cube roots of unity are 1 , w = = ei2 p / 3
(d) |z| = | z | = |-z| = |– z | (e) z z = z (f) |z1 z2| = |z1|.|z2| 2
z1 -1 - i 3
z & w2 = = ei4 p / 3
(g) = 1 , z2 ¹ 0 (h) |zn| = |z| n 2
z2 z2
(b) 1 + w + w2 = 0, w3= 1, in general
(i) |z1 + z2|2 = |z1|2 + |z 2|2 + 2Re ( z1 z2 )
or |z1 + z2|2 = |z1|2 + |z 2|2 + 2|z1||z2| cos(q1 – q2) é0, r is not integral multiple of 3
1 + wr + w2r = ê
ë3, r is multiple of 3
(j) z1 + z 2 + z1 - z 2 = 2 éë z1 + z 2 ùû
2 2 2 2
(c) a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca = (a + bw + cw2)(a + bw2 + cw)

(k) ½½z1½-½z2½½ £ ½z1+ z2½£½z1½+½z2½ [Triangular Inequality] a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a + wb)(a + w2b)
(l) ½½z1½-½z2½½ £½z1 – z2½£½z1½+½z2½ [Triangular Inequality] a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a –wb) (a – w2b)

1 a + a2 + 4 x2 + x + 1 = (x – w)(x – w2)
(m) If z + = a (a > 0), then max|z| =
z 2 9. SQUARE ROOT OF COMPLEX NUMBER :
& min |z|=

1
2
( a2 + 4 - a ) ì z +a
ï
a +ib = ± í +i
z – a üï
ý for b > 0
ïî 2 2 ï
þ
6. IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF AMPLITUDE :
(a) (i) amp (z1. z2) = amp z1 + amp z2 + 2 kp ; k Î I ì z +a z – a üï
ï
& ± í -i ý for b < 0 where |z|= a 2 + b2 .
æz ö 2 2 ï
(ii) amp ç 1 ÷ = amp z1 - amp z2 + 2 kp ; k Î I îï þ
èz ø
2
10. ROTATION : C(z2)
(iii) amp(zn) = n amp(z) + 2kp,
where proper value of k must be chosen so that RHS lies z2 - z 0 z - z 0 iq
= 1 e
in (- p , p ]. |z2 - z 0 | |z1 - z 0 |
q
(b) log(z) = log(reiq) = logr + iq = log|z|+i amp(z) Take q in anticlockwise direction A(z0) B(z1)
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
11. GEOMETRY IN COMPLEX NUMBER : from (i) & (ii)
(a) Distance formula : |z1 – z2| = distance between the points Þ z12 + z22 + z32 = z1 z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1
z1 & z2 on the Argand plane.
1 1 1
or + + =0
(b) Section formula : If z1 & z2 are two complex numbers then z1 - z 2 z 2 - z 3 z 3 - z1
nz1 + mz 2 (b) Isosceles triangle :
the complex number z = divides the join of z1 & z2
m+n A(z1)
in the ratio m : n.
(c) If the vertices A, B, C of a triangle represent the complex numbers If
z1, z2, z3 respectively, then :
a a
z1 + z 2 + z 3 B(z2) C(z3)
• Centroid of the DABC = then 4cos a (z1 – z2)(z3 – z1) = (z3 – z2)2
2
3
• Orthocentre of the D ABC z1 z1 1
1
( a sec A ) z1 + ( b sec B ) z 2 + ( c sec C ) z 3 (c) Area of triangle DABC given by modulus of z2 z2 1
4
= z3 z3 1
a sec A + b sec B + c sec C
12. EQUATION OF LINE THROUGH POINTS z1 & z2 :
z1 tan A + z2 tan B + z 3 tan C
or
tan A + tan B + tan C z z 1
z1 z1 1 = 0 Þ z (z1 - z2 ) + z(z 2 - z1 ) + z1 z2 - z1z 2 = 0

(az + bz 2 + cz 3 )
• Incentre of the DABC = 1 z2 z2 1
(a + b + c)
Circumcentre of the DABC Þ z(z1 - z2 )i + z(z 2 - z1 )i + i(z1 z2 - z1 z 2 ) = 0
•
(z1 sin2A + z 2 sin2B + z 3 sin2C) Let (z2 – z1)i = a, then equation of line is a z + a z + b = 0 where aÎ
=
(sin 2A + sin2B + sin2C) C & b Î R.
Note :
11. RESULT RELATED WITH TRIANGLE :
A(z1)
(i) Complex slope of line joining points z1 & z2 is
( z2 - z1 ) . Also
(a) Equilateral triangle :
l
(z 2
- z1 )
z1 - z2 z 3 - z2 ip / 3 l
= e ......(i) note that slope of a line in Cartesian plane is different from
l l p/3 p/3 complex slope of a line in Argand plane.
B(z2) C(z3)
z - z 3 z1 - z 3 ip / 3 l a
Also 2 = .e ......(ii) (ii) Complex slope of line az + az + b = 0 is – ,bÎR
l l a
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
(iii) Two lines with complex slope µ 1 & µ 2 are parallel or 14. STANDARD LOCI :
perpendicular if µ 1 = µ 2 or µ 1 + µ 2 = 0.
(a) |z – z1| + |z – z2| = 2k (a constant) represent
(iv) Length of perpendicular from point A(a) to line az + az + b = 0
(i) if 2k > |z1 – z2| Þ An ellipse
|aa + aa + b|
is . (ii) If 2k = |z1 – z2| Þ A line segment
2|a|
(iii) If 2k < |z1 – z2| Þ No solution
13. EQUATION OF CIRCLE :
(b) Equation ||z – z1|– |z – z2||= 2k (a constant) represent
(a) Circle whose centre is z0 & radius = r
(i) If 2k < |z1 – z2| Þ A hyperbola
|z – z0| = r
(ii) If 2k =|z1 – z2| Þ A line ray
(b) General equation of circle is
(iii) 2k > |z1 – z2| Þ No solution
zz + az + az + b = 0
centre '–a' & radius = |a|2 - b
(c) Diameter form (z - z1 )(z - z2 ) + (z - z 2 )(z - z1 ) = 0
æ z - z1 ö p
or arg ç ÷=±
è z - z 2 ø 2

z - z1
(d) Equation = k represent a circle if k ¹ 1 and a straight line
z - z2
if k = 1.
(e) Equation |z – z1|2 + |z – z2|2 = k
P(z)
1
represent circle if k ³ |z1 - z 2 |2 a
2
æ z - z1 ö B A
p
(f) arg ç ÷=a 0 < a < p, a ¹
è z - z2 ø 2
represent a segment of circle passing through A(z1) & B(z2)

E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
(c) If a determinant has any two rows (or columns) identical or in
same proportion, then its value is zero.
DETERMINANT
(d) If all the elements of any row (or column) be multiplied by the
same number, then the determinant is multiplied by that number.
1. MINORS :
The minor of a given element of determinant is the determinant of a1 + x b1 + y c1 + z a1 b1 c1 x y z
the elements which remain after deleting the row & the column in (e) a2 b2 c2 = a2 b2 c2 + a 2 b2 c2
which the given element stands. a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1
b c2 (f) The value of a determinant is not altered by adding to the
For example, the minor of a1 in a2 b2 c2 is 2 & the
b3 c3 elements of any row (or column ) the same multiples of the
a 3 b3 c 3
corresponding elements of any other row (or column) e.g.
a1 c1
minor of b2 is . a1 b1 c1
a3 c3
Let D= a2 b2 c2
Hence a determinant of order three will have “ 9 minors”.
a3 b3 c3
2. COFACTORS :
If Mij represents the minor of the element belonging to ith row and jth a1 + ma2 b1 + mb2 c1 + mc2
column then the cofactor of that element : Cij = (–1)i + j. Mij ; D' = a2 b2 c2 . Then D' = D.
Important Note : a3 + na1 b3 + nb1 c 3 + nc1
a1 a2 a3
Note : While applying this property ATLEAST ONE ROW
Consider D= b1 b2 b3

(OR COLUMN) must remain unchanged.
c1 c2 c3
(g) If the elements of a determinant D are rational function of x
Let A1 be cofactor of a1, B2 be cofactor of b2 and so on, then, and two rows (or columns) become identical when x = a, then x
(i) a1A1 + b1B1 + c1C1 = a1A1 + a2A2 + a3A3 = .............. = D – a is a factor of D.
(ii) a2A1 + b2B1 + c2C1 = b1A1 + b2A2 + b3A3 = ............. = 0 Again, if r rows become identical when a is substituted for x,
then (x – a)r–1 is a factor of D.
3. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS:
(a) The value of a determinants remains unaltered, if the rows & f1 f2 f3
corresponding columns are interchanged. (h) If D(x) = g1 g2 g3 , where fr, gr, hr; r = 1, 2, 3 are three
(b) If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant be interchanged, h1 h2 h3
the value of determinant is changed in sign only. e.g. differentiable functions.
a1 b1 c1 a 2 b2 c2 f '1 f '2 f '3 f1 f2 f3 f1 f2 f3
d
Let D = a 2 b2 c2 & D ' = a1 b1 c1 Then D' = – D. then D(x) = g1 g2 g3 + g '1 g '2 g '3 + g1 g2 g3
dx
a 3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 h1 h2 h3 h1 h2 h3 h '1 h '2 h '3
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
4. MULTIPLICATION OF TWO DETERMINANTS : 6. SYSTEM OF EQUATION :
a1 b1 l m1 a1 l1 + b1 l2 a1 m1 + b1 m2 (a) System of equation involving two variable :
´ 1 =
a 2 b2 l2 m2 a2 l1 + b2 l2 a2 m1 + b2 m2
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
Similarly two determinants of order three are multiplied. a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
(a) Here we have multiplied row by column. We can also multiply
row by row, column by row and column by column.
(b) If D' is the determinant formed by replacing the elements of Consistent Inconsistent
determinant D of order n by their corresponding cofactors then (System of equation has solution) (System of equation
has no solution)
D' = Dn–1
a1 b1 c1
5. SPECIAL DETERMINANTS : unique solution Infinite solution = ¹
a1 b1 a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
(a) Symmetric Determinant : ¹ = = (Equations represents
a 2 b2 a 2 b2 c2
Elements of a determinant are such that aij = aji. or a1b2 – a 2b1¹ 0 (Equations represents parallel disjoint lines)
a h g (Equations represents coincident lines)
e.g. h b f = abc +2fgh - af 2 - bg2 - ch2 intersecting lines)
g f c
b1 c1 c1 a1 a1 b1 D1 D
If D1 = , D2 = , D= , then x = , y= 2
(b) Skew Symmetric Determinant : b2 c2 c2 a2 a2 b2 D D
If aij = –aji then the determinant is said to be a skew symmetric
determinant. Here all the principal diagonal elements are zero. (b) System of equations involving three variables :

The value of a skew symmetric determinant of odd order is zero a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
and of even order is perfect square.
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
0 b -c
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
e.g. -b 0 a = 0
c -a 0 To solve this system we first define following determinants
(c) Other Important Determinants :
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1
1 1 1 1 1 1
D = a2 b2 c2 , d
D1 = 2 b2 c2 ,
(i) a b c = a b c = (a - b)(b - c)(c - a) a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3
bc ac ab 2 2
a b c 2
a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
a b c
D2 = a 2 d2 c2 , a
D3 = 2 b2 d2
(ii) b c a = - (a3 + b3 + c 3 - 3abc)
a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
c a b
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
Now following algorithm is used to solve the system.
Check value of D MATRICES
D¹ 0 D=0 1. INTRODUCTION :
A rectangular array of mn numbers in the form of m horizontal lines
Consistent system Check the values of (called rows) and n vertical lines (called columns), is called a matrix
and has unique solution D1, D2 and D3
of order m by n, written as m × n matrix.
D D D
x = 1, y = 2,z = 3 In compact form, the matrix is represented by A=[aij]m×n.
D D D
2. SPECIAL TYPE OF MATRICES :
(a) Row Matrix (Row vector) : A = [a11, a12, ..........a1n] i.e. row
matrix has exactly one row.
Atleast one of D1, D2 and D3 D1= D2 = D3 = 0
is not zero é a11 ù
ê ú
Put z = t and solve any a
(b) Column Matrix (Column vector) : A = ê 21 ú i.e. column
Inconsistent system two equations to get the ê : ú
values of x & y in terms of t ê ú
ëêa m1 ûú
matrix has exactly one column.
(c) Zero or Null Matrix : (A = Om×n), An m × n matrix whose all
If these values of x, y and z in The values of x, y, z doesn't entries are zero.


terms of t satisfy third equation satisfy third equation (d) Horizontal Matrix : A matrix of order m × n is a horizontal
matrix if n > m.
Consistent system Inconsistent system
(System has infinite solutions) (e) Vertical Matrix : A matrix of order m × n is a vertical matrix
Note : if m > n.
(i) Trivial solution : In the solution set of system of equation if all
(f) Square Matrix : (Order n) If number of rows = number of
the variables assumes zero, then such a solution set is called
Trivial solution otherwise the solution is called non-trivial solution. column, then matrix is a square matrix.
(ii) If d1 = d2 = d3 = 0 then system of linear equation is known as Note :
system of Homogeneous linear equation which always posses (i) The pair of elements aij & aji are called Conjugate Elements.
atleast one solution (0, 0, 0).
(ii) The elements a11, a22, a33,....... ann are called Diagonal
(iii) If system of homogeneous linear equation posses non-zero/non- Elements. The line along which the diagonal elements
trivial solution then D = 0. lie is called ''Principal or Leading diagonal. "The quantity
In such case given system has infinite solutions. å a ii = trace of the matrix written as, tr (A)
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
3. SQUARE MATRICES : 5. ALGEBRA OF MATRICES :
SQUARE MATRICES (I) Addition : A + B = [aij + bij] where A & B are of the same
order.
Triangular Matrix (a) Addition of matrices is commutative : A + B = B + A
(b) Matrix addition is associative : (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
1 0 0 (c) A + O = O + A (Additive identity)
1 3 –2
A= 0 2 4 ; B= 2 –3 0 (d) A + (–A) = (–A) + A = O (Additive inverse)
0 0 5 4 3 3
(II) Multiplication of A Matrix By A Scalar :
Upper Triangular Lower Triangular
éa b c ù éka kb kc ù
aij = 0 " i > j aij = 0 " i < j êb c a ú ê ú
If A= ê ú , then kA = êkb kc ka ú
êë c a b úû êë kc ka kb úû
Diagonal Matrix denoted as
A = diag (a11 , a22 ........, ann) (III) Multiplication of matrices (Row by Column) :
where aij = 0 for i ¹ j Let A be a matrix of order m × n and B be a matrix of order p
× q then the matrix multiplication AB is possible if and only if
n = p.
Scalar Matrix
Unit or Identity Matrix Let Am × n = [aij] and Bn × p = [bij], then order of AB is m × p
a 0 0
0 a 0 aij= 1 if i = j n
0 0 a 0 if i ¹ j & (AB)ij = å air brj

r =1
If a = a =a = a
11 22 33
If a = a =a = 1
11 22 33
(IV)Properties of Matrix Multiplication :
Note : (a) AB = O A = O or B = O (in general)
(i) Minimum number of zeros in triangular matrix of order n
Note :
= n(n – 1)/2.
If A and B are two non-zero matrices such that AB = O,
(ii) Minimum number of zeros in a diagonal matrix of order n
then A and B are called the divisors of zero. If A and B are
= n (n – 1).
two matrices such that
(iii) Null square matrix is also a diagonal matrix.
(i) AB = BA then A and B are said to commute
4. EQUALITY OF MATRICES : (ii) AB = –BA then A and B are said to anticommute
Matrices A = [aij] & B= [bij] are equal if, (b) Matrix Multiplication Is Associative :
(a) both have the same order.
If A, B & C are conformable for the product AB & BC,
(b) aij = bij for each pair of i & j .
then (AB)C = A(BC)
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
(c) Distributivity : 9. ORTHOGONAL MATRIX
A(B + C) = AB + AC ù A square matrix is said to be orthogonal matrix if A A T = I

Provided A,B & C are conformable
(A + B)C = AC + BC úû Note :
for respective products (i) The determinant value of orthogonal matrix is either 1 or –1.
Hence orthogonal matrix is always invertible
(V) Positive Integral Powers of A square matrix :
(ii) AAT = I = AT A Hence A–1 = AT .
(a) AmAn = Am+n
10. SOME SPECIAL SQUARE MATRICES :
(b) (Am)n = Amn = (An)m
(a) Idempotent Matrix : A square matrix is idempotent provided
m
(c) I = I , m,n Î N A2 = A.
6. CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION : For idempotent matrix note the following :
Let A be a square matrix. Then the polynomial in x, |A – xI| is (i) An = A " n Î N.
called as characteristic polynomial of A & the equation |A – xI| = 0 (ii) determinant value of idempotent matrix is either 0 or 1
is called characteristic equation of A.
(iii) If idempotent matrix is invertible then it will be an identity
7. CAYLEY - HAMILTON THEOREM : matrix i.e. I.
Every square matrix A satisfy its characteristic equation
(b) Periodic Matrix : A square matrix which satisfies the relation
i.e. a0xn + a1xn–1 + ........ + an–1x + an = 0 is the characteristic
equation of matrix A, then a0An + a1An–1 + ........ + an–1A + anI = 0 Ak+1 = A, for some positive integer K, is a periodic matrix. The
8. TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX : (Changing rows & columns) period of the matrix is the least value of K for which this holds

Let A be any matrix of order m × n. Then transpose of A is A T or A' true.
of order n × m and (AT)ij = (A)ji. Note that period of an idempotent matrix is 1.
Properties of transpose : (c) Nilpotent Matrix : A square matrix is said to be nilpotent

matrix of order m, m Î N , if Am = O, Am–1 ¹ O.
If AT & BT denote the transpose of A and B
(a) (A+B)T = AT+BT ; note that A & B have the same order. Note that a nilpotent matrix will not be invertible.
(b) (A B)T = BT AT (Reversal law) A & B are conformable for matrix (d) Involutary Matrix : If A2 = I, the matrix is said to be an
product AB involutary matrix.
(c) (AT)T = A Note that A = A –1 for an involutary matrix.
(d) (kA)T = kAT, where k is a scalar. (e) If A and B are square matrices of same order and AB = BA
T T
General : (A1. A2,....... An) = A . ...... . A . A
T T then
n 2 1
(reversal law for transpose) (A + B)n = nC0An + nC1An–1B + nC2An–2B2 + ........... + nCnBn
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
11. SYMMETRIC & SKEW SYMMETRIC MATRIX : 12. ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATRIX :
(a) Symmetric matrix : æ a11 a12 a13 ö
For symmetric matrix A = AT i.e. aij = aji " i,j. Let A = [aij] = ç a21 a22 a23 ÷ be a square matrix and let the
ç ÷
çè a a32 a ÷ø
Note : Maximum number of distinct entries in any symmetric 31 33
matrix formed by the cofactors of [ai j] in determinant |A| is

n(n + 1)
matrix of order n is .
2 æ C11 C12 C13 ö æ C11 C21 C31 ö
(b) Skew symmetric matrix : ç ÷
ç C21 C22 C23 ÷ . Then (adj A) = ç C12 C22 C32 ÷
Square matrix A = [aij] is said to be skew symmetric if AT = –A çC ç ÷
è 31 C32 C33 ÷ø çè C
13 C23 C ÷ø
33
i.e. aij = –aji " i & j. Hence if A is skew symmetric, then
= Transpose of cofactor matrix.
a i i = -a i i Þ a i i = 0 " i .
Note :
Thus the diagonal elements of a skew square matrix are all
If A be a square matrix of order n, then
zero, but not the converse.
(i) A(adj A) = | A | In = (adj A) . A
(c) Properties of symmetric & skew symmetric matrix : (ii) |adj A| = |A|n–1, n > 2
(i) Let A be any square matrix then, A + AT is a symmetric (iii) adj(adj A) = |A|n–2 A, |A|¹ 0.
matrix & A – AT is a skew symmetric matrix. (iv) adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A)
(v) adj (KA) = Kn–1 (adj A) , where K is a scalar
(ii) The sum of two symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix
and the sum of two skew symmetric matrix is a skew 13. INVERSE OF A MATRIX (Reciprocal Matrix) :
A square matrix A said to be invertible (non singular) if there exists

symmetric matrix.
a matrix B such that, AB = I (Note that AB = I Û BA = I)
(iii) If A & B are symmetric matrices then, B is called the inverse (reciprocal) of A and is denoted by A –1 . Thus
(1) AB + BA is a symmetric matrix A -1 = B Û AB = I = BA
(2) AB – BA is a skew symmetric matrix. We have, A.(adj A) =|A | I n
(iv) Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum or Þ A -1 . A(adj A) = A -1 In |A|
difference of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix. Þ In (adj A) = A -1 |A|I n
1 1 (adj A)
A= (A + A T ) + (A - A T ) \ A -1 =
2 2 |A|
144244 3 144244 3
symmetric skew symmetric Note : The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix A
to be invertible is that |A|¹ 0
1 T 1 T Theorem : If A & B are invertible matrices of the same order, then
and A = (A + A) - (A - A)
2 2
(AB) -1 = B -1 A -1 .
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
Note :
(i) If A be an invertible matrix, then AT is also invertible &
PROPERTIES AND SOLUTIONS OF TRIANGLE
(A T )-1 = (A -1 ) T .
(ii) If A is invertible ,
1. SINE FORMULAE : A
(a) (A -1 )-1 = A (b) (A k )-1 = (A -1 )k = A - k ; k Î N
In any triangle ABC
1 b
(iii) |A–1| = . c
h
|A| a b c abc
= = =l = = 2R
14. SYSTEM OF EQUATION & CRITERIA FOR CONSISTENCY sin A sin B sin C 2D
Gauss - Jordan method : B C
D
where R is circumradius and D is area a
Example :
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1 of triangle.
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
2. COSINE FORMULAE :
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
é a1 x + b1 y + c1 z ù é d1 ù é a1 b1 c1 ù é x ù é d1 ù b2 + c2 - a2
(a) cos A = or a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cosA
ê ú ê ú êa b2 c2 úú êy ú = ê d ú 2bc
Þ ê a2 x + b2 y + c2 z ú = êd 2 ú Þ ê 2 ê ú ê 2ú
êë a3 x + b3 y + c3 z úû êëd 3 úû ëê a3 b3 c3 úû êë z úû êë d3 úû c2 + a2 - b2
(b) cos B =
2ca
Þ AX=B Þ A–1AX = A–1B, if |A| ¹ 0.
a2 + b2 - c2
Adj A (c) cos C =
Þ X = A–1 B = .B 2ab
|A|

Note : 3. PROJECTION FORMULAE :
(i) If |A|¹ 0 , system is consistent having unique solution (a) b cos C + c cos B = a
(ii) If |A|¹ 0 & (adj A) . B ¹ O(Null matrix), system is consistent (b) c cos A + a cos C = b
having unique non-trivial solution. (c) a cos B + b cos A = c
(iii) If |A|¹ 0 & (adj A) . B = O (Null matrix), system is consistent
having trivial solution. 4. NAPIER'S ANALOGY (TANGENT RULE) :
(iv) If | A | = 0 , then matrix method fails æ B - Cö b - c A

(a) tan ç ÷ = cot
è 2 ø b+c 2
If (adj A) . B ¹ O æ C - Aö c - a B
If (adj A) . B = O (null matrix) (b) tan çè = cot
2 ÷ø c + a 2
Infinite solutions Inconsistent (no solution) æ A - Bö a - b C

(c) tan çè = cot
or no solution 2 ÷ø a + b 2
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
5. HALF ANGLE FORMULAE : 7. RADIUS OF THE INCIRCLE 'r' :
a+b+c Point of intersection of internal angle bisectors is incentre and
s= = semi-perimeter of triangle.
2 perpendicular distance of incentre from any side is called inradius 'r'.
A (s - b)(s - c) B (s - c)(s - a) A
(a) (i) sin = (ii) sin = D A B
2 bc 2 ca r= = (s - a) tan = (s - b) tan
s 2 2
C (s - a)(s - b) I r
(iii) sin = C A B C r
2 ab = (s - c) tan = 4R sin sin sin .
2 2 2 2 r
A s(s - a) B s(s - b) B C
(b) (i) cos = (ii) cos =
2 bc 2 ca 8. RADII OF THE EX-CIRCLES : A
C s(s - c) Point of intersection of two external angle B

(iii) cos = and one internal angle bisectors is excentre
2 ab C
A (s - b)(s - c) D and perpendicular distance of excentre from r1 r1
(c) (i) tan = = any side is called exradius. If r1 is the radius of I1
2 s(s - a) s(s - a)
escribed circle opposite to angle A of DABC
B (s - c)(s - a) D
(ii) tan = = and so on then :
2 s(s - b) s(s - b)
D D A A B C
C (s - a)(s - b) (a) r1 = = s tan = 4R sin cos cos
=
(iii) tan = s-a 2 2 2 2
2 s(s - c) s(s - c)
D B A B C
(d) Area of Triangle

(b) r2 = = s tan = 4R cos sin cos
s-b 2 2 2 2
D = s(s - a)(s - b)(s - c) D C A B C
1 1 1 (c) r3 = = s tan = 4R cos cos sin
= bc sin A = ca sin B = ab sin C s-c 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 9. LENGTH OF ANGLE BISECTOR, MEDIANS & ALTITUDE :
1
= 2(a 2 b2 + b2c2 + c2a 2 ) - a 4 - b4 - c 4 If ma, ba & ha are the lengths of a median, an angle bisector &
4
altitude from the angle A then,
6. RADIUS OF THE CIRCUMCIRCLE 'R' : A
Circumcentre is the point of intersection of 1 2 1
b + c2 + 2bc cos A = ma = 2b2 + 2c2 - a2
2 2
perpendicular bisectors of the sides and R b
c A
distance between circumcentre & vertex of O 2bc cos
R R a
triangle is called circumradius 'R'. and ba = 2 , h =
a
b+c cot B + cot C
a b c abc B D a C
R= = = = . 2 2 2 3 2
2 sin A 2sin B 2 sin C 4 D Note that ma + mb + mc = (a + b2 + c2 )
4
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
10. ORTHOCENTRE AND ORTHIC TRIANGLE : (a) The triangle formed by joining the three excentres I1, I2 and I3
(a) Point of intersection of altitudes is A of D ABC is called the excentral or excentric triangle.
orthocentre & the triangle KLM (b) Incentre I of DABC is the orthocentre of the excentral D I1I2I3.
which is formed by joining the feet (c) DABC is the orthic triangle of the D I1I2I3.
M L
of the altitudes is called the orthic P
(d) The sides of the excentral triangle are
triangle.
A B C
(b) The distances of the orthocentre 4R cos , 4R cos and 4R cos
B K C 2 2 2
from the angular points of the
p A p B p C
DABC are 2R cosA, 2R cosB, & and its angles are - , - and - .
2 2 2 2 2 2
2R cosC.
(c) The distance of orthocentre from sides are 2R cosB cosC, A B C
(e) I I1 = 4R sin ; I I2 = 4R sin ; I I3 = 4R sin .
2R cosC cosA and 2R cosA cosB 2 2 2
(d) The sides of the orthic triangle are a cos A ( = R sin 2A), 12. THE DISTANCES BETWEEN THE SPECIAL POINTS :
bcosB(= R sin2B) and c cos C (=R sin 2C) and its angles are (a) The distance between circumcentre and orthocentre
p – 2A, p -2B and p – 2C = R 1 - 8 cos A cos B cos C
(e) Circumradii of the triangles PBC, PCA, PAB and ABC are equal.
2
(f) Area of orthic triangle = 2DcosA cosB cosC (b) The distance between circumcentre and incentre = R - 2Rr
1 (c) The distance between incent re and o rtho centre
= R 2 sin 2A sin2B sin2C

2
= 2r2 - 4R 2 cos A cos B cos C
(g) Circumradii of orthic triangle = R/2
(d) The distance between circumcentre & excentre is
11. EX-CENTRAL TRIANGLE :
A B C
OI1 = R 1 + 8 sin cos cos = R 2 + 2Rr1 & so on.
I3 A I2 2 2 2 A
13. m-n THEOREM : a b
h
(m + n) cot q = m cot a – n cot b
I
(m + n) cot q = n cot B – m cot C. q

B B C
C m D n
90°
14. IMPORTANT POINTS :
p B
–
2 2 I1 (a) (i) If a cos B = b cos A, then the triangle is isosceles.
(ii) If a cos A = bcosB, then the triangle is isosceles or right angled.
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ALLEN ALLEN
(b) In Right Angle Triangle : 16. CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL : D c
C
(a) Quadrilateral ABCD is cyclic if ÐA + ÐC = p d
(i) a2 + b2 + c2 = 8R2 R
= ÐB + ÐC b
A
(ii) cos2 A + cos2 B + cos2C = 1
(opposite angle are supplementary angles) a
(c) In equilateral triangle : B
(b) Area = (s - a)(s - b)(s - c)(s - d) , where 2s = a + b + c + d
(i) R = 2r (ii) r1 = r2 = r3 = 3R
a 2 + b 2 - c2 - d 2
2 (c) cos B = & similarly other angles
2(ab + cd)
3a2 a
(iii) r : R : r1 = 1 : 2 : 3 (iv) area = (v) R = (d) Ptolemy's theorem : If ABCD is cyclic quadrilateral, then
4 3
AC . BD = AB . CD + BC . AD
(d) (i) The circumcentre lies (1) inside an acute angled triangle
(2) outside an obtuse angled triangle & (3) at mid point of 17. SOLUTION OF TRIANGLE :
the hypotenuse of right angled triangle. Case-I : Three sides are given then to find out three angles use
(ii) The orthocentre of right angled triangle is the vertex at the b2 + c2 - a 2 c2 + a2 - b2 a2 + b2 - c2
cos A = , cos B = & cos C =
right angle. 2bc 2ac 2ab
(iii) The orthocentre, centroid & circumcentre are collinear & Case-II : Two sides & included angle are given :
centroid divides the line segment joining orthocentre & A-B a-b C
Let sides a, b & angle C are given then use tan = cot
circumcentre internally in the ratio 2 : 1, except in case of 2 a+b 2
equilateral triangle. In equilateral triangle all these centres and find value of A – B ........(i)

coincide. A +B C a sin C
& = 90° - .......(ii) c= .......(iii)
2 2 sin A
15. REGULAR POLYGON :
Case-III : C
Consider a 'n' sided regular polygon of side length 'a'
Two sides a, b & angle A opposite to one of
b a
a p them is given bsinA
(a) Radius of incircle of this polygon r = cot
2 n
(a) If a < b sinA No triangle exist A B
(b) Radius of circumcircle of this polygon R = a cosec p (b) If a = bsinA & A is acute, then one triangle
2 n
exist which is right angled.
(c) Perimeter & area of regular polygon
p p (c) a > bsinA, a < b & A is acute, then two triangles exist
Perimeter = na = 2nr tan = 2nR sin
n n (d) a > bsinA, a > b & A is acute, then one triangle exist
1
2 2p p 1 p (e) a > bsinA & A is obtuse, then there is one triangle if a > b
Area = nR sin = nr 2 tan = na 2 cot
2 n n 4 n & no triangle if a < b.
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ALLEN ALLEN
Note : Case-III can be analysed algebraically using Cosine
b2 + c 2 - a 2 STRAIGHT LINE
rule as cosA = , which is quadratic in c.
2bc
1. RELATION BETWEEN CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATE
18. ANGLES OF ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION :
& POLAR CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM
Let OP be a horizontal line in the vertical plane in which an object R
If (x,y) are Cartesian co-ordinates of a point P, then : x =r cos q,
is given and let OR be joined.
y = r sinq
R O P æ yö
and r = x2 + y2 , q = tan -1 ç ÷
angle of depression è xø
2. DISTANCE FORMULA AND ITS APPLICATIONS :

angle of elevation If A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) are two points, then
O P R
AB = (x2 - x1 )2 + (y2 - y1 )2
Fig. (a) Fig. (b)
Note :
In Fig. (a), where the object R is above the horizontal line OP, the angle
(i) Three given points A,B and C are collinear, when sum of any
POR is called the angle of elevation of the object R as seen from the
two distances out of AB,BC, CA is equal to the remaining third
point O. In Fig. (b) where the object R is below the horizontal line OP,
otherwise the points will be the vertices of triangle.
the angle POR is called the angle of depression of the object R as seen

(ii) Let A,B,C & D be the four given points in a plane. Then the
from the point O.
quadrilateral will be :
(a) Square if AB = BC = CD = DA & AC = BD ; AC ^ BD
(b) Rhombus if AB = BC = CD = DA and AC ¹ BD; AC^ BD
(c) Parallelogram if AB = DC, BC = AD; AC ¹ BD; AC ^ BD
(d) Rectangle if AB = CD, BC = DA, AC = BD ; AC ^ BD
3. SECTION FORMULA :
The co-ordinates of a point dividing a line joining the points A(x1,y1)
and B(x2,y2) in the ratio m : n is given by :
æ mx 2 + nx1 my 2 + ny1 ö
(a) For internal division : ç ,
è m+n m + n ÷ø
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ALLEN ALLEN
Note :
mx 2 - nx1 my 2 - ny1 ö
(b) For external division : æç , (i) Angle bisector divides the opposite sides in the ratio of
è m-n m - n ÷ø
BD AB c
(c) Line ax + by + c = 0 divides line joining points P(x1,y1) & Q(x2, y2) remaining sides. e.g. = =
DC AC b
(ax1 + by1 + c) (ii) Incenter divides the angle bisectors in the ratio
in ratio = –
(ax2 + by 2 + c) ( b + c) : a, ( c + a ) : b, (a + b) : c
(c) Circumcenter : A (x1, y1)
4. CO-ORDINATES OF SOME PARTICULAR POINTS :
It is the point of intersection of
Let A ( x1 , y1 ) , B ( x2 , y2 ) and C ( x3 , y3 ) are vertices of any triangle perpendicular bisectors of the D
O F
sides of a triangle. If O is the
ABC, then (x2, y2) (x3, y3 )
circumcenter of any triangle ABC, B C
(a) Centroid : E
A(x1, y1) then OA 2 = OB2 = OC2 .
(i) The centroid is the point of
intersection of the medians Also it is a centre of a circle touching all the vertices of a triangle.
2 E
F Note :
(line joining the mid point of G (i) If a triangle is right angle, then its circumcenter is mid point
sides and opposite vertices). 1 of hypotenuse.
(ii) Centroid divides the median in B(x2, y2) D C(x3, y3)
(ii) Find perpendicular bisector of any two sides and solve them
the ratio of 2 : 1. to find circumcentre.
æ x + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y 3 ö (d) Orthocenter : A (x , y )
(iii) Co-ordinates of centroid G ç 1 , ÷ø It is the point of intersection of
1 1
è 3 3

perpendicular drawn from vertices
(iv) If P is any internal point of triangle such that area of DAPB, D
on opposite sides of a triangle and O
DAPC and DBPC are same then P must be centroid.
can be obtained by solving the
(b) Incenter : (x y ) (x y )
A(x1,y1) equation of any two altitudes. B
2 , 2
C
3 , 3
Note : E
The incenter is the point of
If a triangle is right angled triangle, then orthocenter is the point
intersection of internal bisectors F E where right angle is formed.
I
of the angles of a triangle. Also Remarks :
(i) If the triangle is equilateral, then centroid, incentre,
it is a centre of a circle touching
B(x2,y2) C(x3,y3) orthocenter and circumcenter coincides.
D
all the sides of a triangle. (ii) Orthocentre, centroid and circumcentre are always collinear
and centroid divides the line joining orthocentre and
æ ax1 + bx 2 + cx3 ay1 + by 2 + cy 3 ö
Co-ordinates of incenter I çè , ÷ø circumcentre in the ratio 2 : 1
a+b+c a+b+c
(iii) In an isosceles triangle centroid, orthocentre, incentre,
Where a, b, c are the sides of triangle ABC. circumcentre lies on the same line.
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ALLEN ALLEN
(e) Ex-centers : (iii) Area of quadrilateral whose consecutive vertices are (x1, y1), (x2, y2),
The centre of the circle which touches A
1 x1 – x3 y1 – y 3
I3 I2 (x3, y3) & (x4, y4) is
side BC and the extended portions of 2 x2 – x4 y2 – y 4
B
sides AB and AC is called the ex-centre C
6. CONDITION OF COLLINEARITY FOR THREE POINTS :
I1
of DABC with respect to the vertex A. It Three points (x1,y1), (x2,y2) and (x3,y3) are collinear if any one of the
is denoted by I1 and its coordinates are given point lies on the line passing through the remaining two points.
æ - ax1 + bx2 + cx 3 - ay1 + by 2 + cy 3 ö Thus the required condition is -
I1 = ç , ÷ø
è -a + b + c -a + b + c x1 y1 1
y3 - y1 x3 - x1 x1 - x2 y1 - y2
Similarly ex-centers of DABC with respect to vertices B and C = = x2 y2 1 = 0
y2 - y1 x2 - x1 or x1 - x 3 y1 - y 3 or
are denoted by I2 and I3 respectively , and x3 y3 1
æ ax - bx2 + cx 3 ay1 - by 2 + cy 3 ö 7. EQUATION OF STRAIGHT LINE :
I2 = ç 1 , ÷ø ,
è a-b+ c a-b+c A relation between x and y which is satisfied by co-ordinates of
æ ax + bx2 - cx 3 ay 1 + by2 - cy 3 ö every point lying on a line is called equation of the straight line.
I3 = ç 1 , ÷ø Here remember that every one degree equation in variable x and y
è a+b- c a+b-c
always represents a straight line i.e. ax + by + c = 0 ; a & b ¹ 0
5. AREA OF TRIANGLE :
simultaneously.
Let A(x1,y1), B(x2,y2) and C(x3,y3) are vertices of a triangle, then
(a) Equation of a line parallel to x-axis at a distance a is y = a or
x1 y1 1 y=–a
1 1
Area of DABC= x2 y2 1 = |[x1(y2 – y3)+x2(y3 – y1) + x3(y1– y2)]| (b) Equation of x-axis is y = 0
2 2

x 3 y3 1 (c) Equation of line parallel to y-axis at a distance b is x = b or
To remember the above formula, take the help of the following method : x=–b
(d) Equation of y-axis is x = 0
1 x1 x2 x3 x1 1
8. SLOPE OF LINE :
= =| [(x y – x y ) + (x2y3–x3y2)+(x3y1–x1y3)] | y
2 y1 y2 y3 y1 2 1 2 2 1
If a given line makes an angle q
Remarks : (x2, y2)
(0° £ q < 180°, q ¹ 90°) with the y2 – y1
(i) If the area of triangle joining three points is zero, then the points
positive direction of x-axis, then slope (x1, y1)
are collinear.
of this line will be tanq and is usually
(ii) Area of Equilateral triangle x
x2 – x1
denoted by the letter m i.e. m=tanq.
P2 Obviously the slope of the x-axis and
If altitude of any equilateral triangle is P, then its area = .
3 line parallel to it is zero and y-axis and line parallel to it does not exist.
æ a2 3 ö y2 - y1
If 'a' be the side of equilateral triangle, then its area = ç ÷ If A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) & x1 ¹ x2 then slope of line AB =
è 4 ø x2 - x1
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ALLEN ALLEN
9. STANDARD FORMS OF EQUATIONS OF A STRAIGHT LINE : (g) General form : We know that a first degree equation in x and
(a) Slope Intercept form : Let m be the slope of a line and c its y, ax + by + c = 0 always represents a straight line. This form
intercept on y-axis. then the equation of this straight line is written is known as general form of straight line.
as : y = mx + c -a coeff. of x
(i) Slope of this line = =-
(b) Point Slope form : If m be the slope of a line and it passes b coeff. of y
through a point (x1,y1), then its equation is written as : c
(ii) Intercept made by this line on x-axis = – and intercept
y – y1 = m(x–x1) a
c
(c) Two point form : Equation of a line passing through two points made by this line on y-axis = –
b
(x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is written as : (iii) To change the general form of a line to normal form, first
x y 1 take c to right hand side and make it positive, then divide the
y 2 – y1 whole equation by
y – y1 = (x – x1 ) or x1 y1 1 = 0 a 2 + b2 .
x 2 – x1
x2 y2 1 10. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES :
(a) If q be the angle between two lines : y =m1x + c1 and y = m2x + c2,
(d) Intercept form : If a and b are the intercepts made by a line
æ m - m2 ö
x y then tan q = ± ç 1
on the axes of x and y, its equation is written as : + =1 è 1 + m1m2 ÷ø
a b
(b) If equation of lines are a1x+b1y+c1=0 and a2x+b2y+c2=0, then
(e) Normal form : If p is the length of perpendicular on a line these line are -
from the origin and a the angle which this perpendicular makes a1 b1 c
(i) Parallel Û = ¹ 1
with positive x-axis, then the equation of this line is written as : a 2 b2 c2

xcosa + ysina = p (p is always positive), where 0 £ a < 2p. (ii) Perpendicular Û a1a2+b1b2=0
(f) Parametric form : To find the equation a1 b1 c1
y P L (iii) Coincident Û a =b =c
of a straight line which passes through r (x, y)
2 2 2
A q a1 b1
a given point A(h, k) and makes a given (iv) Intersecting Û a ¹b
(h, k)
angle q with the positive direction of the L' 2 2
x-axis. P(x, y) is any point on the line LAL'. 11. LENGTH OF PERPENDICULAR FROM A POINT ON A LINE :
x
O
Let AP = r then x – h = r cosq, y – k = r Length of perpendicular from a point (x1,y1) on the line ax+by+c=0
x-h y-k ax1 + by1 + c
sinq & = = r is the equation is =
cos q sin q
a 2 + b2
of the straight line LAL'.
Any point P on the line will be of the form (h + r cosq, k + r sinq), In particular the length of the perpendicular from the origin on the
where |r| gives the distance of the point P from the fixed |c|
line ax + by + c = 0 is P =
point (h, k). a 2 + b2
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ALLEN ALLEN
12. DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL LINES : 16. CONCURRENCY OF LINES :
(a) The distance between two parallel lines ax + by + c1=0 and
Three lines a1x + b1y + c1= 0; a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 and a3x + b3y + c3 =0
c1 - c2
ax+by+c2=0 is =
a 2 + b2 a1 b1 c1
(Note : The coefficients of x & y in both equations should be same) are concurrent, if D = a2 b2 c2 = 0
p1 p2 a3 b3 c3
(b) The area of the parallelogram = , where p1 & p2 are
sin q Note :
distances between two pairs of opposite sides & q is the angle
between any two adjacent sides. Note that area of the If lines are concurrent then D = 0 but if D =0 then lines may or
parallelogram bounded by the lines y = m1x + c1, y = m1x + c2
may not be concurrent {lines may be parallel}.
(c - c ) (d - d )
and y = m2x + d1, y = m2x + d2 is given by 1 2 1 2 . 17. REFLECTION OF A POINT :
m1 - m2
13. EQUATION OF LINES PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR Let P(x,y) be any point, then its image
Y
TO A GIVEN LINE : with respect to y=x
T(y,x)
(a) Equation of line parallel to line ax + by + c = 0 •
(a) x-axis is Q(x, –y) R(–x, y) • • P(x,y)
ax + by + l = 0
X
(b) Equation of line perpendicular to line ax + by + c = 0 (b) y-axis is R(–x, y) O
S(–x, –y) • • Q(x, –y)
bx – ay + k = 0 (c) origin is S(–x, –y)
Here l, k, are parameters and their values are obtained with the

(d) line y=x is T(y, x)
help of additional information given in the problem.
14. STRAIGHT LINE MAKING A GIVEN ANGLE WITH A LINE : 18. TRANSFORMATION OF AXES
Equations of lines passing through a point (x1,y1) and making an (a) Shifting of origin without rotation Y
angle a, with the line y=mx+c is written as : Y'
of axes : P(x,y)
m ± tan a
y - y1 = (x - x1 ) (x',y')
1 m m tan a If coordinates of any point P(x, y) with y'
(a,b)
15. POSITION OF TWO POINTS WITH RESPECT TO A GIVEN respect to new origin (a, b) will be (x', y') X'
O'
LINE : x'
then x = x' + a, y = y' + b X
O
Let the given line be ax + by + c = 0 and P(x1, y1), Q(x2, y2) be two
or x' = x – a, y' = y – b
points. If the quantities ax1 + by1 + c and ax2 + by2 + c have the same
signs, then both the points P and Q lie on the same side of the line Thus if origin is shifted to point (a, b) without rotation of axes,
ax + by + c = 0. If the quantities ax1 + by1 + c and ax2 + by2 + c have then new equation of curve can be obtained by putting x + a in
opposite signs, then they lie on the opposite sides of the line. place of x and y + b in place of y.
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ALLEN ALLEN
(b) Rotation of axes without Y
Determine the sign of a1a2 + b1b2
Y'
shifting the origin : P(x,y)
(x',y') If sign of For obtuse For acute
Let O be the origin. Let P º (x, y) y'
y q X' a1a2 + b1b2 angle bisector angle bisector
with respect to axes OX and
q x'
OY and let P º (x', y') with respect + use + sign in eq. (1) use – sign in eq. (1)
q
to axes OX' and OY', where X – use – sign in eq. (1) use + sign in eq. (1)
O x
ÐX'OX = ÐYOY' = q i.e. if a1a2 + b1b2 > 0, then the bisector corresponding to + sign
then x = x' cos q – y' sin q gives obtuse angle bisector
y = x' sin q + y' cos q
and x' = x cos q + y sin q a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b2 y + c2
=
2 2
y' = –x sin q + y cos q a +b
1 1 a22 + b22
The above relation between (x, y) and (x', y') can be easily obtained
20. FAMILY OF LINES :
with the help of following table
If equation of two lines be P º a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1 =0 and
Old
New x¯ y¯ Q º a2x+b2y + c2= 0, then the equation of the lines passing through
x' ® cos q sin q the point of intersection of these lines is : P + lQ = 0 or a1x + b1y +
c1 + l (a2x + b2y + c2) = 0. The value of l is obtained with the help
y' ® –sin q cos q
of the additional informations given in the problem.
19. EQUATION OF BISECTORS OF ANGLES BETWEEN TWO 21. GENERAL EQUATION AND HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION
LINES : OF SECOND DEGREE :

If equation of two intersecting lines are a 1x+b1y+c1=0 and (a) A general equation of second degree
a2x + b2y+c2=0, then equation of bisectors of the angles between ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represent a pair of
these lines are written as : straight lines if D=abc+2fgh–af 2 – bg 2 – ch 2 = 0 or
a1 x + b1 y + c1 a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 a h g
=± .........(1)
h b f =0
a12 + b12 a22 + b22
g f c
(a) Equation of bisector of angle containing origin :
If the equation of the lines are written with constant terms c1 2 h2 - ab
(b) If q be the angle between the lines, then tan q = ±
and c2 positive, then the equation of the bisectors of the angle a+b
containing the origin is obtained by taking positive sign in (1) Obviously these lines are
(b) Equation of bisector of acute/obtuse angles : (i) Parallel, if D = 0, h2 = ab or if h2 = ab and bg2 = af2
See whether the constant terms c1 and c2 in the two equation are (ii) Perpendicular, if a + b =0 i.e. coeff. of x2 + coeff. of y2 = 0.
+ve or not. If not then multiply both sides of given equation by (c) Homogeneous equation of 2nd degree ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0
–1 to make the constant terms positive always represent a pair of straight lines whose equations are
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ALLEN ALLEN
æ -h ± h2 - ab ö Now joint equation of line OP and OQ joining the origin and points
y=ç ÷ x º y = m1x & y = m2x
è b ø of intersection P and Q can be obtained by making the equation (i)
2h a homogenous with the help of equation of the line. Thus required
and m1 + m2 = – ; m1m2 = equation is given by -
b b
2
These straight lines passes through the origin and for finding æ lx + my ö æ lx + my ö
ax2+2hxy+by2+2(gx+fy) ç + cç =0
the angle between these lines same formula as given for general è -n ø÷ è -n ÷ø
equation is used.
23. STANDARD RESULTS :
The condition that these lines are :
(a) Area of rhombus formed by lines a|x|+ b|y|+ c = 0
(i) At right angles to each other is a + b = 0. i.e. co-efficient
2c2
of x² + co-efficient of y² = 0. or ± ax ± by + c = 0 is .
|ab|
(ii) Coincident is h² = ab.
c2
(iii) Equally inclined to the axis of x is h = 0 . i.e. coeff. (b) Area of triangle formed by line ax+by+c = 0 and axes is .
2|ab|
of xy = 0.
(d) The combined equation of angle bisectors between the lines (c) Co-ordinate of foot of perpendicular (h, k) from (x1, y1) to the line
represented by homogeneous equation of 2nd degree is given h - x1 k - y1 -(ax1 + by1 + c)
ax+by+c = 0 is given by = =
x 2 - y2 xy a b a 2 + b2
by = , a ¹ b, h ¹ 0.
a-b h
(d) Image of point (x1, y1) w.r. to the line ax+by+c = 0 is given by
(e) Pair of straight lines perpendicular to the lines ax2 + 2hxy + by2 =

0 and through origin are given by bx2 – 2hxy + ay2 = 0. h - x1 k - y1 -2(ax1 + by1 + c)
= =
a b a 2 + b2
(f) If lines ax2+ 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 are parallel then
g2 – ac
distance between them is = 2
a(a + b)
22. EQUATIONS OF LINES JOINING THE POINTS OF

INTERSECTION OF A LINE AND A CURVE TO THE
ORIGIN : y
P
Let the equation of curve be :
ax2 + 2hxy + by2+ 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ......(i) Q
and straight line be

x
O
lx + my + n = 0 ......(ii)
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ALLEN ALLEN
(d) Diameter form of circle : P(x,y)
CIRCLE If A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) are the
end points of the diameter of (x1,y1) A O
B(x 2,y2)
1. DEFINITION : C
the circle then the equation of
A circle is the locus of a point which moves in a plane in such a way the circle is given by
that its distance from a fixed point remains constant. The fixed
(x – x1)(x – x2) + (y – y1)(y – y2) = 0
point is called the centre of the circle and the constant distance is
(e) The parametric forms of the circle :
called the radius of the circle.
(i) The parametric equation of the circle x2+y2 = r2 are
2. STANDARD EQUATIONS OF THE CIRCLE :
x = r cosq, y = r sinq ; q Î [0, 2p)
(a) Central Form :
If (h, k) is the centre and r is the radius of the circle then its (ii) The parametric equation of the circle (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 is
equation is (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 x = h + r cosq, y = k + r sin q where q is parameter.
(b) General equation of circle : (iii) The parametric equation of the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, where g, f, c are constants and
are x = – g + g 2 + f 2 – c cosq, y = –f + g2 + f 2 – c sinq
centre is (–g, –f)
where q is parameter.
i.e. æ - coefficient of x , - coefficient of y ö Note that equation of a straight line joining two point a & b
çè 2 2 ÷ø
on the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is
2 2
and radius r = g + f - c a+b a+b a -b
x cos + y sin = a cos .
Note : The general quadratic equation in x and y, 2 2 2

ax 2 + by 2 + 2hxy + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents a
3. POSITION OF A POINT W.R.T CIRCLE :
circle if :
(i) coefficient of x2 = coefficient of y2 or a = b ¹ 0 (a) Let the circle is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 C
A
P Q
(ii) coefficient of xy = 0 or h =0 and the point is (x1,y1) then : (x1,y1)
(iii) (g2 + f2 – c) ³ 0 (for a real circle) Point (x1,y1) lies out side the circle or on the circle or inside the circle
(c) Intercepts cut by the circle on axes : according as
The intercepts cut by the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c =0 on: Þ S1 = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 +2fy1 + c > or = or < 0.
(b) The greatest & the least distance of a point A from a circle with
(i) x-axis = 2 g2 – c (ii) y-axis = 2 f 2 – c
centre C & radius r is AC + r & |AC – r| respectively.
Note :
(c) The power of point is given by S1.
Intercept cut by a line on the circle x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy+c=0 or
4. TANGENT LINE OF CIRCLE :
length of chord of the circle = 2 a2 - P2 where a is the radius When a straight line meet a circle on two coincident points then it is
and P is the length of perpendicular from the centre to the chord. called the tangent of the circle.
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(a) Condition of Tangency : Note :
(P>r)
To get the equation of tangent at the point (x1 y1) on any curve
The line L = 0 touches the (P=r) Tangent
(P<r) Secant x + x1
circle S = 0 if P the length of we replace xx1 in place of x2, yy1 in place of y2, in place
r P 2
the perpendicular from the (P=0) Diameter y + y1 xy + yx1
centre to that line and radius of x, in place of y, 1 in place of xy and c in place
2 2
of the circle r are equal i.e. of c.
P = r. T
(c) Length of tangent ( S1 ) :
(b) Equation of the tangent (T = 0) : P(x1,y1)
The length of tangent drawn
(i) Tangent at the point (x1,y1) on the circle x2+ y2 = a2 is
from point (x1,y1) out side
xx1 + yy1 = a2.
the circle
(ii) (1) The tangent at the point (acos t, asin t) on the circle S º x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is,
x2 + y2 = a2 is xcos t + ysin t = a
PT= S1 = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c
(2) The point of intersection of the tangents at the points
æ a cos a + b a sin a + b ö (d) Equation of Pair of tangents (SS1 = T2) :
2 , 2 ÷
P(a) and Q(b) is çç a -b a -b ÷ . Let the equation of circle S º x2 + y2 = a2 and P(x1,y1) is any point
è cos 2
cos 2 ø
outside the circle. From the point we can draw two real and distinct
(iii) The equation of tangent at the point (x1,y1) on the circle tangent PQ & PR and combine equation of pair of tangents is -
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is
(x2 + y2 – a2) (x12 + y12 – a2) = (xx1 + yy1 – a2)2 or SS1= T2

xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y+y1) + c = 0
5. NORMAL OF CIRCLE :
(iv) If line y = mx + c is a straight line touching the circle
Normal at a point of the circle is the straight line which is
2 2 2 2
x + y = a , then c = ± a 1 + m and contact points are perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact and passes through
the centre of circle.
æ am a ö æ a2 m a2 ö (a) Equation of normal at point (x1, y1) of
çm ,±
2 ÷
or ç m , ± ÷ and equation N (–g, –f)
è 1+ m 2
1+ m ø è c cø
circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is
of tangent is P T
æ y1 + f ö (x1,y1)
y = mx ± a 1+ m 2 y– y1 = ç ÷ (x – x1 )
è x1 + g ø
(v) The equation of tangent with slope m of the circle (b) The equation of normal on any point (x1,y1) of circle x2 + y2 = a2
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = a2 is æy y ö
(y – k) = m(x – h) ± a 1+ m2 is ç = 1 ÷ -
è x x1 ø
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6. CHORD OF CONTACT : point R is called polar of the point A and point A is called the pole,
If two tangents PT1 & PT2 are T1 with respect to the given circle.
L
drawn from the point P (x1, R
C P(x1,y1) The equation of the polar is the T=0, so the polar of point (x1,y1) w.r.t
y1) to the circle
circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is xx1+yy1+g(x+x1) + f(y+y1)+c=0
S º x + y + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,
2 2
then the equation of the chord T2 Pole of a given line with respect to a circle
of contact T1T2 is : To find the pole of a line we assume the coordinates of the pole
xx1 + yy1 + g (x + x1) + f (y + y1) + c = 0 (i.e. T = 0 same as equation then from these coordinates we find the polar. This polar and given
of tangent).
line represent the same line. Then by comparing the coefficients of
7. EQUATION OF THE CHORD WITH A GIVEN MIDDLE POINT
similar terms we can get the coordinates of the pole. The pole of
(T = S1) :
The equation of the chord of the circle S º x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 lx + my + n = 0
x1 + g æ - la2 -ma2 ö
in terms of its mid point M (x1 , y1) is y - y1 = - (x - x1). w.r.t. circle x2 + y2 = a2 will be ç n , n ÷
y1 + f è ø
This on simplification can be put in the form 10. FAMILY OF CIRCLES :
xx1 + yy1 + g (x + x1) + f (y + y1) + c = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c (a) The equation of the family of circles passing through the
which is designated by T = S1. points of intersection of two circles S1 = 0 & S2 = 0 is :
8. DIRECTOR CIRCLE : S1 + K S2 = 0 (K ¹ –1).
The locus of point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents to a (b) The equation of the family of circles passing through the point of
circle is called director circle. Let the circle be x2 + y2 = a2, then the intersection of a circle S = 0 & a line L = 0 is given by S + KL = 0.

equation of director circle is x2 + y2 = 2a2. (c) The equation of a family of circles passing through two given
\ director circle is a concentric circle whose radius is 2 times points (x1, y1) & (x2, y2) can be written in the form :
the radius of the circle. x y 1
Note :
(x - x1) (x - x2) + (y - y1) (y - y2) + K x1 y1 1 = 0 where K is a
The director circle of
x2 y2 1
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + 2c– g2 – f2 = 0 parameter.
9. POLE AND POLAR : (d) The equation of a family of circles touching a fixed line
Let any straight line through the given point R (h,k)
y - y1= m (x - x1) at the fixed point (x1 , y1) is (x - x1)2 + (y - y1)2
A(x1,y1) intersect the given circle S =0 in + K [y - y1 - m (x - x1)] = 0 , where K is a parameter.
two points P and Q and if the tangent of (x 1,y 1) Q (e) Family of circles circumscribing a triangle whose sides are given by
A P
the circle at P and Q meet at the point R L1 = 0 ; L2 = 0 & L3 = 0 is given by ; L1L2 + l L2L3 + m L3L1 = 0
then locus of provided coefficient of xy = 0 & coefficient of x2 = coefficient of y2.
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ALLEN ALLEN
(d) Equation of circle circumscribing a quadrilateral whose side in (ii) When circle are apart from each other then C1C2>r1+r2
order are represented by the lines L1 = 0, L2 = 0, L3 = 0 & and in this case there will be four common tangents.
L4 = 0 are L 1L 3 + l L 2L 4 = 0 provided coefficient of Lines PQ and RS are called transverse or indirect or
x2 = coefficient of y2 and coefficient of xy = 0. internal common tangents and these lines meet line C1C2
on T1and T1 divides the line C1C2 in the ratio r1 : r2 internally
11. DIRECT AND TRANSVERSE COMMON TANGENTS : and lines AB & CD are called direct or external common
Let two circles having centre C1 and C2 and radii, r1 and r2 and tangents. These lines meet C1C2 produced on T2. Thus T2
C1C2 is the distance between their centres then : divides C1C2 externally in the ratio r1 : r2.
(a) Both circles will touch : Note : Length of direct common tangent = (C1C2 )2 - (r1 - r2 )2
(i) Externally if C1C2 = r1 +
P T
r2, point P divides C1C2 in C1 C2 Length of transverse common tangent = (C1C2 )2 - (r1 + r2 )2
the ratio r1 : r2 (internally).
In this case there are three common tangents. 12. THE ANGLE OF INTERSECTION OF TWO CIRCLES :
(ii) Internally if C1C2 = |r1– r2|, point P Definition : The angle between the tangents of two circles at the
divides C1C2 in the ratio r1 : r 2 point of intersection of the two circles is called angle of intersection
P
C1 C2 of two circles.
externally and in this case there will
be only one common tangent.
P
(b) The circles will intersect :
r1 r2
q

when |r1 – r2| < C1C2 < r1
+ r2 in this case there are C1 C2 C1 d C2
two common tangents.
(c) The circles will not intersect :
(i) One circle will lie inside the other 2g1 g2 + 2f1 f2 - c1 - c2 æ r12 + r22 - d 2 ö
then cos q = or cos q = ç ÷
circle if C1C2 < | r1–r2| In this 2 g12 + f12 - c1 g22 + f22 - c2 è 2r1 r2 ø
case there will be no common
tangent. Here r1 and r2 are the radii of the circles and d is the distance
R between their centres.
A Q If the angle of intersection of the two circles is a right angle then
B
T2 such circles are called "Orthogonal circles" and conditions for
C1 T1 C2
D
the circles to be orthogonal is
C S 2g1g2 + 2f1f2 = c1+ c2
P
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13. RADICAL AXIS OF THE TWO CIRCLES (S1– S2= 0) : 14. Radical centre :
Definition : The locus of a point, which moves in such a way that The radical centre of three circles is the point from which length of
the length of tangents drawn from it to the circles are equal is called tangents on three circles are equal i.e. the point of intersection of
the radical axis. If two circles are - radical axis of the circles is the radical centre of the circles.
P(h,k) Note : I
C1 T1
(i) The circle with centre as
A B radical centre and radius equal
=
C2
=
to the length of tangent from T2 =
radical centre to any of the
circle, will cut the three circles III T3 II
Radical axis C3
orthogonally.
S1 º x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1 y + c1 =0 (ii) If three circles are drawn on three sides of a triangle taking
S2 º x + y + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0
2 2 them as diameter then its orthocenter will be its radical centre.
Then the equation of radical axis is given by S1– S2= 0
Note :
(i) If two circles touches each other then common tangent is radical
axis.

S1–S2=0 S1–S2=0
(ii) If two circles cuts each other then common chord is radical axis.
S1–S2=0
(iii) If two circles cuts third circle orthogonally then radical axis of
first two is locus of centre of third circle.
(iv) The radical axis of the two circles is perpendicular to the line
joining the centre of two circles but not always pass through mid
point of it.
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ALLEN ALLEN
Case (ii) When the focus does not lie on the directrix :
PARABOLA The conic represents :
1. CONIC SECTIONS : a parabola an ellipse a hyperbola a rectangular hyperbola

e = 1; D ¹ 0 0 < e < 1; D ¹ 0 D¹0 ;e>1 e>1;D¹0
A conic section, or conic is the locus of a point which moves in a
h = ab
2
h < ab
2
h > ab
2
h2 > ab ; a + b = 0
plane so that its distance from a fixed point is in a constant ratio to
its perpendicular distance from a fixed straight line. 4. PARABOLA :
(a) The fixed point is called the FOCUS. A parabola is the locus of a point which moves in a plane, such that
(b) The fixed straight line is called the DIRECTRIX. its distance from a fixed point (focus) is equal to its perpendicular
(c) The constant ratio is called the ECCENTRICITY denoted by e. distance from a fixed straight line (directrix).
(d) The line passing through the focus & perpendicular to the Standard equation of a parabola is y2 = 4 ax. For this parabola :
directrix is called the AXIS. (i) Vertex is (0, 0) (ii) Focus is (a, 0)
(e) A point of intersection of a conic with its axis is called a VERTEX. (iii) Axis is y = 0 (iv) Directrix is x + a = 0
(a) Focal distance :
2. GENERAL EQUATION OF A CONIC : FOCAL DIRECTRIX
The distance of a point on the parabola from the focus is called
PROPERTY :
the FOCAL DISTANCE OF THE POINT.
The general equation of a conic with focus (p, q) & directrix
(b) Focal chord :
lx + my + n = 0 is :
A chord of the parabola, which passes through the focus is called

(l2 + m2) [(x – p)2 + (y – q)2] = e2 (lx + my + n)2
a FOCAL CHORD.
º ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
(c) Double ordinate :
3. DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN THE CONIC :
A chord of the parabola perpendicular to the axis of the
The nature of the conic section depends upon the position of the symmetry is called a DOUBLE ORDINATE with respect to axis
focus S w.r.t. the directrix & also upon the value of the eccentricity e. as diameter.
Two different cases arise.
(d) Latus rectum :
Case (i) When the focus lies on the directrix :
A focal chord perpendicular to the axis of parabola is called the
In this case D º abc + 2 fgh – af2 – bg2 – ch2 = 0 & the general
LATUS RECTUM. For y2 = 4ax.
equation of a conic represents a pair of straight lines and if :
(i) Length of the latus rectum = 4a.
e > 1, h2 > ab the lines will be real & distinct intersecting at S.
e = 1, h2 = ab the lines will coincident. (ii) Length of the semi latus rectum = 2a.
e < 1, h2 < ab the lines will be imaginary. (iii) Ends of the latus rectum are L( a, 2a ) & L'(a, – 2a )
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ALLEN ALLEN
Note that : Length
Ends
Vertex
of Parametric Focal
(i) Perpendicular distance from focus on directrix = half the latus Parabola Fous Axis Directrix
Latus
of Latus
equation length
rectum
rectum. rectum
2 2
(ii) Vertex is middle point of the focus & the point of intersection of y = 4ax (0,0) (a,0) y=0 x=–a 4a (a, ±2a) (at ,2at) x+a
2 2
directrix & axis. y =–4ax (0,0) (–a,0) y=0 x=a 4a (–a, ±2a) (–at ,2at) x–a
2 2
(iii) Two parabolas are said to be equal if they have latus rectum of x = +4ay (0,0) (0,a) x=0 y=–a 4a (±2a, a) (2at,at ) y+a
2 2
same length. x = –4ay (0,0) (0,–a) x=0 y=a 4a (±2a, –a) (2at, –at ) y–a
2 2
(y–k) =4a(x–h) (h,k) (h+a,k) y=k x+a–h=0 4a (h+a, k±2a) (h+at ,k+2at) x–h+a
5. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION : 2
(x–p) =4b(y–q) (p,q) (p, b+q) x=p y+b–q=0 4b (p±2a,q+a) (p+2at,q+at 2) y–q+b
The simplest & the best form of representing the co-ordinates of a 7. POSITION OF A POINT RELATIVE TO A PARABOLA :
point on the parabola y2 = 4ax is (at2, 2at) . The equation x = at2 The point ( x1, y1 ) lies outside, on or inside the parabola y2 = 4ax
& y = 2at together represents the parabola y2 = 4ax , t being the according as the expression y12 – 4ax1 is positive, zero or negative.
parameter.
8. CHORD JOINING TWO POINTS :
6. TYPE OF PARABOLA : The equation of a chord of the parabola y2 = 4ax joining its two
Four standard forms of the parabola are y2 = 4ax ; y2 = – 4ax ; points P(t1) and Q(t2) is y(t1 + t2) = 2x + 2at1t2
x2 = 4ay ; x2 = –4ay Note :
(i) If PQ is focal chord then t1t2 = –1.
Z Y
M Z æ a -2a ö
Y (ii) Extremities of focal chord can be taken as (at2, 2at) & ç 2 ,
t ÷ø
L P(x,y)

èt
(–a,0)
(a,0) (iii) If t1t2 = k then chord always passes a fixed point (–ka, 0).
X' T A S N X X' S 0 X
L' x=a
9. LINE & A PARABOLA :
x=–a P'
Z' Y' Y' Z' (a) The line y = mx + c meets the parabola y2 = 4ax in two points
real, coincident or imaginary according as a > =< cm
y2 = 4ax y2 = –4ax
a
Y Þ condition of tangency is, c = .
Y m
y=a Note : Line y = mx + c will be tangent to parabola
(0,a) S
Z' 0 Z x2 = 4ay if c = – am2.
X' 0 X X' X (b) Length of the chord intercepted by the parabola y2 = 4ax on
S
(0,–a)
Z' y=–a Z æ 4 ö 2
the line y = mx + c is : ç 2 ÷ a(1 + m )(a - mc) .
Y' Y' èm ø
x2 = 4ay x2 = –4ay Note : length of the focal chord making an angle a with the
x-axis is 4a cosec2 a.
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10. LENGTH OF SUBTANGENT & SUBNORMAL : 2 (c) Parametric form :
P (at , 2at)
PT and PG are the tangent and normal Equation of normal to the given parabola at its point P(t), is
respectively at the point P to the y + tx = 2at + at3
parabola y2 = 4ax. Then N G Note :
T
TN = length of subtangent = twice the (i) Point of intersection of normals at t1 & t2 is
abscissa of the point P (a(t12 + t22 + t1t2 + 2), – at1t2 (t1 + t2)).
(Subtangent is always bisected by the vertex)
NG = length of subnormal which is constant for all points on the (ii) If the normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point
parabola & equal to its semi latus rectum (2a). t1, meets the parabola again at the point t 2, then
11. TANGENT TO THE PARABOLA y2 = 4ax : æ 2ö
t2 = – ç t1 + .
(a) Point form : è t1 ÷ø
Equation of tangent to the given parabola at its point (x1, y1) is (iii) If the normals to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the points t1 &
yy1 = 2a (x + x1) t2 intersect again on the parabola at the point ‘t3’ then
t1t2 = 2 ; t3 = – (t1 + t2) and the line joining t1 & t2 passes
(b) Slope form :
Equation of tangent to the given parabola whose slope is 'm', is through a fixed point (–2a, 0).
a 13. PAIR OF TANGENTS :
y = mx + , ( m ¹ 0)
m The equation of the pair of tangents which can be drawn from any
a 2a ö point P(x1, y1) outside the parabola to the parabola y2 = 4ax is
Point of contact is æç 2 ,
èm m ÷ø given by : SS1 = T2, where :

(c) Parametric form :
S º y2 – 4ax ; S1 º y12 – 4ax1 ; T º yy1 – 2a (x + x1).
Equation of tangent to the given parabola at its point P(t), is -
ty = x + at2 14. CHORD OF CONTACT :
Note : Point of intersection of the tangents at the point t1 & t2 is Equation of the chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point
[at1 t2, a(t1+ t2)]. (i.e. G.M. and A.M. of abscissae and P(x1, y1) is yy1 = 2a(x + x1)
ordinates of the points) Remember that the area of the triangle formed by the tangents from
(y )
3/2
12. NORMAL TO THE PARABOLA y2 = 4ax : 2
1 - 4ax1
the point (x , y ) & the chord of contact is . Also note
(a) Point form : 1 1
2a
Equation of normal to the given parabola at its point (x1, y1) is that the chord of contact exists only if the point P is not inside.
y 15. CHORD WITH A GIVEN MIDDLE POINT :
y – y1 = – 1 (x – x1)
2a Equation of the chord of the parabola y2 = 4ax whose middle point
(b) Slope form :
Equation of normal to the given parabola whose slope is 'm', is 2a
y = mx – 2am – am3 foot of the normal is (am2, – 2am)
is (x1, y1) is y – y1 =
y1
( x - x1 ) .
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ALLEN ALLEN
This reduced to T = S1 parabola are the bisectors of the angle between the focal radius
where T º yy1 – 2a (x + x1) & S1 º y12 – 4ax1. SP & the perpendicular from P on the directrix. From this we
16. DIAMETER : conclude that all rays emanating from S will become parallel to
The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords of a the axis of the parabola after reflection.
Parabola is called a DIAMETER. Equation to the diameter of a (b) The portion of a tangent to a parabola cut off between the
parabola y2 = 4ax is y = 2a/m, where m = slope of parallel chords. directrix & the curve subtends a right angle at the focus.
(c) The tangents at the extremities of a focal chord intersect at
17. CONORMAL POINTS :
right angles on the directrix, and a circle on any focal chord as
Foot of the normals of three concurrent normals are called conormals diameter touches the directrix. Also a circle on any focal radii of
point. a point P (at2, 2at) as diameter touches the tangent at the vertex
(i) Algebraic sum of the slopes of three concurrent normals of
and intercepts a chord of length a 1 + t2 on a normal at the
parabola y2 = 4ax is zero.
point P.
(ii) Sum of ordinates of the three conormal points on the parabola (d) Any tangent to a parabola & the perpendicular on it from the
y2 = 4ax is zero. focus meet on the tangent at the vertex.
(iii) Centroid of the triangle formed by three co-normal points lies (e) Semi latus rectum of the parabola y2 = 4ax, is the harmonic
mean between segments of any focal chord
on the axis of parabola.
2bc 1 1 1
(iv) If 27ak2 < 4(h – 2a)3 satisfied then three real and distinct normal i.e. 2a = or + = .
b+c b c a
are drawn from point (h, k) on parabola y2 = 4ax.
(f) Image of the focus lies on directrix with respect to any tangent

(v) If three normals are drawn from point (h, 0) on parabola of parabola y2 = 4ax.
y2 = 4ax, then h > 2a and one of the normal is axis of the
parabola and other two are equally inclined to the axis of the
parabola.
18. IMPORTANT HIGHLIGHTS :
)
(a) If the tangent & normal at Y (h, k
P
any point ‘P’ of the parabola
K S
intersect the axis at T & G X'
)
X
T (a,0) G
then ST = SG = SP where
‘S’ is the focus. In other x= –a Y'
words the tangent and the
normal at a point P on the
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ALLEN ALLEN
(d) Minor Axis : The y-axis intersects the ellipse in the points
ELLIPSE B' º (0,–b) & B º (0, b). The line segment B'B of length
2b (b < a) is called the Minor Axis of the ellipse.
1. STANDARD EQUATION & DEFINITION : (e) Principal Axis : The major & minor axis together are called
Standard equation of an ellipse referred to its principal axis along Principal Axis of the ellipse.
x2 y 2 (f) Centre : The point which bisects every chord of the conic drawn
the co-ordinate axis is + = 1 . where a > b & b2 = a2 (1-e2 )
a2 b2 through it is called the centre of the conic. C º (0,0) the origin
Þ a2 – b2 = a2 e2 .
where e = eccentricity (0 < e < 1 ). x2 y2
is the centre of the ellipse + =1
Y a2 b2
(g) Diameter : A chord of the conic which passes through the
B(0,b) centre is called a diameter of the conic.
M' M (h) Focal Chord : A chord which passes through a focus is called
a L1 L a
x= a focal chord.
e e
X' X
Z' (–a,0) A' S' (–ae,0) C S A(a,0) Z (i) Double Ordinate : A chord perpendicular to the major axis is
called a double ordinate with respect to major axis as diameter.
Directrix
Directrix
L1 ' L'
B'(0,–b) (j) Latus Rectum : The focal chord perpendicular to the major
axis is called the latus rectum.
Y' (i) Length of latus rectum

FOCI :S º (ae, 0) & S’ º (– ae, 0 ). 2b2 (minor axis)2
(LL') = = = 2a(1 - e2 )
(a) Equation of directrices : a major axis
a a (ii) Equation of latus rectum : x = ± ae.
x= & x=- .
e e æ b2 ö æ 2
ö
(iii) Ends of the latus rectum are L ç ae, ÷ , L ' ç ae, - b ÷ ,
(b) Vertices : è aø è a ø
A' º (–a, 0) & A º (a, 0 ). æ b2 ö

L1 ç -ae, ÷ and L ' æ -ae, - b ö .
2
1 ç
(c) Major axis : The line segment A' A in which the foci S' & S lie è a ø è a ÷ø
is of length 2a & is called the major axis (a > b) of the ellipse. (k) Focal radii : SP= a –ex and S 'P = a + ex
Point of intersection of major axis with directrix is called the Þ SP + S 'P = 2a = Major axis.
b2
foot of the directrix (Z) æç ± a , 0ö÷ . (l) Eccentricity : e = 1 -
è e ø a2
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ALLEN ALLEN
2. ANOTHER FORM OF ELLIPSE : Y
4. POSITION OF A POINT W.R.T. AN ELLIPSE :
Directrix Z y = b/e
x2 y2 The point P(x1, y1) lies outside, inside or on the ellipse according as
+ = 1 , (a <b) 2 2
a 2 b2 B(0,b) x1 y
; 2
+ 12 - 1 > < or = 0.
(a) AA' = Minor axis = 2a a b
( – ab , be) L' ( ab , be)
2 2
S L
(0,be) 5. AUXILIARY CIRCLE/ECCENTRIC ANGLE :
(b) BB' = Major axis = 2b
(–a,0) A' A(a,0) A circle described on major axis as Y
X' X
(c) a2 = b2 (1–e2) C (0,0) Q
diameter is called the auxiliary
P
(d) Latus rectum (0,–be) S'
L1 ' L1 circle. Let Q be a point on the q
2a 2 A' S' O N S A
LL' = L1L1' = . auxiliary circle x2 + y2 = a2 such that (–a, 0) (a, 0)
b B'(0,–b)
Z' QP produced is perpendicular to the
equation y = ± be Directrix y = – b/e
x-axis then P & Q are called as the
(e) Ends of the latus rectum are : Y'
CORRESPONDING POINTS on
æ a2 ö æ a2 ö æ a2 ö æ a2 ö
L ç ,be÷ ,L ' ç - ,be÷ ,L 1 ç , -be÷ ,L 1 ' ç - , - be÷ the ellipse & the auxiliary circle respectively.‘q’ is called the
è b ø è b ø è b ø è b ø
ECCENTRIC ANGLE of the point P on the ellipse (0 £ q < 2p).
b
(f) Equation of directrix y = ± .
e l (PN) b Semi minor axis
Note that = =

l (QN) a Semi major axis
a2 Hence “If from each point of a circle perpendiculars are drawn
(g) Eccentricity : e = 1 –
b2
upon a fixed diameter then the locus of the points dividing these
3. GENERAL EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE : perpendiculars in a given ratio is an ellipse of which the given circle
is the auxiliary circle”.
Let (a,b) be the focus S, and lx + my + n =
P(x,y) 6. PARAMATRIC REPRESENTATION :
0 is the equation of directrix. Let P(x,y) be M
The equations x = a cosq & y = b sinq together represent the ellipse
any point on the ellipse. Then by definition.
lx + my + n = 0
axis x2 y2
+ =1
Þ SP = e PM (e is the eccentricity) S(a,b) a 2 b2
(l x + my + n) 2 where q is a parameter (eccentric angle).
Þ (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = e2 Note that if P(q) º (a cosq, b sinq) is on the ellipse then ;
( l 2 + m2 )
Q(q) º (a cosq, a sinq) is on the auxiliary circle.
Þ (l2 + m2) {(x – a)2 + (y – b)2} = e2{lx + my + n}2
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ALLEN ALLEN
7. LINE AND AN ELLIPSE : (b) Slope form : Equation of a normal to the given ellipse whose
x2 y2 (a2 - b2 )m
slope is ‘m’ is y = mx m .
The line y = mx + c meets the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 in two real points, a 2 + b2 m 2
a b
coincident or imaginary according as c2 is < = or > a2m2 + b2. (c) Parametric form : Equation of the normal to the given ellipse
x2 y2 at the point (acos q , bsin q ) is ax sec q – by cosec q =(a2 – b2).
Hence y = mx + c is tangent to the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 if c2 = a2m2 + b2.
a b 10. CHORD OF CONTACT :
The equation to the chord of the ellipse joining two points with
If PA and PB be the tangents from point P(x1,y1) to the ellipse
x a + b y a +b a -b
eccentric angles a & b is given by cos + sin = cos . x2 y2
a 2 b 2 2 + = 1,
a 2 b2
x2 y 2 xx1 yy1
8. TANGENT TO THE ELLIPSE + =1 : + 2 = 1 or
a2 b2 then the equation of the chord of contact AB is
a2 b
T = 0 at (x1,y1)
(a) Point form :
Y
Equation of tangent to the given ellipse at its point (x1, y1) is 11. PAIR OR TANGENTS :
If P(x1,y1) be any point A
xx1 yy1
+ 2 =1 lies outside the ellipse
a2 b P X' X
(x1,y1) C
(b) Slope form : x2 y2
2
+ 2 = 1,
Equation of tangent to the given ellipse whose slope is 'm', is a b B
and a pair of tangents PA, PB

y = mx ± a2 m2 + b2 Y'
can be drawn to it from P.
æ ± a2 m m b2 ö Then the equation of pair of tangents of PA and PB is SS 1= T2
Point of contact are ç , ÷÷
ç 2 2 2
è a m +b a 2 m 2 + b2 ø x12 y12 xx yy
where S1 = + - 1 , T = 21 + 21 - 1
(c) Parametric form : a 2 b2 a b
Equation of tangent to the given ellipse at its point ö æ xx1 yy1 ö
2
æ x2 y2 ö æ x2 y2
x cos q y sin q i.e. ç 2 + 2 - 1 ÷ ç 12 + 12 - 1 ÷ = ç 2 + 2 - 1 ÷
(a cos q , b sin q ), is + =1 èa b ø èa b ø è a b ø
a b
x2 y 2 12. DIRECTOR CIRCLE :
9. NORMAL TO THE ELLIPSE + =1 : Locus of the point of intersection of the tangents which meet at right
a2 b2
angles is called the Director Circle. The equation to this locus is
(a) Point form : Equation of the normal to the given ellipse at
x2 + y2 = a2 + b2 i.e. a circle whose centre is the centre of the ellipse
a 2 x b2 y & whose radius is the length of the line joining the ends of the major
(x1, y1) is - = a2 – b2 = a2e2.
x1 y1 & minor axis.
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ALLEN ALLEN
13. EQUATION OF CHORD WITH MID POINT (x1,y1) :
x2 y2 HYPERBOLA
The equation of the chord of the ellipse + =1,
a 2 b2
whose mid-point be (x1,y1) is T = S1 The Hyperbola is a conic whose eccentricity is greater than unity.
2 2 (e > 1).
xx1 yy1 x y
where T = + 2 - 1 , S1 = 1 1
+ -1
a2 b a b 2 2
1. STANDARD EQUATION & DEFINITION(S) :
ö æx ö
2 2 y
æ xx yy y a a
i.e. ç 21 + 21 - 1 ÷ = ç + 1
2
- 1÷
1
2 x =– e x =+ e
è a b ø èa b ø
B L 2
x = (ae, b /a)
2 2 (0, b)
x y
14. IMPORTANT HIGHLIGHTS for + =1 :
a 2 b2
Y S' A' A S
x
(I) The tangent & normal at a point (–ae, 0) (–a, 0) c (0, 0) (a, 0) (ae, 0)
Tan
P on the ellipse bisect the Q
B ge nt
P Light ray
external & internal angles (0,–b) B' (ae, –b 2 /a)
qq
S L'
between the focal distances of
X' X
P. This refers to the well known A' S' C N
reflection property of the ellipse

which states that rays from one x2 y 2
Reflected ray B' Normal Standard equation of the hyperbola is – 2 = 1,
focus are reflected through a2 b

other focus & vice-versa. Y' where b2 = a2 (e2 - 1)
(II) Point of intersection of the tangents at the point a & b is 2
b2 æ Conjugate Axis ö
æ cos a 2+ b sin a 2+ b ö or a2 e2 = a2 + b2 i.e. e2 = 1 + =1+ ç
çç a , b ÷ a2 è Transverse Axis ÷ø
è cos 2
a-b
cos a 2- b ÷ø
(a) Foci :
(III) If A(a), B(b), C(g) & D(d) are conormal points then sum of their eccentric
angles is odd multiple of p. i.e. a + b + g + d = (2n+1)p. S º (ae, 0) & S' º (- ae, 0).
(IV) If A(a), B(b), C(g) & D(d) are four concyclic points then sum of their (b) Equations of directrices :
eccentric angles is even multiple of p.
a a
i.e. a + b + g + d = 2np x= & x=- .
e e
(V) The product of the length’s of the perpendicular segments from the
foci on any tangent to the ellipse is b² and the feet of these (c) Vertices :
perpendiculars lie on its auxiliary circle. A º (a , 0) & A¢ º (- a , 0).
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ALLEN ALLEN
(d) Latus rectum : Note that :
(i) Equation : x = ± ae (i) If e1 & e2 are the eccentricities of the hyperbola & its conjugate
then e1-2 + e2-2 = 1.
2 b2
=
( Conjugate Axis) 2
(ii) Length = = 2a (e2 - 1)

a ( Transverse Axis) (ii) The foci of a hyperbola and its conjugate are concyclic and form
= 2e(distance from focus to directrix) the vertices of a square.
æ (iii) Two hyperbolas are said to be similar if they have the same
b2 ö æ - b2 ö æ b2 ö æ - b2 ö
(iii) Ends : ç ae, ÷ , ç ae, ÷ø ; çè -ae, ÷ø , çè -ae, ÷ eccentricity.
è a ø è a a a ø
(e) (i) Transverse Axis :
3. RECTANGULAR OR EQUILATERAL HYPERBOLA :
The line segment A¢A of length 2a in which the foci S¢ & S
The particular kind of hyperbola in which the lengths of the transverse
both lie is called the Transverse Axis of the Hyperbola. & conjugate axis are equal is called an Equilateral Hyperbola.
(ii) Conjugate Axis :
Note that the eccentricity of the rectangular hyperbola is 2 and the
The line segment B¢B between the two points B¢ º (0, - b) &
length of it's latus rectum is equal to it's transverse or conjugate axis.
B º (0, b) is called as the Conjugate Axis of the Hyperbola.
The Transverse Axis & the Conjugate Axis of the hyperbola 4. AUXILIARY CIRCLE :
are together called the Principal axis of the hyperbola. y
(f) Focal Property :

Q P (asecq , btan q )
The difference of the focal distances of any point on the

hyperbola is constant and equal to transverse axis i.e.
(–a, 0) (0, 0) q
P S - P S¢ = 2a . The distance SS¢ = focal length. A x
A' C (a, 0) N
(g) Focal distance :
Distance of any point P(x, y) on hyperbola from foci PS = ex – a
& PS¢ = ex + a.
2. CONJUGATE HYPERBOLA :
A circle drawn with centre C & transverse axis as a diameter
Two hyperbolas such that transverse & conjugate axis of one hyperbola
is called the Auxiliary Circle of the hyperbola. Equation of
are respectively the conjugate & the transverse axis of the other are
the auxiliary circle is x2 + y2 = a2.
x2 y 2
called Conjugate Hyperbolas of each other. eg. 2 - 2 = 1 & Note from the figure that P & Q are called the "Corresponding
a b
x 2
y 2 Points" on the hyperbola & the auxiliary circle. 'q' is called the
- 2 + 2 = 1 are conjugate hyperbolas of each other..
a b eccentric angle of the point 'P' on the hyperbola. (0 £ q < 2 p ).
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Parametric Equation : (c) Parametric form : Equation of the tangent to the given
hyperbola at the point (a sec q , b tan q) is
The equations x = a sec q & y = b tan q together represents the
x2 y 2 x sec q y tan q
hyperbola - = 1 where q is a parameter.. - =1.
a 2 b2 a b
5. POSITION OF A POINT 'P' w.r.t. A HYPERBOLA : Note : Point of intersection of the tangents at q1 & q2 is
The quantity
x1
2
y
2
- 12 = 1 is positive , zero or negative according x=a

cos ( q1 - q2
2 ) , y = b tan æç q + q ö÷
1 2
a2 b
as the point (x1 , y1) lies within , upon or outside the curve.
cos ( q1 + q2
2 ) è 2 ø
x2 y2
6. LINE AND A HYPERBOLA : 8. NORMAL TO THE HYPERBOLA 2
- 2 =1 :
The straight line y = mx + c is a secant, a tangent or passes outside a b
(a) Point form : Equation of the normal to the given hyperbola
x2 y2
the hyperbola - = 1 according as : c2 > = < a2 m2 - b2.
a 2 b2 a 2 x b2 y
at the point P (x1 , y1) on it is + = a2 + b2 = a2 e2.
x2 y2 x1 y1
Equation of a chord of the hyperbola - = 1 joining its two
a 2 b2 (b) Slope form : The equation of normal of slope m to the given
x a-b y a+b a+b m(a 2 + b2 )
points P(a) & Q(b) is cos - sin = cos hyperbola is y = mx m foot of normal are
a 2 b 2 2
(a 2 - m2 b2 )
2 2
x y
7. TANGENT TO THE HYPERBOLA 2 - 2 = 1 : æ a2 mb2 ö
a b ç± ,m ÷
(a) Point form : Equation of the tangent to the given hyperbola ç 2 2 2
(a - m b ) (a - m b ) ÷ø
2 2 2

è
x x1 y y1
at the point (x1 , y1) is - 2 = 1.
a2 b (c) Parametric form :The equation of the normal at the point
Note : In general two tangents can be drawn from an external P (a se c q , b tan q) to t he given hyperbo la is
point (x1 y1) to the hyperbola and they are y - y1 = m1 (x - x1) & ax by
+ = a2 + b2 = a2 e2.
y - y1 = m2 (x - x2), where m1 & m2 are roots of the equation sec q tan q
(x12 - a2) m2 - 2 x1y1 m + y12 + b2 = 0 . If D < 0, then no 9. DIRECTOR CIRCLE :
tangent can be drawn from (x1 y1) to the hyperbola. The locus of the intersection of tangents which are at right
(b) Slope form : The equation of tangents of slope m to the angles is known as the Director Circle of the hyperbola. The
given hyperbola is y = m x ± a 2 m 2 - b 2 . Point of contact are equation to the director circle is : x2 + y2 = a2 - b2.
If b2 < a2 this circle is real ; if b2 = a2 the radius of the circle
æ ±a2 m ± b2 ö
çç 2 2 , ÷ is zero & it reduces to a point circle at the origin. In this case
2 2 2 2 ÷
è a m -b a m -b ø the centre is the only point from which the tangents at right
Note that there are two parallel tangents having the same slope m. angles can be drawn to the curve.
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ALLEN ALLEN
If b2 > a2, the radius of the circle is imaginary, so that there is x2
y 2
no such circle & so no tangents at right angle can be drawn to Combined equation of asymptotes of hyperbola 2
- 2 = 1 will be
a b
the curve. x2 y2
- =0
10. CHORD OF CONTACT : a2 b2
If PA and PB be the tangents from point P(x1,y1) to the Hyperbola 14. RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA : y
x2 y2 Rectangular hyperbola referred to its
- = 1, then the equation of the chord of contact AB is asymptotes as axis of coordinates.
a 2 b2
(a) Equation is xy = c2 with parametric
xx1 yy1 x
– 2 = 1 or T = 0 at (x1,y1) representation x = ct, y = c/t, o
a2 b
t Î R – {0}.
11. PAIR OR TANGENTS : (b) Equation of a chord joining the points
x2 y2 P (t1) & Q(t2) is x + t1 t2 y = c (t1 + t2)
If P(x1,y1) be any point lies outside the Hyperbola - = 1 and -1
a 2 b2 with slope m =
a pair of tangents PA, PB can be drawn to it from P. Then the equation t1 t 2
of pair of tangents of PA and PB is SS1= T2 x y
x12 y12 xx1 yy1 (c) Equation of the tangent at P (x1 , y1) is x + y = 2
where S1 = 2 - 2 - 1 , T = 2 - 2 - 1 1 1
a b a b x
& at P (t) is + t y = 2 c.
æ x2 y2 ö æx2
y 2
ö æ xx yy ö
2
t
i.e. ç 2 - 2 - 1 ÷ ç
1
- - 1 ÷ = ç 21 - 21 - 1 ÷
1
c
èa b 2 2
ø è a b ø è a b ø 2
(d) Equation of normal is y - = t (x - ct)
t

12. EQUATION OF CHORD WITH MID POINT (x1,y1) :
(e) Chord with a given middle point as (h, k) is kx + hy = 2hk.
x2 y2 15. IMPORTANT HIGHLIGHTS :
The equation of the chord of the ellipse - =1 ,
a 2 b2
whose mid-point be (x1,y1) is T = S1 (i) The tangent and normal at any point of a hyperbola bisect the angle
between the focal radii.
xx1 yy1 x2 y2
where T = 2
- 2 - 1 , S1 = 12 - 12 - 1
a b a b (ii) Reflection property of the hyperbola : An incoming light ray aimed
æ xx yy ö æx
2
y ö 2 towards one focus is reflected from the outer surface of the hyperbola
i.e. ç 21 - 21 - 1 ÷ = ç - 1
2
- 1÷ 1
2 towards the other focus.
è a b ø èa b ø
13. ASYMPTOTES :
Definition : If the length of the perpendicular let fall from a
point on a hyperbola to a straight line tends to zero as the point
on the hyperbola moves to infinity along the hyperbola, then the
straight line is called the Asymptote of the Hyperbola.
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ALLEN ALLEN
Note :
FUNCTION (i) A polynomial of degree one with no constant term is called an
odd linear function. i.e. f(x) = ax, a ¹ 0
1. DEFINITION : (ii) There are four polynomial functions, satisfying the relation ;
If to every value (considered as real unless other-wise stated) of a f(x). f(1/x) = f(x) + f(1/x). They are :
variable x, which belongs to a set A, there corresponds one and only (a) f(x) = xn + 1, n Î ¥
one finite value of the quantity y which belong to set B, then y is (b) f(x) = 1 – xn, n Î ¥
said to be a function of x and written as f : A ® B, y = f(x), x (c) f(x) = 0
is called argument or independent variable and y is called dependent (d) f(x) = 2
variable.
(iii) Domain of a polynomial function is R
x f(x) = y (iv) Range of odd degree polynomial is R whereas range of an
Pictorially : ¾¾® f ¾¾¾¾¾ ®
input output even degree polynomial is never R.
y is called the image of x and x is the pre-image of y, under (b) Algebraic function :
mapping f. A function ‘f’ is called an algebraic function if it can be
Every function f : A ® B satisfies the following conditions. constructed using algebraic operations (such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking radicals) starting
(i) f Ì A × B (ii) "a Î A $ b Î B such that (a,b) Î f and
with polynomials.
(iii) If (a,b) Î f & (a,c) Î f Þ b=c (c) Rational function :
2. DOMAIN, CO-DOMAIN & RANGE OF A FUNCTION : g(x)

A rational function is a function of the form y = f(x) = ,
Let f : A ® B, then the set A is known as the domain of ‘f’ & h(x)
the set B is known as co-domain of ‘f’. The set of all f images of where g(x) & h(x) are polynomials & h(x) ¹ 0,
elements of A is known as the range of ‘f’. Thus Domain : R–{x | h(x)=0}
Domain of f = {x | x Î A, (x, f(x)) Îf} Any rational function is automatically an algebraic function.
(d) Exponential and Logarithmic Function :
Range of f = {f(x) | x Î A, f(x) ÎB}
A function f(x) = a x (a > 0), a ¹ 1, x ÎR is called an
Range is a subset of co-domain.
exponential function. The inverse of the exponential function
3. IMPORTANT TYPES OF FUNCTION : is called the logarithmic function, i.e. g(x)= loga x.
(a) Polynomial function : Note that f(x) & g(x) are inverse of each other & their graphs
If a function ‘f’ is called by f(x) = a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + ...... are as shown. (Functions are mirror image of each other
+ an–1x + an where n is a non negative integer and a0, a1, a2,....an about the line y = x)
are real numbers and a0 ¹ 0, then f is called a polynomial function Domain of a x is R Range R +
of degree n. Domain of log a x is R + Range R
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ALLEN ALLEN
y
+¥
(f) Signum function : y=1
+¥
Signum function y = sgn (x)
(0,1) is defined as follows
x
f(x)=a , a>1 (0,1) x
f(x)=a , a Î(0,1) o x
y = Sgn x
45° ìx ì1 for x > 0
(1,0) (1,0) ï ,x ¹ 0 ï
y =í x = í0 for x = 0
y = -1
ï
x îï0, x = 0 î-1 for x < 0
y= x g(x)=logax
y=
Domain : R
g(x)=log ax
Range : {–1, 0, 1}
(e) Absolute value function : y
(g) Greatest integer or step up function :
y=–x y=x
It is defined as : y = |x| The function y = f(x) = [x] is called the greatest integer
ì x if x³0 function where [x] denotes the greatest integer less than
=í
î- x if x<0 or equal to x. Note that for :
x
o
Also defined as max{x, –x} y
x [x] 3
graph of y = [x]
Domain : R Range : [0, ¥)
[–2,–1) –2
2
1
Note : f(x)= Domain : R–{0} Range : R + [–1,0) –1
1
|x|
[0,1) 0
Properties of modulus function : –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x
[1,2) 1

For any x, y, a Î R. –1
(i) |x| ³ 0 (ii) |x| = |–x| Domain : R –2
x |x| –3
(iii) |xy| = |x||y| (iv) = ; y ¹ 0 Range : I
y |y|
Properties of greatest integer function :
(v) |x| = a Þ x = ± a, a > 0 (vi) 2
x = x (i) x – 1 < [x] £ x < [x] + 1, 0 £ x – [x] < 1
(vii) |x| ³ a Þ x ³ a or x £ –a. where a is positive. ì[x] + [y] , {x} + {y} Î [0, 1)
(ii) [x + y] = í
(viii)|x| £ a Þ x Î [–a, a]. where a is positive î[x] + [y] + 1 , {x} + {y} Î [1, 2)
(ix) |x| > |y|Þ x2 > y2 ì0, x Î I
(iii) [x] + [–x] = í
(x) |x|-|y| £ |x + y| £|x|+|y| î -1, x Î
/I
Note that (a)|x|+|y||x

= + y| Þ xy ³ 0 ì0, x Î I
(iii) {x} + {–x} = í
(b)|x|+|y||x
= - y| Þ xy £ 0 î1, x Î/ I
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ALLEN ALLEN
1 (k) Trigonometric functions :
Note : f(x) =
[x] (i) Sine function : f(x) = sin x
Domain : R – [0, 1) Range : {x|x = 1 , n Î I - {0}} Domain : R Range : [–1, 1], period 2p
n
(h) Fractional part function : (ii) Cosine function : f(x) = cos x
It is defined as : g(x) = {x} = x – [x] e.g. Domain : R Range : [–1, 1], period 2p
(iii) Tangent function : f(x) = tan x
x {x} y
graph of y = {x} Domain : R - ìí x|x = (2n + 1)p ,n Î I üý
[–2,–1) x+2 î 2 þ
[–1,0) x+1
1 Range : R, period p
x (iv) Cosecant function : f(x) = cosec x
[0,1) x –2 –1 0 1 2 3
Domain : R – {x|x = np, n ÎI}
[1,2) x–1
Range : R – (–1, 1), period 2p
Domain : R Range : [0,1) Period : 1 (v) Secant function : f(x) = sec x

Domain : R – {x|x = (2n + 1) p/2 : n Î I}
1
Note : f(x)= Domain : R – I Range : (1, ¥) Range : R – (–1, 1), period 2p
{x}
y
(vi) Cotangent function : f(x) = cot x
(i) Identity function : Domain : R – {x|x = np, n ÎI}

The function f : A ® A defined Range : R, period p
x
by f(x) = x " x Î A is called the (l) Inverse Trigonometric function :
identity function on A and is é p pù
(i) f(x) = sin–1 x Domain : [–1, 1] Range : ê - , ú
denoted by IA. ë 2 2û
(ii) f(x) = cos–1 x Domain : [–1, 1] Range : [0, p]
(j) Constant function : y
æ p pö
f : A ® B is said to be constant y=C (iii) f(x) = tan–1 x Domain : R Range : ç - , ÷
è 2 2ø
function if every element of A x (iv) f(x) = cot–1 x Domain : R Range : (0, p)
o
has the same f image in B. Thus é p pù
(v) f(x)= cosec–1x Domain : R –(–1,1) Range : ê- , ú –{0}
f : A ® B ; f(x) = c, " x Î A, ë 2 2û
c Î B is constant function.
ìpü
Domain : R Range : {c} (vi) f(x) = sec–1 x Domain : R – (–1,1) Range : [0,p] – í ý
î2 þ
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ALLEN ALLEN
4. EQUAL OR IDENTICAL FUNCTION : Thus f : A ® B is many one if $ x 1 , x 2 Î A, f(x 1 ) = f(x 2 )
but x 1 ¹ x 2
Two function f & g are said to be equal if :
Note : If a continuous function has local maximum or local
(a) The domain of f = the domain of g minimum, then f(x) is many-one because atleast one line parallel
(b) The range of f = range of g and to x-axis will intersect the graph of function atleast twice.
Total number of functions
(c) f(x) = g (x), for every x belonging to their common domain
(i.e. should have the same graph) = number of one-one functions + number of many-one function
(c) Onto function (Surjective) :
5. ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS :
If range = co-domain, then f(x) is onto.
If f & g are real valued functions of x with domain set A, B
(d) Into function :
respectively, f + g, f – g, (f . g) & (f/g) as follows :
If f : A ® B is such that there exists atleast one element in
(a) (f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x), domain in each case is A Ç B co-domain which is not the image of any element in domain,
(b) (f. g)(x) = f(x).g(x), domain is A Ç B then f(x) is into.
Note :
æ fö f(x)
(c) ç ÷ (x) = , domain A Ç B – {x|g(x) = 0} (i) If ‘f’ is both injective & surjective, then it is called a Bijective
è gø g(x)
mapping. The bijective functions are also named as
6. CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS : invertible, non singular or biuniform functions.
(a) One-One function (Injective mapping) : (ii) If a set A contains n distinct elements then the number of
different functions defined from A ® A is nn & out of it n!
A function f : A ® B is said to be a one-one function or

are one one and rest are many one.
injective mapping if different elements of A have different
(iii) If f : R ® R is a polynomial
f images in B. Thus for x1, x2 Î A & f(x1), f(x2) Î B, f(x1) = f(x2)
(a) Of even degree, then it will neither be injective nor
Û x1 = x2 or x 1 ¹ x 2 Û f(x 1 ) ¹ f(x 2 ). surjective.
Note: (b) Of odd degree, then it will always be surjective, no
(i) Any continuous function which is entirely increasing general comment can be given on its injectivity.
or decreasing in whole domain is one-one. 7. COMPOSITE OF UNIFORMLY & NON-UNIFORMLY
(ii) If a function is one-one, any line parallel to x-axis cuts the DEFINED FUNCTION :
graph of the function at atmost one point
Let f : A ® B & g : B ® C be two functions. Then the function gof :
(iii) Non-monotonic function can also be injective. A ® C defined by (gof ) (x) = g(f(x)) " x Î A is called the composite of
(b) Many-one function : the two functions f & g.
A function f : A ® B is said to be a many one function if Hence in gof(x) the range of ‘f’ must be a subset of the domain
two or more elements of A have the same f image in B. of ‘g’. x ƒ g g(ƒ(x))
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
Properties of composite functions: Properties of inverse function :
(a) In general composite of functions is not commutative i.e. (a) The inverse of a bijection is unique.
gof ¹ fog. (b) If f : A ® B is a bijection & g : B ® A is the inverse of f, then
(b) The composite of functions is associative i.e. if f, g, h are three fog = IB and gof = IA, where IA & IB are identity functions on
functions such that fo(goh) & (fog)oh are defined, then the sets A & B respectively. If fof = I, then f is inverse of itself.
fo(goh) = (fog)oh. (c) The inverse of a bijection is also a bijection.
(c) The composite of two bijections is a bijection i.e. if f & g are (d) If f & g are two bijections f : A ® B, g : B ® C & gof exist, then
two bijections such that gof is defined, then gof is also a bijection. the inverse of gof also exists and (gof) –1 = f–1og–1.
(d) If gof is one-one function then f is one-one but g may not be (e) Since f(a) = b if and only if f–1(b) = a, the point (a, b) is on the graph
one-one. of ‘f’ if and only if the point (b, a) is on the graph of f –1. But we
8. HOMOGENEOUS FUNCTIONS : get the point (b, a) from (a, b) by reflecting about the line y = x.
A function is said to be homogeneous with respect to any set of In general f(x) = x Þ f(x) = f–1(x).
variables when each of its terms is of the same degree with respect y
(b, a) y
to those variables.
f–1
For examples 5x2 + 3y2 – xy is homogenous in x & y. Symbolically (a, b)
if, f(tx, ty) = tn f(x, y), then f(x, y) is homogeneous function of 0
0 x
degree n. x
y=x f
y=x
9. BOUNDED FUNCTION :

A function is said to be bounded if |f(x)| £ M, where M is a finite y
quantity. y = f(x) y=x
10. IMPLICIT & EXPLICIT FUNCTION :

0 x
A function defined by an equation not solved for the dependent variable (–1,0)
(0,–1)
is called an implicit function. e.g. the equation x3 + y3 = 1 defines
y as an implicit function of x. If y has been expressed in terms of –1
y = f (x)
x alone then it is called an Explicit function.
11. INVERSE OF A FUNCTION : The graph of f -1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f about the line y =x.
Let f : A ® B be a one-one & onto function, then their exists 12. ODD & EVEN FUNCTIONS :
a unique function g : B ® A such that f(x) = y Û g(y) = x, If a function is such that whenever 'x' is in it's domain '–x' is also
in it's domain & it satisfies
" x Î A & y Î B. Then g is said to be inverse of f.
f(–x) = f(x), then it is an even function
Thus g = f–1 : B ® A = {(f(x), x))|(x, f (x)) Î f} and if f(–x) = –f(x), then it is an odd function
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ALLEN ALLEN
Note : (iv) If f(x) has period p and g(x) has period q, then one of the period
(i) A function may neither be odd nor even. of f(x) + g(x) will be LCM of p & q. However it may not be
fundamental period.
(ii) Inverse of an even function is not defined, as it is many-one
function. 1
(v) If f(x) has period p, then and f(x) (provided each one
f(x)
(iii) Every even function is symmetric about the y-axis & every
is defined over some non empty set) also has a period p.
odd function is symmetric about the origin.
(vi) If f(x) has period T then f(ax + b) has a period T/a (a > 0).
(iv) Every function which has '–x' in it's domain whenever 'x' is
in it's domain, can be expressed as the sum of an even & (vii) |sinx|,|cosx|,|tanx|,|cotx|,|secx| & |cosecx| are
an odd function. periodic function with period p.
f(x) + f(-x) f(x) - f(-x) (viii) sinnx, cosnx, secnx, cosecnx, are periodic function with period
e.g. f(x) = +
2 2 2p when ‘n’ is odd or p when n is even.
EVEN ODD
(ix) tannx, cosnx are periodic function with period p.
(v) The only function which is defined on the entire number line &
14. GENERAL :
even and odd at the same time is f(x) = 0 If x, y are independent variables and f is continuous function, then :
(a) f(xy) = f(x) + f(y) Þ f(x) = kln x
(vi) If f(x) and g(x) both are even or both are odd then the function
(b) f(xy) = f(x) . f(y) Þ f(x) = xn, n Î R or f(x) = 0
f(x) . g(x). will be even but if any one of them is odd & other is
(c) f(x + y) = f(x) . f(y) Þ f(x) = akx or f(x) = 0
even, then f.g will be odd. (d) f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) Þ f(x) = kx, where k is a constant.

13. PERIODIC FUNCTION : 15. SOME BASIC FUNCTION & THEIR GRAPH :
4
y=x
A function f(x) is called periodic if there exists a positive number y=x2
T(T >0) called the period of the function such that f(x + T) = f(x) (a) y = x2n, where n Î N 1
= f(x – T), for all values of x within the domain of f(x) and least
positive T if exist called fundamental period. –1 1
Note : y y=x
5
3
y=x
(i) Inverse of a periodic function does not exist.
(ii) Every constant function is periodic, with no fundamental period. 1
(iii) If f(x) has a period T & g(x) also has a period T then it –1
(b) y = x2n + 1, where n Î N x
does not mean that f(x) + g(x) must have a period T. e.g. O 1
1
f(x) = |sin x|+|cos x| (here period means fundamental
period).
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ALLEN ALLEN
1 (g) y = logax
y=
x when a > 1 when 0 < a < 1
1 y
-y = log2x lnx
x3 y log3x
1
1 –1
(c) y = , where n Î N 1 1
x2n -1 1
x x
–1
log1/3 x
log1/2 x log1/ex
(h) y = ax
1 a > 1 0 < a < 1
y=
x4 y 3x x
1 e
1 y=
1 x2 2x
(d) y = , where n Î N FG 1IJ
x2n
x
x
1 H 2K
–1 0 1 1
e- x
x
FG 1 IJ x
x H 4K
y= 1
y = x4 (i) Trigonometric functions :
1
1 Y
(e) y = x 2n , where n Î N (–3p /2,1) (p/2,1)
O 1 y = sinx

o p X
y
1/3
y= x
(–p /2,–1) (3p /2,–1)
1/5
y= x
Y
1 1 (0,1)
–1
(f) y = x +1
2n , where n Î N O 1 x y = cos x
–1 o p/2 X
(–p,–1) (p,–1)
Y
2
y
y = x3
y = tan x -p p
Note : y = x2/3 –3p/2 o p/2 3p/2 X
x
O
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ALLEN ALLEN
Y
16. TRANSFORMATION OF GRAPH :
(a) when ƒ (x) transforms to ƒ (x) + k
y=1
(–3p/2,1) (p/2,1)
if k > 0 then shift graph of ƒ (x) upward through k
y = cosecx if k < 0 then shift graph of ƒ (x) downward through k
o X
Examples :
(–p/2,–1)
y=–1 sinx+1
1. sinx
x=–2 p x= -p x= p x=2p p x
–p 0 2p 3p
sinx–1
Y
y=1 |x|+2
(–2p,1) (0,1)
|x|
y = sec x o X 2. (0,2)
|x|–2
(-p,-1) (p, -1)
y=-1 x
0
(0,–2)
3p p p 3p
x=– x=– x= x=
2 2 2 2 (b) ƒ (x) transforms to ƒ (x + k) :
if k > 0 then shift graph of ƒ (x) through k towards left.
Y
if k < 0 then shift graph of ƒ (x) through k towards right.

O
y = cot x

x
p Examples :
(– 3p ,0) (– p ,0) ( ,0) ( 3 p ,0)
2 2 2 2 y=(x+1)2
2
y=x 2 y=(x–1)
x=–2p x=–p x=p x=2p
(0,1)
D<0 D=0 1.
(j) y = ax2 + bx + c a>0 D>0
(–1,0) O (1,0)
x
ex+1
y
ex
ex–1
æ b Dö x
2.
vertex ç - , - ÷
è 2a 4a ø
D>0
D=0
D<0
x
–1 1
where D = b2 – 4ac
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ALLEN ALLEN
(c) ƒ (x) transforms to kƒ (x) : Examples :
if k > 1 then stretch graph of ƒ (x) k times along y-axis y
y x
e
if 0 < k < 1 then shrink graph of ƒ (x), k times along y-axis
Examples : –1/x 1/x
x x
2cosx 0
cosx –ex
–3p/2 p/2
–p/2 3p/2 5p/2
(g) ƒ (x) transforms to |ƒ (x)| :
cosx
2
Take mirror image (in a axis) of the portion of the graph of
ƒ (x) which lies below x-axis.
(d) ƒ (x) transforms to ƒ (kx) : Examples :
if k > 1 then shrink graph of ƒ (x), ‘k’ times along x-axis
y |ln x|
if 0 < k < 1 then stretch graph of ƒ (x), ‘k’ times along x-axis
Examples : |sinx|
1
x x
–2p
–p –p/2 0 p/2 p 3p/2 2p ln x sinx
sin2x
x
sin –1 sinx
2 (h) ƒ (x) transforms to ƒ (|x|) :
(e) ƒ (x) transforms to ƒ (–x) :
Neglect the curve for x < 0 and take the image of curve for

Take mirror image of the curve y = ƒ (x) in y-axis as plane mirror
Example : x ³ 0 about y-axis.
y
–x
e e
x
ln x ln|x|
y
1.
0 x
x x
–1 1
2.
y |x|
e
x
y e
1
(f) ƒ (x) transforms to –ƒ (x) : x x
Take image of y = ƒ (x) in the x axis as plane mirror

E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
(i) y = ƒ (x) transforms to |y|= ƒ (x) :
Remove the portion of graph which lies below x-axis & then INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION
take mirror image {in x axis} of remaining portion of graph
Examples :
1. DOMAIN, RANGE & GRAPH OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
y y
1 FUNCTIONS : y
x x y=arc sinx
(a) f -1 : [-1, 1] ® [–p/2, p/2], p/2
y= –|x|
y =1–|x|
y f–1(x) = sin–1(x)
–1 x
|y|= sinx 1
0
|y|=1–|×| -p/2
y=sinx y=arc sinx
(y = sin–1x)
y
(b) f -1 : [-1, 1] ® [0, p],
p
f -1 (x) = cos -1 x

p/2
–1 O 1 x
(y = cos–1x)
y
(c) f -1 : R ® (–p/2, p/2),
p/2
y=arc tanx
f -1 (x) = tan -1 x
x
0
y=arc tanx
–p/2
(y = tan–1x)
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ALLEN ALLEN
y ì 3p p
(d) f -1
: R ® (0, p),
p ï -p - x , -
2
£x£-
2
ï
f -1 (x) = cot -1 x y=arc cotx ï x p p
, - £x£
ï 2 2
p/2 ï
ï p-x p 3p
y=arc cotx , £x£
ï 2 2
x sin -1 (sin x) = í
0 3p 5p
ï x - 2p , £x£
ï 2 2
(y = cot–1x) ï 5p 7p
ï3 p - x , £x£
y ï 2 2
(e) f -1 : ( -¥, –1] È [1, ¥ ) p
ï 7p 9p
ï x - 4p , £x£
p/2 ïî 2 2
® [0, p/2) È (p/2,p] , y
x
f -1 (x) = sec -1 x
p
–1 0
y
2
y=
x
p
+
2
x
–(p
2p
p–
x–
y=
p 3p
x
+x
–
=
y
(f) f -1 : ( -¥, –1] È [1, ¥ ) 2
)
45°
y
2
–2p 3p –p O p p 2p x
p/2 –
2 2
® [–p/2, 0) È (0, p/2] , x –

p
–1 0 2
(ii) y = cos–1 (cos x), x Î R, y Î [0,p], periodic with period 2p


-p/2
f -1 (x) = cosec -1 x
ì -x , -p £ x £ 0
ï x , 0£x£ p
2. PROPERTIES OF INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS : ïï
-1
cos (cos x) = í2p - x , p £ x £ 2p
P-1 : ï x - 2p , 2p £ x £ 3p
(i) y = sin (sin–1x) = x, x Î [–1,1], y Î [–1,1], y is aperiodic ï
ïî4p - x , 3p £ x £ 4p
(ii) y = cos (cos–1 x) = x ,x Î [–1,1], y Î [–1,1], y is aperiodic
(iii) y = tan(tan–1 x)=x, x Î R, y Î R, y is aperiodic y
(iv) y = cot(cot–1 x) = x, x ÎR, y ÎR, y is aperiodic

p
(v) y = cosec (cosec–1 x) = x, |x| > 1, |y| > 1, y is aperiodic
x
y
p
2p
=
=
(vi) y = sec(sec–1 x) = x, |x| > 1 ; |y| > 1, y is aperiodic
=
– y
–x
2p
2
–x
=
P-2 :
y
x
é p pù – 2p –p p O p p 2p
(i) y = sin–1 (sin x), x Î R, y Î ê - , ú . Periodic with period 2p. –
2 2
ë 2 2û
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Mathematics HandBook
ALLEN
(iii) y = tan–1 (tan x)
ì p ü æ p pö
x Î R – í(2n - 1) ,n Î I ý ; y Î ç - , ÷ , periodic with period p
î 2 þ è 2 2ø
ì 3p p
ï x+p , -
2
<x<-
2
ï
ï x p p
, - <x<
ï 2 2
ï
ï p 3p
tan-1 (tan x) = í x - p , <x<
ï 2 2
ï 3p 5p
ï x - 2p , <x<
ï 2 2
ï 5p 7p
ïî x - 3p ,
2
<x<
2
y
+p
p
x
x–
y=

x
=
=
2p
y
y
–2p 3p –p –p O x
2 2 access all medical Video Lectures, Books in PDF
p
–
2
(iv) y = cot–1(cot x), xÎR– {n p}, y Î (0, p), periodic with period p
y More Absolutely for Free By visiting our Website
p https://medicalstudyzone.com all stuff are free
p
2p
p
x+
x–
x
x+
y=
y=
y=
y=
–2p p O p 2p
é p ö æ pù
(v) y = cosec–1 (cosec x), x Î R – {n p ,n Î I} y Î ê - ,0÷ È ç 0, ú ,
ë 2 ø è 2û
y is periodic with period 2 p.
E
127
ALLEN ALLEN
y (v) sec–1 (–x) = p – sec–1 x, x <–1 or x > 1
(vi) cosec–1(–x) = – cosec–1 x, x < –1 or x > 1
p
y= 2 P-5 :
y=
2p
x
x–
p
y=
– (p
– p
p–
3p
y=
(i) sin–1 x + cos–1 x = , –1 < x < 1
x
+x
2 45° 2
2
)
–p O p p 2p
– 3p x
2 2
p
(ii) tan–1 x + cot–1 x = , x Î R
2
– p p
2
(iii) cosec–1 x + sec–1 x = , |x| > 1
(vi) y = sec–1 (sec x), y is periodic with period 2p 2
P-6 :
ì p ü é pö æ p ù
x Î R – í(2n - 1) n Î I ý , y Î ê0, ÷ È ç , p ú ì -1 x + y
î 2 þ ë 2ø è 2 û ï tan 1 - xy , where x > 0, y > 0 & xy < 1
ï
y
–1 –1 ï -1 x + y
(i) tan x + tan y = í p + tan ,where x > 0, y > 0 & xy >1
ï 1 - xy
p
2
p
=
x ïp
+ p y ï , where x > 0, y > 0 & xy = 1
y
y
x –
î2
=
=
= 2
–x
2p
y –
x-y
x
–2p p 2p x
(ii) tan–1 x – tan–1 y = tan–1 , where x > 0 , y > 0
–
3p –p
–
p O p 3p 1 + xy
2 2 2 2
(iii) sin–1 x + sin–1 y = sin–1 [x 1 - y2 + y 1 - x2 ] ,
P-3 :
where x > 0, y > 0 & (x2 + y2) < 1

1
(i) cosec–1 x = sin–1 ; x <–1 or x > 1 p
x Note that : x2 + y2 < 1 Þ 0 < sin–1 x + sin–1 y <
2
1
(ii) sec–1 x = cos–1 ; x <–1 or x > 1
x (iv) sin–1 x + sin–1 y = p – sin–1 [x 1 - y2 + y 1 - x2 ] ,
1
(iii) cot–1x = tan–1 ; x > 0 where x > 0, y > 0 & x2 +y2 > 1
x
1 p
= p + tan–1 ; x<0 Note that : x2 + y2 > 1 Þ < sin–1 x + sin–1 y < p
x 2
P-4 : (v) sin–1 x – sin–1 y = sin–1 [x 1 - y2 - y 1 - x2 ] where x > 0, y > 0
(i) sin–1 (–x) = – sin–1 x , –1 < x < 1 (vi) cos–1x + cos–1y = cos–1 [xy - 1 - x2 1 - y2 ] , where x > 0, y > 0
(ii) tan (–x) = – tan x , x Î R
( )
–1 –1
ìcos-1 xy + 1 - x2 1 - y2 ; x < y, x, y > 0
(iii) cos–1 (–x) = p – cos–1 x, –1 < x < 1 ï
(vii) cos x – cos y = í
–1 –1
(iv) cot–1 (–x) = p – cot–1 x, x Î R ( )

ïî- cos-1 xy + 1 - x2 1 - y2 ; x > y, x, y > 0
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ALLEN ALLEN
y
é x + y + z - xyz ù (d) y = f(x) = sin–1 (3x – 4x3)
(viii) tan–1x + tan–1y + tan–1 z = tan–1 ê ú p/2
ë 1 - xy - yz - zx û
if x > 0, y > 0, z > 0 & xy + yz + zx < 1 é -1 1
ê -( p + 3 sin x) if -1 £ x £ - 2
ê – 3/2
Note : In the above results x & y are taken positive. In case if these 1 1 –1 O 3/2 1
= êê 3 sin -1 x
x
if - £ x £
are given as negative, we first apply P-4 and then use above results. 2 2
ê
ê p - 3 sin -1 x 1
if £ x £1
3. SIMPLIFIED INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS : êë 2 –p/2
y y
æ 2x ö (e) y = f(x) = cos -1 (4x 3 - 3x)
(a) y = f(x) = sin -1 ç ÷
p/2 p
è 1 + x2 ø I
D
é -1 1
x ê3 cos x - 2p if -1 £ x £ - 2 p/2
–1 0 1 ê
é 2 tan -1 x if |x|£ 1 D 1 1
ê I = ê2p - 3 cos -1 x if - £ x £
= ê p - 2 tan x -1
if x > 1 ê 2 2
ê –1 x
ê –p /2 1 – 3/2 – 1 O 1 3/2
-1
êë -( p + 2 tan x) if x < -1 ê 3 cos -1 x if £ x £1 2 2
êë 2
( )
y y
æ 1 - x2 ö -1 2
(b) y = f(x) = cos
-1
çç ÷ p (f) sin 2x 1 - x p/2
2 ÷
è1 + x ø

D p/2 I 1
–
ì ( 1
ï - p + 2 sin x ) -1 £ x £ -
–1 2
O 1 x
é 2 tan x if x ³ 0
-1 ï 2
=ê ï 1 1
2
êë -2 tan -1 x if x < 0
–1 0 1 x = í2 sin -1 x - £x£
ï 2 2 -p/2
ï -1 1
y ï p - 2 sin x £ x £1
2x ïî 2
(c) y = f(x) = tan-1 p/2
1 - x2
y
(g) cos -1 (2x 2 - 1) p
x
s –1
x
co
–1 O 1 ìï2 cos -1 x
2c
é 2tan-1 x if |x|< 1 0£ x £1
–2
os
ê =í
–1
2p
-1
x
-1
= ê p + 2tan x if x < -1 ïî2p - 2cos x -1 £ x £ 0
ê -1 –p/2 –1 0 1 x
êë-(p - 2tan x) if x > 1
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ALLEN ALLEN
3. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS ON LIMITS :
LIMIT
bg bg
Let Lim f x = l & Lim g x = m. If l & m exists finitely then :
x® a x® a
1. DEFINITION : (a) Sum rule : Lim éëf(x) + g(x) ùû = l + m

x ®a
Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about ‘a’ except possibly at
(b) Difference rule : Lim éf(x) - g(x) ùû = l - m
‘a’ itself. If f(x) gets arbitrarily close to L (a finite number) for all x x®a ë
sufficiently close to ‘a’ we say that f(x) approaches the limit L as x

approaches ‘a’ and we write Lim f(x) = L and say “the limit of f(x), x® a
bg bg
(c) Product rule : Lim f x . g x = l. m
x® a
as x approaches a, equals L”.

(d) Quotient rule : Lim bg
f x l
= , provided m ¹ 0
2. LEFT HAND LIMIT & RIGHT HAND LIMIT OF A FUNCTION :
x® a bg
gx m
Left hand limit (LHL) = Lim- f(x)= Lim f(a – h), h > 0. (e) Constant multiple rule : Lim kf ( x ) = k Lim f ( x ) ; where k is constant.
x®a x ®a
x ®a h® 0
(f) Power rule : Lim [ f( x ) ]

g(x)
Right hand limit (RHL) = Lim f(x)= Lim f(a + h), h > 0. = l m , provided l > 0
+
x® a
x ®a h ®0
Limit of a function f(x) is said to exist as x ® a when b g FH

(g) Lim f g x = f Lim g x
x® a x® a
b gIK = fbmg ; provided f(x) is continuous at
Lim f(x) = Lim+ f(x) = Finite and fixed quantity.

x ®a- x® a x = m.
Important note : For example : Lim l n(f(x)) = l n[Lim f(x)] ; provided lnx is defined
x ®a x ®a
In Lim f(x) , x ® a necessarily implies x ¹ a . That is while at x= Lim f(t) .

t®a
x® a
evaluating limit at x = a, we are not concerned with the value of the 4. INDETERMINATE FORMS :
function at x = a. In fact the function may or may not be defined at 0 ¥

, , ¥ - ¥ , 0 ´ ¥ , 1 ¥ , 00, ¥0 .
x = a. 0 ¥
Also it is necessary to note that if f(x) is defined only on one side of Note :
‘x = a’, one sided limits are good enough to establish the existence We cannot plot ¥ on the paper. Infinity ( ¥ ) is a symbol & not a
of limits, & if f(x) is defined on either side of ‘a’ both sided limits are number. It does not obey the laws of elementary algebra,
to be considered.
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5. GENERAL METHODS TO BE USED TO EVALUATE LIMITS:
(e) Using substitution Lim f(x) = Lim f(a - h) or Lim f(a + h) i.e.
(a) Factorization : x®a h®0 h ®0
Important factors : by substituting x by a – h or a + h

(i) xn – an = (x – a)(xn–1 + axn–2 + ........... + an–1), n Î N 6. LIMIT OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS :
(ii) xn + an = (x + a)(xn–1 – axn–2 + ........... + an–1), n is an odd
sin x tan x tan -1 x sin -1 x
natural number. Lim = 1 = Lim = Lim = Lim
x ®0 x x ®0 x x ®0 x x ®0 x
xn - a n [where x is measured in radians]
Note : Lim = na n -1
x ®a x-a sin f(x)
(b) Rationalization or double rationalization : Further if Lim f(x) = 0 , then Lim =1.
x ®a x ®a f(x)
In this method we rationalise the factor containing the square
root and simplify. 7. LIMIT OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS :
(c) Limit when x ® ¥ :
ax - 1 ex - 1
(i) Divide by greatest power of x in numerator and denominator. (a) Lim = l n a(a > 0) In particular Lim =1.
x ®0 x x ®0 x
(ii) Put x = 1/y and apply y ® 0
(d) Squeeze play theorem (Sandwich theorem) : a f(x) - 1
In general if Lim f(x) = 0 ,then Lim = lna, a > 0
f(x)
bg bg bg bg
If f x £ g x £ h x ; " x & Lim f x = l = Lim h x
x® a x® a
bg then
x ®a x ®a
ln(1 + x)
(b) Lim =1
Lim gb xg = l , x®0 x
x® a

x
æ 1ö
y
(c) Lim (1 + x ) 1/ x
= e = Lim ç 1 + ÷
2 x ®0 x ®¥ è xø
y=x
(Note : The base and exponent depends on the same variable.)
1
2
y=x sin x In general, if Lim f(x) = 0 , then Lim(1 + f(x))1 / f(x) = e
x ®a x ®a
0 x (d) If Lim f(x) = 1 and Lim f(x) = ¥ ,

x®a x ®a
then Lim [ f(x) ] f (x)

= ek where k = Lim f (x) [f(x) - 1]
x ®a x® a
y=–x
2
(e) If Lim f(x) = A > 0 & Lim f(x) = B (a finite quantity),
x ®a x ®a
1
for example : Lim x2 sin = 0 , as illustrated by the graph given. then Lim [ f(x)] f (x) = eB ln A = A B
x®0 x x®a
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ALLEN ALLEN
8. LIMIT USING SERIES EXPANSION :
Binomial expansion, exponential & logarithmic expansion, expansion

CONTINUITY
of sinx, cosx, tanx should be remembered by heart which are given
below : 1. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS :
x lna x ln a x ln a
2 2 3 3
A function ƒ(x) is said to be continuous at x = a, if lim ƒ(x) exists
(a) a x = 1 + + + + ..., a > 0 x ®a
1! 2! 3!
and is equal to ƒ(a). Symbolically ƒ(x) is continuous at x = a
x x x2 x 3 if lim ƒ(a - h) = lim ƒ(a + h) = ƒ(a) = finite and fixed quantity

(b) e = 1 + + + + ...,x Î R h ®0 h ®0
1! 2! 3!
(h > 0)
x2 x 3 x4
(c) ln (1 + x ) = x - + - + ..., for - 1 < x £ 1 i.e. LHL|x=a = RHL|x=a = value of ƒ (x)|x=a = finite and fixed
2 3 4
quantity.
x 3 x5 x7 At isolated points functions are considered to be continuous.
(d) sin x = x - + - + ..., x Î R
3! 5! 7!
2. CONTINUITY OF THE FUNCTION IN AN INTERVAL :
x2 x4 x6
(e) cos x = 1 - + - + ..., x Î R (a) A function is said to be continuous in (a,b) if f is continuous at
2! 4! 6!
each & every point belonging to (a, b).
x 3 2x5 p (b) A function is said to be continuous in a closed interval [a,b] if :
(f) tan x = x + + + ...,|x|<
3 15 2 • f is continuous in the open interval (a,b)
x 3 x 5 x7 f is right continuous at ‘a’ i.e. Lim+ f ( x ) = f ( a ) = a finite

-1
(g) tan x = x - + - + ..., x Î R •
x®a
3 5 7
quantity
-1
(h) sin x = x +
12 3 12.32 5 12.32.52 7
3!
x +
5!
x +
7!
x + ..., x Î [-1,1] •
x® b
bg bg
f is left continuous at ‘b’ i.e. Lim- f x = f b = a finite quantity
Note :
n(n - 1) 2 (i) All Polynomials, Trigonometrical functions, exponential &
(i) (1 + x) = 1 + nx +
n
x + ..., n Î R, x Î (–1, 1).
2! Logarithmic functions are continuous in their domains.
(ii) If f & g are two functions that are continuous at x = c then the
bg bg bg bg bg
function defined by : F1 x = f x ± g x ; F2 x = K f x , K any
real number, F b xg = fb xg.gbxg are also continuous at x = c. Further,,
3
fb xg
if g(c) is not zero, then F b xg = is also continuous at x = c.
gb xg
4
(iii) If f and g are continuous then fog and gof are also continuous.
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ALLEN ALLEN
(iv) If f and g are discontinuous at x = c, then f + g, f – g, f.g may
still be continuous. DIFFERENTIABILITY
(v) Sum or difference of a continuous and a discontinuous function
is always discontinuous. 1. INTRODUCTION :
The derivative of a function ‘f’ is function ; this function is denoted
3. REASONS OF DISCONTINUITY :
by symbols such as
(a) Limit does not exist
df d df(x)
i.e. Lim- f (x) ¹ Lim+ f (x) f'(x), , f(x) or
x® a x®a dx dx dx
The derivative evaluated at a point a, can be written as :
(b) Lim f (x) ¹ f (a)
x® a é df(x) ù
f '(a), ê ,f '(x) x = a , etc.
ë dx úû x = a
0 1 2 3 4
Geometrically, the graph of
Lim f(x) ¹ f(1)
the function will exhibit a x®1 2. RIGHT HAND & LEFT HAND DERIVATIVES :
Lim f(x) does not exist
break at x = a, if the function x®2
(a) Right hand derivative :
Lim f(x) does not exist
is discontinuous at x = a. The x®3
The right hand derivative of f(x) at x = a denoted by f'+(a) is
graph as shown is discontinuous at x = 1, 2 and 3. defined as :
4. THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM : f(a + h) - f(a)

f+' (a) = Lim+ , provided the limit exists & is finite.
Suppose f(x) is continuous on an interval I and a and b are any two h ®0 h
points of I. Then if y0 is a number between f(a) and f(b), their exists a
(b) Left hand derivative :

number c between a and b such that f(c) = y0
y y
The left hand derivative of f(x) at x = a denoted by f'–(a) is defined
ƒ (a) ® +ve
f(b) ƒ (b) ® –ve
ƒ(a)
f(a - h) - f(a)
y0 as : f'– (a) = Lim , provided the limit exists & is finite.
+
h®0 -h
b
f(a) (0,0) a x
(c) Derivability of function at a point :
ƒ(b) If f'+(a) = f'–(a) = finite quantity, then f(x) is said to be derivable
0 x
a c b
ƒ (x) = 0 in (a, b) or differentiable at x = a. In such case f'+(a) = f'–(a) = f'(a) & it
is called derivative or differential coefficient of f(x) at x = a.
Note that a function f which is continuous in [a,b] possesses the following
Note :
property :
(i) All polynomial, trigonometric, inverse trigonometric,
If f(a) & f(b) posses opposite signs, then there exists atleast one
solution of the equation f(x) = 0 in the open interval (a,b). logarithmic and exponential function are continuous and
differentiable in their domains, except at end points.
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ALLEN ALLEN
(ii) If f(x) & g(x) are derivable at x = a then the functions (b) Cusp : If f is continuous at x = a and one of RHD, LHD at
f(x) + g(x), f(x) – g(x), f(x). g(x) will also be derivable at x =a x = a, approaches to ¥ and other one approaches to –¥,
& if g(a) ¹ 0 then the function f(x)/g(x) will also be derivable then the point x = a is called a cusp point. At cusp point we
have a vertical tangent and at this point function is not
at x = a.
differentiable but continuous. We can observe that cusp is
3. IMPORTANT NOTE : sharper than corner point.
(a) Let f'+(a) = p & f'–(a) = q (b) Geometrical interpretation of differentiability :
• When p & q are finite :
(i) If the function y = f(x) is differentiable at x = a, then a
If p and q are finite (whether equal or not), then ƒ is continuous
at x = a but converse is NOT necessarily true. unique tangent can be drawn to the curve y = f(x) at P(a,
(i) p = q Þ f is differentiable at x = a Þ f is continuous at x = a f(a)) & f'(a) represent the slope of the tangent at point P.
(ii) If LHD and RHD are finite but unequal then it geometrically
3 implies a sharp corner at x = a.
y=x = f(x)
e.g.
A e.g. f(x) = |x| is continuous but y
tangent
not differentiable at x = 0. f(x)=|x|
o x
ƒ'– (0) = 0 and ƒ'+ (0) = 0 Þ ƒ '(0) = 0, A sharp corner is seen at x = 0 in
here x axis is tangent to the curve at x = 0. the graph of f(x) = |x|.

(ii) p ¹ q Þ f is not differentiable at x = a, but f is still continuous
(c) Vertical tangent : If y = f(x) is continuous at x = a and lim f '(x)
x ®a
at x = a. In this case we have a sudden change in the
direction of the graph of the function at x = a. This point is approaches to ¥, then y = f(x) has a vertical tangent at x = a. If
called a corner point of the function. At this point there is a function has vertical tangent at x = a then it is non differentiable
no tangent to the curve.
at x = a.
• When p or q may not be finite :
In this case f is not differentiable at x = a and nothing can be 4. DERIVABILITY OVER AN INTERVAL :
concluded about continuity of the function at x = a. (a) f(x) is said to be derivable over an open interval (a, b) if it is
Note : derivable at each & every point of the open interval (a, b).
(a) Corner : If f is continuous at x = a with RHD and LHD at
(b) f(x) is said to be derivable over the closed interval [a, b] if :
x = a both are finite but not equal or exactly one of them is
infinite, then the point x = a is called a corner point and at (i) f(x) is derivable in (a, b) &
this point function is not differentiable but continuous.
(ii) for the points a and b, f'+(a) & f'–(b) exist.
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ALLEN ALLEN
Note :
(i) If f(x) is differentiable at x = a & g(x) is not differentiable at METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION
x = a, then the product function F(x)=f(x).g(x) can still be
differentiable at x = a.
1. DERIVATIVE OF f(x) FROM THE FIRST PRINCIPLE :
(ii) If f(x) & g(x) both are not differentiable at x = a then the product
function; F(x)=f(x).g(x) can still be differentiable at x = a. Obtaining the derivative using the definition
(iii) If f(x) & g(x) both are non-derivable at x=a then the sum function dy f(x + dx) - f(x) dy
Lim = Lim = f '(x) = is called calculating
d x ®0 d x d x® 0 dx dx
F(x)=f(x)+g(x) may be a differentiable function.
(iv) If f(x) is derivable at x = a Þ

/ f'(x) is continuous at x = a. derivative using first principle or ab initio or delta method.
(v) Sum or difference of a differentiable and a non-differentiable 2. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS :

function is always is non-differentiable. If f and g are derivable function of x, then,
d df dg
(a) (f ± g) = ± , known as SUM RULE
dx dx dx
d df
(b) (cf) = c , where c is any constant
dx dx

d dg df
(c) (fg) = f +g , known as PRODUCT RULE
dx dx dx
æ df ö æ dg ö
gç ÷ - fç ÷
d æ fö è dx ø è dx ø
(d) = ,
dx çè g ÷ø g2
where g ¹ 0 known as QUOTIENT RULE
dy dy du
(e) If y = f(u) & u = g (x), then = . , known as CHAIN RULE
dx du dx
dy du
Note : In general if y = f(u), then = f '(u). .
dx dx
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3. DERIVATIVE OF STANDARD FUNCTIONS : 5. DIFFERENTIATION OF IMPLICIT FUNCTION :
f(x) f'(x) (a) Let function is f(x, y) = 0 then to find dy /dx, in the case of
n n–1
(i) x nx implicit functions, we differentiate each term w.r.t. x regarding
(ii) ex ex y as a functions of x & then collect terms in dy / dx together on
(iii) ax axlna, a > 0 one side to finally find dy / dx
(iv) lnx 1/x
dy -¶f / ¶x ¶f ¶f
(v) loga x (1/x) logae, a > 0, a ¹ 1 OR = where & are partial differential
dx ¶f / ¶y ¶x ¶y
(vi) sinx cosx
(vii) cosx – sinx coefficient of f(x, y) w.r.to x & y respectively.
(viii) tanx sec2x (b) In expression of dy/dx in the case of implicit functions, both
(ix) secx secx tanx x & y are present.
(x) cosecx – cosecx . cotx 6. PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION :
(xi) cotx – cosec2x dy dy / dq
If y = f(q) & x = g(q) where q is a parameter, then
= .
(xii) constant 0 dx dx / dq
1 7. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION W.R.T. ANOTHER FUNCTION :
(xiii) sin–1 x , -1 < x < 1
1 - x2 dy dy / dx f '(x)
Let y= f (x) ; z = g (x), then = =
-1 dz dz / dx g'(x)
(xiv) cos–1 x , -1 < x < 1
1 - x2 8. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION AND ITS INVERSE FUNCTION :
1 If inverse of y = f(x) is denoted as g(x) = f –1(x), then g(f(x)) = x
(xv) tan–1 x , x ÎR

1 + x2
Þ g'(f(x))f'(x)=1
1
, | x |> 1
(xvi) sec–1 x 9. HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVE :
| x | x2 - 1
-1 Let a function y = f(x) be defined on an open interval (a, b). It’s
–1 , | x |> 1
(xvii) cosec x derivative, if it exists on (a, b) is a certain function f' (x) [or (dy / dx)
| x | x2 - 1
or y'] & it is called the first derivative of y w. r. t. x. If it happens
-1
(xviii) cot–1 x 2
, x ÎR that the first derivative has a derivative on (a , b) then this derivative
1+ x
is called second derivative of y w.r.t. x & is denoted by f''(x) or
4. LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION :
(d2y /dx2) or y''. Similarly, the 3rd order derivative of y w.r.t x, if it
To find the derivative of :
(a) A function which is the product or quotient of a number of function or d3 y d æ d2 y ö
exists, is defined by = . It is also denoted by f''' (x) or
(b) A function of the form [f(x)] g (x) where f & g are both derivable, dx3 dx çè dx2 ÷ø
it is convenient to take the logarithm of the function first & then y''' & so on.
differentiate.
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ALLEN ALLEN
10. DIFFERENTIATION OF DETERMINANTS :
MONOTONICITY
f(x) g(x) h(x)
If F(x) = l (x) m(x) n(x) , where f, g, h. l, m, n, u, v, w are
1. INCREASING / DECREASING / STRICTLY INCREASING /
u(x) v(x) w(x) STRICTLY DECREASING NATURE OF A FUNCTION AT A
differentiable functions of x, then POINT :
f(x) g(x) h(x) I. Increasing at x = a :

f ' (x) g' (x) h' (x) f(x) g(x) h(x) ƒ(t)
If ƒ (s) < ƒ (a) < ƒ (t) when ever s < a < t,
F '(x) = l (x) m(x) n(x) + l '(x) m'(x) n'(x) + l (x) m(x) n(x)
ƒ(a)
ƒ(s)
u '(x) v '(x) w'(x) where s, t Î (a – h, a + h) Ç Dƒ
u(x) v(x) w(x) u(x) v(x) w(x)
for some h > 0, then ƒ is said to be
Similarly one can also proceed columnwise.
ˆ increasing at x = a. O s a t
11. L ' HOPITAL ' S RULE :
(1) When 'a' be left end of the interval
(a) Applicable while calculating limits of indeterminate forms of
ƒ (a) < ƒ(x) " x Î (a, a + h) Ç Dƒ for some h > 0
0 ¥
the type , . If the function f(x) and g(x) are differentiable in Þ ƒ is increasing at x = a.
0 ¥
certain neighbourhood of the point a, except, may be, at the (2) When 'a' be right end of the interval
point a itself, and g'(x) ¹ 0, and if
ƒ (x) < ƒ(a) " x Î (a – h, a) Ç Dƒ for some h > 0
lim f(x) = lim g(x) = 0 or lim f(x) = lim g(x) = ¥ , Þ ƒ is increasing at x = a.
x® a x®a x® a x®a
II. Strictly increasing at x = a :


f(x) f '(x) ƒ(a+h)
then lim = lim ƒ(x)
x®a g(x) x ® a g '(x) If ƒ (s) < ƒ (a) < ƒ (t) when ever s < a < t, ƒ(a)
where s, t Î (a – h, a + h) Ç Dƒ
f '(x)
provided the limit lim exists (L' Hôpital's rule). The point for some h > 0, then ƒ is said to be
x® a g '(x) a x a+h
O
'a' may be either finite or improper + ¥ or –¥. strictly increasing at x = a.
(b) Indeterminate forms of the type 0. ¥ or ¥ – ¥ are reduced to (1) When 'a' be left end of the interval
0 ¥ ƒ (a) < ƒ(x) " x Î (a, a + h) Ç Dƒ for some h > 0
forms of the type or by algebraic transformations. Þ ƒ is strictly increasing at x = a.
0 ¥
(c) Indeterminate forms of the type 1¥, ¥0 or 00 are reduced to (2) When 'a' be right end of the interval ƒ(a)
ƒ(x)
forms of the type 0. ¥ by taking logarithms or by the ƒ (x) < ƒ(a) " x Î (a – h, a) Ç Dƒ ƒ(a–h)
transformation [f(x)]f(x) = ef(x).lnf(x). for some h > 0

Þ ƒ is strictly increasing at x = a. O a–h x a
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III. Decreasing at x = a : 2. INCREASING & DECREASING NATURE OF A FUNCTION
OVER AN INTERVAL :
If ƒ (s) ³ ƒ (a) ³ ƒ (t) when ever s < a < t,
Consider an interval I Í Dƒ
where s, t Î (a – h, a + h) Ç Dƒ
I. Increasing Over an Interval I :
for some h > 0, then ƒ is said to be decreasing at x = a. If " x1, x2 Î I, x1 < x2 Þ ƒ(x1) < ƒ(x2), then ƒ is increasing over
(1) When 'a' be left end of the interval the interval I.
II. Decreasing Over an Interval I :
ƒ (a) ³ ƒ(x) " x Î (a, a + h) Ç Dƒ for some h > 0
If " x1, x2 Î I, x1 < x2 Þ ƒ(x1) > ƒ(x2), then ƒ is decreasing over
Þ ƒ is decreasing at x = a. the interval I.
(2) When 'a' be right end of the interval III. Strictly increasing over an Interval I :
If " x1, x2 Î I, x1 < x2 Û ƒ(x1) < ƒ(x2), then ƒ is strictly increasing
ƒ (x) ³ ƒ(a) " x Î (a – h, a) Ç Dƒ for some h > 0
over the interval I.
Þ ƒ is decreasing at x = a. IV. Strictly decreasing over an Interval I :
IV. Strictly decreasing at x = a : If " x1, x2 Î I, x1 < x2 Û ƒ(x1) > ƒ(x2), then ƒ is strictly decreasing
over the interval I.
If ƒ (s) > ƒ (a) > ƒ (t) when ever s < a < t,
Monotonic function :
where s, t Î (a – h, a + h) Ç Dƒ If a function is either increasing or decreasing over an interval then
it is said to be monotonic function over the interval.
for some h > 0, then ƒ is said to be strictly decreasing at x = a.
If a function is either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing over an
(1) When 'a' be left end of the interval interval then it is said to be strictly monotonic function over the

ƒ (a) > ƒ(x) " x Î (a, a + h) Ç Dƒ for some h > 0 interval.
Some Important points :
Þ ƒ is strictly decreasing at x = a.
(i) Increasing or monotonic increasing or non decreasing has same
(2) When 'a' be right end of the interval meaning. Similarly decreasing or monotonic decreasing or non
ƒ (x) > ƒ(a) " x Î (a – h, a) Ç Dƒ for some h > 0 increasing has same meaning.
Þ ƒ is strictly decreasing at x = a. (ii) If a function is strictly increasing, then it is also said to be increasing
function, but converse is not necessarily true.
fig.-1 fig.-2 fig.-3
fig.-4 (iii) Functions which are increasing over some interval and decreasing
over another interval are known as non-monotonic functions
P P
over the union of the intervals.
O
(iv) A function may be monotonic in a subset but may not be
O x=a O x=a O x=a
monotonic in a superset.
x=a
Strictly increasing Strictly decreasing Strictly increasing Strictly increasing (v) Constant function is increasing as well as decreasing over any
at x = a at x = a at x = a at x = a interval. So it is called monotonic function.
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ALLEN ALLEN
For differentiable functions : 4. LAGRANGE'S MEAN VALUE THEOREM (LMVT) :
Consider an interval I (Í Dƒ ) that can be [a, b] or (a, b) or [a, b) or (a, b]. Let f be a function that
y Tangent parallel to chord
(1) ƒ '(x) > 0 " x Î I Þ ƒ is strictly increasing function over the interval I.
satisfies the following
(2) ƒ '(x) > 0 " x Î I Þ ƒ is increasing function over the interval I. Slope f'(c) B
(3) ƒ '(x) > 0 " x Î I and ƒ '(x) = 0 do not form any interval (that hypotheses:
means ƒ '(x) = 0 at discrete points) (i) f is continuous in a f(b) – f(a)
Slope
Þ ƒ is strictly increasing function over the interval I. b–a
closed interval [a, b]
(4) ƒ '(x) < 0 " x Î I Þ ƒis strictly decreasing function over the interval I. A
(ii) f is differentiable in the
(5) ƒ '(x) < 0 " x Î I Þ ƒ is decreasing function over the interval I.
open interval (a, b). 0 a c b x
(6) ƒ '(x) < 0 " x Î I and ƒ '(x) = 0 do not form any interval (that y = f(x)
means ƒ '(x) = 0 at discrete points) Then there is a number c
Þ ƒ is strictly decreasing function over the interval I. f(b) - f(a)
in (a, b) such that f '(c) =
3. ROLLE'S THEOREM : b-a
Let f be a function that satisfies the following three hypotheses : (a) Geometrical Interpretation :
(a) f is continuous in the closed interval [a, b].
Geometrically, the Mean Value Theorem says that somewhere
(b) f is differentiable in the open interval (a, b)
between A and B the curve has at least one tangent parallel to
(c) f(a) = f(b)
chord AB.
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that f'(c) = 0.
y y (b) Physical Interpretations :
If we think of the number (f(b) – f(a))/(b – a) as the average

change in f over [a, b] and f'(c) as an instantaneous change, then
the Mean Value Theorem says that at some interior point the
O a c1 c2 b x O a c b x
instantaneous change must equal the average change over the
(a) (b) entire interval.
y y 5. SPECIAL NOTE :
One can make use of Monotonicity in identifying the number of
roots of the equation in a given interval. Suppose a and b are two
real numbers such that
O a c1 c2 b x O a c b x (a) f(x) & its first derivative f'(x) are continuous for a £ x £ b.
(c) (d) (b) f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs.
(c) f'(x) is different from zero for all values of x between a & b.
Conclusion : If f is a differentiable function then between any two
Then there is one & only one root of the equation f(x) = 0 in (a, b).
consecutive roots of f(x) = 0, there is atleast one root of the equation
f'(x) = 0.
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ALLEN ALLEN
(iii) A function can have several extreme values such that local
MAXIMA-MINIMA minimum value may be greater than a local maximum value.
(iv) It is not necessary that ƒ(x) always has local maxima/minima at
end points of the given interval when they are included.
1. INTRODUCTION : y
2. DERIVATIVE TEST FOR ASCERTAINING MAXIMA/MINIMA :
MAXIMA & MINIMA : (a) First derivative test :
(a) Local Maxima If ƒ '(x) = 0 at a point (say x = a) and
/Relative maxima : (i) If f'(x) changes sign from positive to negative in the
A function ƒ(x) is neighbourhood of x = a then x = a is said to be a point local
said to have a local x maxima.
O a b c d e f g
maxima at x = a local local local local
min max max/min min
local
max
local
min
local
max (ii) If f'(x) changes sign from negative to positive in the
if ƒ (a) > ƒ (x) " x Î (a – h, a + h) Ç Dƒ(x) neighbourhood of x = a then x = a is said to be a point
Where h is some positive real number. local minima.
(b) Local Minima/Relative minima :
Y Y
A function ƒ(x) is said to have a local minima
at x = a if ƒ(a) £ ƒ (x) " x Î (a – h, a + h) Ç Dƒ(x) dy
=0
dy dx dy
Where h is some positive real number. >0 <0
dx dx
dy
(c) Absolute maxima (Global maxima) : dy
dx
>0
<0
dx dy
A function f has an absolute maxima (or global maxima) at c if =0
dx
f(c) ³ f(x) for all x in D, where D is the domain of f. The number X X
x=a x=a

O O
f(c) is called the maximum value of f on D.
(d) Absolute minima (Global minima) : Note : If f '(x) does not change sign i.e. has the same sign in a certain
A function f has an absolute minima at c if f(c) £ f(x) for all x in D complete neighbourhood of a, then f(x) is either increasing or
and the number f(c) is called the minimum value of f on D. decreasing throughout this neighbourhood implying that x=a is
Note : not a point of extremum of f.
y
(i) The term 'extrema' is local/global
maxima
local
(b) Second derivative test :
used for both maxima maxima maxima
local
or minima. local If f(x) is continuous and differentiable at x = a where f'(a) = 0

maxima local
(ii) A local maximum minima (stationary points) and f''(a) also exists then for ascertaining
local
(minimum) value of a minima
maxima/minima at x = a, 2nd derivative test can be used -
function may not be local
minima local/global minima
the greatest (least) x (i) If f''(a) > 0 Þx = a is a point of local minima
value in a fini te
(ii) If f''(a) < 0 Þx = a is a point of local maxima
interval.
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ALLEN ALLEN
(iii) If f''(a) = 0 Þ second derivative test fails. To identify 4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SIGN OF 2ND ORDER DERIVATIVE :
maxima/minima at this point either first derivative test or The sign of the 2nd order derivative determines the concavity of
higher derivative test can be used. the curve.
(c) n derivative test :
th i.e. If f''(x) > 0 " x Î (a, b) then graph of f(x) is concave upward in
Let f(x) be a function such that f'(a) = f''(a) = f"(a) = ... = fn–1 (a) = 0 (a, b).
& fn(a) ¹ 0, then Similarly if f''(x) < 0 " x Î (a, b) then graph of f(x) is concave
downward in (a, b).
(i) If n is even &
ì fn(a) > 0 Þ Minima
í n
î f (a) < 0 Þ Maxima concave
concave downwards
(ii) If n is odd then neither maxima nor minima at x = a. upwards
3. USEFUL FORMULAE OF MENSURATION TO REMEMBER:
a b a b
(a) Volume of a cuboid = lbh.
5. SOME SPECIAL POINTS ON A CURVE :
(b) Surface area of a cuboid = 2 (lb + bh + hl).
(a) Stationary points: The stationary points are the points of
(c) Volume of a prism = area of the base x height. domain where f'(x) = 0 .
(d) Lateral surface area of prism = perimeter of the base x height. (b) Critical points : There are three kinds of critical points as
(e) Total surface area of a prism = lateral surface area + 2 area of follows :
the base (Note that lateral surfaces of a prism are all rectangles). (i) The point at which ƒ '(x) = 0
1 (ii) The point at which ƒ'(x) does not exists
(f) Volume of a pyramid = area of the base x height.
3

(iii) The end points of interval (if included)
1
(g) Curved surface area of a pyramid = (perimeter of the base) x These points belongs to domain of the function.
2
slant height. Note : Local maxima and local minima occurs at critical points
(Note that slant surfaces of a pyramid are triangles). only but not all critical points will correspond to local maxima/
1 local minima.
(h) Volume of a cone = p r2h.
3 (c) Point of inflection :
(i) Curved surface area of a cylinder = 2 p rh. Y
(j) Total surface area of a cylinder = 2 p rh + 2 p r2. A point where the graph of a
4 function has a tangent line and
(k) Volume of a sphere = p r3. where the strict concavity
3 P
(l) Surface area of a sphere = 4 p r2. changes is called a point of •
Point of
inflection
1 2 inflection. For finding point of
(m) Area of a circular sector = r q, when q is in radians. X
2 inflection of any function, O
(n) Perimeter of circular sector = 2r + rq.
compute the points
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ALLEN ALLEN
d 2y d 2y
(x-coordinate) where = 0 or does not exist. Let the TANGENT & NORMAL
dx 2 dx 2
d2y d 2y
solution is x = a, if = 0 at x = a and sign of changes 1. TANGENT TO THE CURVE AT A POINT :
dx 2 dx 2
The tangent to the curve at 'P' is the line through P whose slope
about this point then it is called point of inflection.
is limit of the secant’s slope as Q ® P from either side.
d 2y d 2y
if does not exist at x = a and sign of changes about
dx 2 dx 2
this point and tangent exist at this point then it is called point of
P
inflection.
Tangent
6. SOME STANDARD RESULTS :
(a) Rectangle of largest area inscribed in a circle is a square. Secants Q
m
(b) The function y = sinmx cosn x attains the max value at x = tan –1
n 2. NORMAL TO THE CURVE AT A POINT :
(c) If 0 < a < b then x - a + x - b ³ b - a and equality hold when A line which is perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact
x Î [a, b]. is called normal to the curve at that point.
If 0 < a < b < c then x - a + x - b + x - c ³ c - a and equality 3. THINGS TO REMEMBER :
hold when x = b (a) The value of the derivative at P (x1,y1) gives the slope of the

If 0 < a < b < c < d then x - a + x - b + x - c + x - d ³ d - a tangent to the curve at P. Symbolically
and equality hold when x Î [b,c].
dy ù
7. LEAST/GREATEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO CURVES : f ' ( x1 ) = = Slope of tangent at P(x1, y1) = m(say).
dx úû (x1 , y1 )
Least/Greatest distance between
two non-intersecting curves usually dy ù
(b) Equation of tangent at (x1, y1) is y - y1 = (x - x1 )
lies along the common normal.
SD
dx úû (x1 , y1 )
(Wherever defined) 1
(c) Equation of normal at (x1, y1) is; y – y1 = - (x - x1 ) .
Note : Given a fixed point A(a, b) and a moving dy ù
dx úû ( x1 ,y1 )
A(a,b)
point P(x, ƒ(x)) on the curve y = ƒ(x). Then AP
will be maximum or minimum if it is normal to
P
(x, f(x))
Note :
(i) The point P (x1, y1) will satisfy the equation of the curve & the
the curve at P. equation of tangent & normal line.
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ALLEN ALLEN
(ii) If the tangent at any point P on the curve is parallel to the
axis of x then dy/dx = 0 at the point P. y1 1 + [f '(x1 )]2
(a) Length of the tangent (PT) =
(iii) If the tangent at any point on the curve is parallel to the axis f '(x1 )
of y, then dy/dx is not defined or dx/dy = 0 at that point. y1
(b) Length of Subtangent (MT) =
(iv) If the tangent at any point on the curve is equally inclined to f ' ( x1 )
both the axes then dy/dx = ±1.
(c) Length of Normal (PN) = y1 1 + éë f ' ( x1 ) ùû
2
(v) If a curve passing through the origin be given by a rational/
integral/algebraic equation, then the equation of the tangent (d) Length of Subnormal (MN) = y1 f'(x1)
(or tangents) at the origin is obtained by equating to zero the terms
of the lowest degree in the equation. e.g. If the equation of a 6. DIFFERENTIALS :
curve be x2 – y2 + x3 + 3x2y –y3=0, the tangents at the origin The differential of a function is equal to its derivative multiplied
are given by x2 – y2 = 0 i.e. x + y = 0 and x – y = 0 by the differential of the independent variable. Thus if, y = tanx
4. ANGLE OF INTERSECTION BETWEEN TWO CURVES : then dy = sec2x dx. In general dy = f'(x)dx or df(x) = f'(x)dx
Angle of intersection between two curves is defined as the angle Note :
between the two tangents drawn to the two curves at their point (i) d(c) = 0 where ‘c’ is a constant
of intersection. If the angle between two curves is 90° then they
(ii) d(u + v) = du + dv (iii) d(uv) = udv + vdu
are called ORTHOGONAL curves.
x2 y2 x2 y2 æ u ö vdu - udv
Note : If the curves + = 1 and + = 1 , intersect each (iv) d(u – v) = du – dv (v) dç ÷ =
a b c d è vø v2
other orthogonally, then a – c = b – d.

(vi) For the independent variable ‘x’, increment D x and differential
5. LENGTH OF TANGENT, SUBTANGENT, NORMAL & dx are equal but this is not the case with the dependent variable
SUBNORMAL :
‘y’ i.e. Dy ¹ dy.
y = f(x) \ Approximate value of y when increment Dx is given to independent
ng e nt dy
f ta variable x in y = f(x) is y + Dy = f(x + Dx) = f(x) + .Dx
g tho dx
Le n
len r m a
dy
(vii) The relation dy = f'(x) dx can be written as = f '(x) ; thus
no
gth l
P(x 1, y 1)
dx
of
y
the quotient of the differentials of ‘y’ and ‘x’ is equal to the
derivative of ‘y’ w.r.t. ‘x’.
x
T O M N
Length
Length of subtangent of
subnormal
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ALLEN ALLEN
1
INDEFINITE INTEGRATION (xi) ò cosec (ax + b).cot(ax + b)dx = - a cosec (ax + b) + c
1
If f & F are function of x such that F' (x) = f(x) then the function F is
(xii) ò sec (ax + b).tan(ax + b)dx = a
.sec(ax + b) + c
called a PRIMITIVE OR ANTIDERIVATIVE OR INTEGRAL of (xiii) ò sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + c

f(x) w.r.t. x and is written symbolically as
p x
d OR ò sec xdx = l n tan 4 + 2 + c
ò f(x) dx = F(x) + c Û
dx
{F(x) + c} = f(x) , where c is called the
constant of integration. (xiv) ò cosec x dx = ln cosec x - cot x + c

F(ax + b) x
Note : If ò f(x)dx = F(x) + c , then ò f(ax + b)dx = + c,a ¹ 0 OR ò cosec x dx = l n tan + c OR -l n(cosec x + cot x) + c
a 2
1. STANDARD RESULTS : dx x
(ax + b)n +1
(xv) ò 2 2
= sin -1
a
+c
a -x
ò
n
(i) (ax + b) dx = + c; n ¹ -1
a(n + 1) dx 1 x
ò a2 + x2 = a tan
-1
dx 1 (xvi) +c
a
(ii) ò ax + b = al n ax + b + c
dx 1 x
1 ax + b (xvii) ò =
a
sec -1 + c
a
ò e dx = ae + c
ax + b 2 2
(iii) x x -a
dx
1 a px + q (xviii) ò = l n é x + x2 + a2 ù + c
êë úû
òa
px + q
(iv) dx = (a > 0) + c x + a2
2

p lna
dx
1 (xix) ò = l n é x + x 2 - a2 ù + c
(v) ò sin(ax + b)dx = - a cos(ax + b) + c x - a2
2 ëê ûú
1 dx 1 a+x
(vi) ò cos(ax + b)dx = a sin(ax + b) + c (xx) ò a2 - x2 = 2a l n a-x
+c
1 dx 1 x-a
(vii) ò tan(ax + b)dx = a l n|sec(ax + b)|+c (xxi) ò x2 - a2 = 2a l n x+a
+c
1
(viii) ò cot(ax + b)dx = a l n|sin(ax + b)|+c x 2 a2 x
(xxii) ò a2 - x2 dx =
2
a - x2 +
2
sin -1 + c
a
1
ò sec ( )
2
(ix) (ax + b)dx = tan(ax + b) + c x 2 a2
a (xxiii) ò x2 + a2 dx =
2
x + a2 +
2
ln x + x2 + a2 + c
1
ò cos ec (ax + b)dx = - a cot(ax + b) + c
2
ln ( x + -a )+c
(x) x 2 a2
ò x2 - a2 dx = x - a2 x2 2
(xxiv) -
2 2
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ALLEN ALLEN
eax dx dx
(xxv) ò e .sin bx dx =
ax
2 2
(a sin bx - b cos bx) + c (9) ò a + b sin2 x OR ò a + b cos2 x
a +b
dx
eax OR ò a sin2 x + b sin x cos x + c cos2 x
òe
ax
(xxvi) .cos bx dx =
(a cos bx + b sin bx) + c
a 2 + b2 Multiply Nr & Dr by sec2 x & put tan x = t.
2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION :
dx dx dx
(a) Substitution or change of independent variable : (10) ò a + b sin x OR ò a + b cos x OR ò a + b sin x + c cos x
Integral I = ò f(x) dx is changed to ò f(f(t))f '(t) dt, by a suitable Con vert sin es & co sin es in t o t heir respect ive
x
substitution x = f (t) provided the later integral is easier to integrate. tangents of half the angles, put tan = t
2
Some standard substitution :
a.cos x + b.sin x + c
f '(x) (11) ò dx.
p.cos x + q.sin x + r
(1) ò [ f(x) ]
n
f '(x)dx OR ò [f(x)]n dx put f(x) = t & proceed.
d
Express Numerator (Nr) º l(Dr) + m (Dr) + n & proceed.
dx dx dx
(2) ò ax2 + bx + c , ò ax2 + bx + c
, ò ax2 + bx + c dx
x2 + 1 x2 - 1
(12) ò x 4 + Kx2 + 1 dx OR ò x 4 + Kx2 + 1 dx ,
Express ax2 + bx + c in the form of perfect square & then
where K is any constant.
apply the standard results.
1 1
px + q px + q Divide Nr & Dr by x2 , then put x – = t OR x + =t
(3) ò ax2 + bx + c dx, ò
ax2 + bx + c
dx
respectively & proceed
x x

Express px + q = A (differential coefficient of quadratic dx dx
ò (ax + b) & ò (ax2 + bx + c) px + q ;put px + q = t
2
(13) px + q
term of denominator ) + B.
dx 1
ò e [f(x) + f '(x)]dx = e .f(x) + c
x x
(4) (14) ò 2
,put ax + b =
t
;
(ax + b) px + qx + r
(5) ò [f(x) + xf '(x)]dx = x f(x) + c dx 1
(6) dx n –n ò (ax2 + bx + c) , put x =
t
ò x(x n + 1) n Î N , take x common & put 1 + x = t. px2 + qx + r
x-a
dx n –n n
(15) ò b-x
dx OR ò (x - a )(b - x) ; put x= a cos2 q + b sin2 q
(7) ò (n -1)
n Î N , take x common & put 1 + x =t
(
x2 xn + 1 ) n
ò
x-a
dx OR ò (x - a )(x - b) ; put x = asec2 q – b tan2 q
x-b
dx n
(8) ò x n (1 + x n )1 / n , take x common and put 1 + x–n = t. dx
ò (x - a )(x - b ) ; put x – a = t2 or x – b = t2.
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ALLEN ALLEN
(16) To integrate ò sin m x cos n x dx . S. No. Form of the Form of the
(i) If m is odd positive integer put cos x = t. rational function partial fraction
(ii) If n is odd positive integer put sin x = t px2 + qx + r A B C
(iii) If m + n is negative even integer then put tan x = t. 1. + +
(x - a) (x - b)(x - c) x-a x-b x-c
(iv) If m and n both even positive integer then use
px 2 + qx + r A B C
1 - cos 2x 1 + cos2x 2. + +
sin2 x = ,cos 2 x = (x - a)2 (x - b) x-a (x - a)2 x-b
2 2
é du ù px 2 + qx + r A Bx + C
(b) Integration by parts : ò u.v dx = u ò v dx - ò ê .ò v dx ú dx 3.
(x - a) (x 2 + bx + c) x-a
+ 2
x + bx + c
ë dx û
where u & v are differentiable functions. where x2 + bx + c cannot be factorised further
Note : While using integration by parts, choose u & v such that
Note :
é du ù
(i) ò vdx & (ii) ò êë dx .ò v dx úû dx is simple to integrate. In competitive exams, partial fraction are generally found by inspection
by noting following fact :
This is generally obtained, by keeping the order of u & v as per
1 1 æ 1 1 ö
the order of the letters in ILATE, where; I-Inverse function, = ç - ÷.
(x - a )(x - b) (a - b) è x - a x - b ø
L-Logarithmic function, A-Algebraic function, T-Trigonometric
It can be applied to the case when x2 or any other function is there in
function & E-Exponential function.
all places of x.
(c) Partial fraction : Rational function is defined as the ratio of

P(x) Example :
two polynomials in the form , where P(x) and Q(x) are
Q(x)
polynomials in x and Q(x) ¹ 0. If the degree of P(x) is less than 1 1æ 1 1 ö
(1) = - {take x2 = t}
the degree of Q(x), then the rational function is called proper, (x2 + 1)(x2 + 3) 2 çè t + 1 t + 3 ÷ø
otherwise, it is called improper. The improper rational function
can be reduced to the proper rational functions by long division 1 1 æ 1 1 ö 1 æ1 1 ö
(2) = 2ç 2 - 2 = - -
P(x) P(x) P (x) x4 (x2 + 1) x èx x + 1 ÷ø x 4 çè x 2 x 2 + 1 ÷ø
process. Thus, if is improper, then = T(x) + 1 ,
Q(x) Q(x) Q(x)
P1 (x) 1 1æ 1 1 ö 1 1
(3) = - = -
where T(x) is a polynomial in x and
Q(x)
is proper rational x 3 (x 2 + 1) x çè x 2 x2 + 1 ÷ø x3 x(x2 + 1)
function. It is always possible to write the integrand as a sum of
simpler rational functions by a method called partial fraction
decomposition. After this, the integration can be carried out
easily using the already known methods.
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ALLEN ALLEN
a a
é0 ;if f(x) is an odd function
ê a
DEFINITE INTEGRATION (d)
ò f(x) dx =ò [f(x) + f(- x)]dx = ê2 f(x)dx ;if f(x) is an even function
-a 0 ê ò
ë 0
1. (a) The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 : a a
If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function g defined by b b
x (e) ò f(x)dx = ò f(a + b - x) dx , In particular ò f(x)dx = ò f(a - x) dx

0 0
g(x) = ò f(t)dt, a£x£b a a
a é a
is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), and g'(x) = f(x). 2a a a
ê2 ò f(x) dx ; if f(2a - x) = f(x)
(b) The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 : (f) ò f(x)dx = ò f(x) dx + ò f(2a - x) dx = ê 0
0 0 0 ê
b ë 0 ; if f(2a - x) = -f(x)
If f is continuous on [a, b], then ò f(x)dx = F(b) - F(a) where F is nT T
a
any antiderivative of f, that is, a function such that F '= f.
(g) ò f(x)dx = n ò f(x) dx , (n Î I) ; where ‘T’ is the period of the
0 0
b function i.e. f(T + x) = f(x)
Note : If ò f(x)dx = 0 Þ then the equation f(x) = 0 has atleast one T+x T
a Note that : ò f(t)dt will be independent of x and equal to ò f(t)dt
root lying in (a,b) provided f is a continuous function in (a,b). x 0
b b + nT b
2. A definite integral is denoted by ò f(x)dx which represents the (h) ò f(x)dx = ò f(x)dx where f(x) is periodic with period T & n Î I.
a a + nT a
algebraic area bounded by the curve y = f(x), the ordinates x = a,
na a

2p
x = b and the x-axis. ex. ò sin x dx = 0 (i) ò f(x)dx = (n - m)ò f(x)dx , (n, m Î I) if f(x) is periodic with period 'a'.
0
ma 0
3. PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL : 4. WALLI’S FORMULA :

b b b
(a) ò f(x)dx = ò f(t) dt Þ ò f(x) dx does not depend upon x. It is p /2 p /2
(n - 1)(n - 3).....(1 or 2)
a a a (a) ò sin n x dx = ò cosn x dx =
n(n - 2).....(1 or 2)
K
0 0
a numerical quantity.
b a ìp / 2 if n is even
where K = í
(b) ò f(x)dx = -ò f(x) dx î1 if n is odd
a b
b c b p/2
(c) ò f(x)dx = ò f(x) dx +ò f(x) dx , where c may lie inside or outside (b) ò sinn x.cos m x dx
a a c 0
the interval [a, b]. This property to be used when f is piecewise [(n - 1)(n - 3)(n - 5)....1 or 2][(m - 1)(m - 3)....1 or 2]
continuous in (a, b). = K
(m + n)(m + n - 2)(m + n - 4)....1 or 2
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ALLEN ALLEN
ìp b
if both m and n are even (m, n Î N)
Where K = ïí 2 (d) If f(x) ³ 0 on the interval [a,b], then ò f(x)dx ³ 0 .
ïî1 otherwise a
(e) f(x) and g(x) are two continuous function on [a, b] then
b b b
5. DERIVATIVE OF ANTIDERIVATIVE FUNCTION (Newton-
ò f(x) g(x) dx òf (x)dx ò g2 (x) dx
2
£
Leibnitz Formula) : a a a
If h(x) & g(x) are differentiable functions of x then,

8. SOME STANDARD RESULTS :
h(x)
d
dx g(òx)
f(t)dt = f[h(x)].h '(x) - f[g(x)].g '(x) p/2 p/2
p
(a) ò log sin x dx = -
2
log2 = ò log cos x dx
0 0
6. DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM :

b
b b-a
(
ò f(x)dx = Lim h[f(a) + f(a + h) + f(a + 2h) + ..... + f a + n - 1h ]
n ®¥
) (b) ò {x} dx =
a
2
; a, b Î I
a
n -1
= Lim h å f(a + rh) , where b – a = nh
b
x
h®¥
r =0
(c) ò x dx = b - a .
a
n -1 1
If a = 0 & b = 1 then, Lim h å f(rh) = ò f(x)dx ; where nh = 1
n®¥
r =0 0

n -1 1
æ 1ö ærö
OR Lim ç ÷ å f ç ÷ =ò f(x)dx .
n®¥ è n ø è nø 0
r =1
7. ESTIMATION OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL :

(a) If f(x) is continuous in [a, b] and it’s range in this interval is [m,
b
M], then m(b – a) £ ò f(x)dx £ M(b - a)
a
b b
(b) If f(x) £ f (x) for a £ x £ b then ò f(x)dx £ ò f (x) dx
a a
b b
(c) ò f(x)dx £ ò f(x) dx .
a a
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
5. FORMATION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION :
DIFFERETIAL EQUATION If an equation in independent and dependent variables having some
arbitrary constant is given, then a differential equation is obtained
as follows :
1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION : (a) Differentiate the given equation w.r.t the independent variable
(say x) as many times as the number of independent arbitrary
An equation that involves independent and dependent variables and
constants in it.
the derivatives of the dependent variables is called a DIFFERENTIAL (b) Eliminate the arbitrary constants.
EQUATION. The eliminant is the required differential equation.
Note : A differential equation represents a family of curves all
2. SOLUTION (PRIMITIVE) OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION : satisfying some common properties. This can be considered
Finding the unknown function which satisfies given differential as the geometrical interpretation of the differential equation.
equation is called SOLVING OR INTEGRATING the differential 6. GENERAL AND PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS :
equation. The solution of the differential equation is also called its
The solution of a differential equation which contains a number of
PRIMITIVE, because the differential equation can be regarded as a
independent arbitrary constants equal to the order of the differential
relation derived from it.
equation is called the GENERAL SOLUTION (OR COMPLETE
3. ORDER OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION : INTEGRAL OR COMPLETE PRIMITIVE). A solution obtainable from
The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest order the general solution by giving particular or initial values to the
differential coefficient occurring in it. constants is called a PARTICULAR SOLUTION.

4. DEGREE OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION : 7. ELEMENTARY TYPES OF FIRST ORDER & FIRST DEGREE
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS :
The degree of a differential equation which can be written as a
(a) Variables separable :
polynomial in the derivatives, is the degree of the derivative of the
highest order occurring in it, after it has been expressed in a form TYPE-1 : If the differential equation can be expressed as ;
f(x)dx +g(y)dy = 0 then this is said to be variable – separable type.
free from radicals & fractions so far as derivatives are concerned,
thus the differential equation : A general solution of this is given by ò f ( x ) dx + ò g ( y ) dy = c ;
where c is the arbitrary constant. Consider the example (dy/dx)
é d m -1 ( y ) ù
p q
é dm y ù
f ( x, y ) ê m ú + f ( x, y ) ê m -1 ú
+ .......... = 0 is of order = ex–y + x2.e–y .
ë dx û ëê dx ûú
TYPE-2 : Sometimes transformation to the polar co-ordinates
m & degree p.
facilitates separation of variables. In this connection it is
Note that in the differential equation ey''' – xy'' + y = 0 order is three convenient to remember the following differentials. If x = r cos
but degree doesn’t exist. q, y = rsin q then,
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ALLEN ALLEN
(i) xdx + ydy = rdr Note :
(i) If a1b2– a2b1=0, then a substitution u = a1x+b1y transforms
(ii) dx2 + dy2 = dr2 + r2dq2 the differential equation to an equation with variables
(iii) xdy – ydx = r2 dq separable.
Also, if x = r sec q & y = r tan q then (ii) If b1+a2 = 0 , then a simple cross multiplication and
x dx –y dy = r dr and x dy – y dx = r sec q dq.
2 substituting d(xy) for xdy + ydx & integrating term by term
dy yields the result easily.
TYPE – 3 : = f ( ax + by + c ) , b ¹ 0
dx dy x - 2y + 5 dy 2x + 3y - 1
Consider the examples = ; =
To solve this, substitute t = ax + by + c. Then the equation dx 2x + y - 1 dx 4x + 6y - 5
reduces to separable type in the variable t and x which can be
dy 2x - y + 1
solved. & =
dx 6x - 5y + 4
dy
Consider the example ( x + y )
2
= a2
dx (iii) In an equation of the form : yf(xy)dx + xg(xy)dy = 0 the
(b) Homogeneous equations : variables can be separated by the substitution xy = v.
dy f ( x, y ) 8. LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS :

A differential equation of the form = , where f(x, y)
dx f ( x, y ) A differential equation is said to be linear if the dependent variable
& f (x , y) are homogeneous functions of x & y and of the same & its differential coefficients occur in the first degree only and are
degree, is called HOMOGENEOUS. This equation may also be not multiplied together.
The nth order linear differential equation is of the form ;
dy æ xö
= g ç ÷ & is solved by putting y = vx

reduced to the form dn y dn -1 y
dx è yø
a0 ( x ) + a1 (x) + ... + a n -1 (x).y + a n (x) = 0 ,
so that the dependent variable y is changed to another variable dxn dxn -1
v , where v is some unknown function. The differential equation where a0(x), a1(x), ...., an(x) are called the coefficients of the
thus, is transformed to an equation which is variables separable.
differential equation.
dy y ( x + y )
Consider the example + =0 (a) Linear differential equations of first order :
dx x2
The most general form of a linear differential equations of first
(c) Equations reducible to the homogeneous form :
dy
dy a1 x + b1 y + c1 a1 a2 order is + Py = Q , where P & Q are functions of x.
If = ; where a1b2 – a2b1 ¹ 0, i.e. b ¹ b dx
dx a2 x + b2 y + c2 1 2
To solve such an equation multiply both sides by integrating
then the substitution x = u + h , y = v + k
factor e ò .
Pdx
transform this equation to a homogeneous type in the new
variables u and v where h and k are arbitrary constants to be
Then the solution of this equation will be ye ò = ò Qe ò
Pdx Pdx
chosen so as to make the given equation homogeneous. dx + c
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ALLEN ALLEN
(b) Equations reducible to linear form : It should be observed that :
xdy + ydx dx + dy
dy (i) = d ( lnxy ) (ii) = d ( ln(x + y) )
The equation + Py = Q.y n where P & Q are function, of x, xy x+y
dx
is reducible to the linear form by dividing it by yn & then xdy - ydx æ yö ydx - xdy æ xö
(iii) = d ç ln ÷ (iv) = d ç ln ÷
substituting y–n+1=Z. Consider the example (x3y2+xy)dx=dy. xy è xø xy è yø
dy xdy - ydx æ yö ydx - xdy æ xö

+ Py = Q yn is called BERNOULI’S EQUATION. (v) = d ç tan -1 (vi) = d ç tan -1 ÷
The equation
dx x2 + y2 è x ÷ø 2
x +y 2
è yø
9. TRAJECTORIES : xdx + ydy æ 1 ö xdy + ydx

(vii) = d éln x2 + y2 ù (viii) d ç - ÷ =
A curve which cuts every member of a given family of curves 2
x +y 2 ë û è xy ø x2 y2
according to a given law is called a Trajectory of the given family.
æ e x ö ye x dx - e x dy æ e y ö xey dy - e y dx
Orthogonal trajectories : (ix) d ç ÷ = (x) d ç x ÷ =
è yø y2 è ø x2
A curve making at each of its points a right angle with the curve of
the family passing through that point is called an orthogonal trajectory
of that family.
We set up the differential equation of the given family of curves.
Let it be of the form F(x, y, y') = 0
The differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories is of the form

æ -1 ö
F ç x, y, ÷ = 0
è y' ø
The general integral of this equation f(x, y, C) = 0 gives the family

of orthogonal trajectories.
Note :
Following exact differentials must be remembered :
(i) dx + dy = d(x + y) (ii) dx – dy = d(x – y)
xdy - ydx æ yö
(iii) xdy + y dx = d(xy) (iv) = dç ÷
x2 è xø
ydx - xdy æ xö
(v) = dç ÷ (vi) 2(xdx + ydy) = d(x2 + y2)
y 2
è yø
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ALLEN ALLEN
6. CURVE TRACING :
AREA UNDER THE CURVE The following outline procedure is to be applied in Sketching the
graph of a function y = f(x) which in turn will be extremely useful to
quickly and correctly evaluate the area under the curves.
1. The area bounded by the curve
y
(a) Symmetry : The symmetry of the curve is judged as follows :
y = f(x), the x-axis and the ordinates f (x)
y= (i) If all the powers of y in the equation are even then the
x = a & x = b is given by, curve is symmetrical about the axis of x.
b b (ii) If all the powers of x are even, the curve is symmetrical
A = ò f(x)dx = ò y dx , f(x) > 0. about the axis of y.
O x=a x=b x
a a
(iii) If powers of x & y both are even, the curve is symmetrical
2. If the area is below the x-axis then A is negative. The convention is
about the axis of x as well as y.
b
(iv) If the equation of the curve remains unchanged on
to consider the magnitude only i.e. A = ò y dx in this case.
interchanging x and y, then the curve is symmetrical about
a
y = x.
3. The area bounded by the curve y (v) If on replacing 'x' by '–x' and 'y' by '–y', the equation of the
x = f(y), y-axis & abscissa y = c, y=d curve is unaltered then there is symmetry in opposite
x
x=f(y) quadrants, i.e. symmetric about the origin.
dy
y = d is given by, (b) Find dy/dx & equate it to zero to find the points on the curve
y=c
d d where you have horizontal tangents.
Area = ò xdy = ò f(y)dy , f(y) > 0 O x (c) Find the points where the curve crosses the x-axis & also the

c c
y-axis.
4. Area between the curves y = f(x) & y (d) Examine if possible the intervals when f(x) is increasing or
y = g(x) between the ordinates x = a decreasing. Examine what happens to ‘y’ when x ® ¥ or - ¥.
y=f(x) 7. USEFUL RESULTS :
& x = b is given by, y=g(x) (a) Whole area of the ellipse, x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1 is p ab.
b b
(b) Area enclosed between the parabolas y2 = 4 ax & x2 = 4 by is
A= ò f(x)dx - ò g(x)dx x
a a O x=a x=b 16ab/3.
b (c) Area included between the parabola y2 = 4 ax & the line
= ò [f(x) - g(x)]dx , f(x) > g(x) " x Î (a, b).
a
y = mx is 8 a2/3 m3.
(d) Area enclosed by the parabola and its double ordinate P, Q is
5. Average value of a function y = f (x) w.r.t. x over an interval a £ x £
1 b two-third of area of rectangle PQRS, where R,S lie on tangent
b is defined as : y(av) =
b-a ò f(x)dx .
a
at the vertex.
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ALLEN ALLEN
r r
Symbolically two non zero vectors a & b are collinear if and
VECTORS r
only if, ar = Kb , where K Î R
(d) COPLANAR VECTORS
1. Physical quantities are broadly divided in two categories viz (a) Vector
A given number of vectors are called coplanar if their supports
Quantities & (b) Scalar quantities. are all parallel to the same plane.
(a) Vector quantities : Note that “TWO VECTORS ARE ALWAYS COPLANAR ”.
Any quantity, such as velocity, momentum, or force, that has (e) EQUALITY OF TWO VECTORS :
both magnitude and direction and for which vector addition is Two vectors are said to be equal if they have
defined and meaningful; is treated as vector quantities.
(i) the same length,
(b) Scalar quantities :
(ii) the same or parallel supports and
A quantity, such as mass, length, time, density or energy, that
(iii) the same sense.
has size or magnitude but does not involve the concept of
direction is called scalar quantity. (f) Free vectors : If a vector can be translated anywhere in space
without changing its magnitude & direction, then such a vector
2. REPRESENTATION :
is called free vector. In other words, the initial point of free
Vectors are represented by directed straight line vector can be taken anywhere in space keeping its magnitude
Q
segment & direction same.
r r a (g) Localized vectors : For a vector of given magnitude and
magnitude of a = a = length PQ
r P direction, if its initial point is fixed in space, then such a vector
direction of a = P to Q. is called localised vector. Unless & until stated, vectors are
3. (a) ZERO VECTOR OR NULL VECTOR : treated as free vectors.

A vector of zero magnitude i.e. which has the same initial & 4. ADDITION OF VECTORS :
r (a) It is possible to develop an Algebra of Vectors which proves
terminal point is called a ZERO VECTOR . It is denoted by O .
(b) UNIT VECTOR : useful in the study of Geometry, Mechanics and other branches
r of Applied Mathematics. r
A vector of unit magnitude in direction of a vector a is called r
(i) If two vectors a & b are C
r B
r a ® ®
unit vector along a and is denoted by â symbolically â = r . represented by OA & OB , OB
|a| r r +
then their sum a + b is a OA
®
(c) COLLINEAR VECTORS vector represented by OC A
Two vectors are said to be collinear if their supports are parallel , where OC is the diagonal O
of the parallelogram OACB.
disregards to their direction. Collinear vectors are also called
r r r r
Parallel vectors. If they have the same direction they are named (ii) a + b = b + a (commutative)
r r r r r r
as like vectors otherwise unlike vectors. (iii) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (associativity)
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ALLEN ALLEN
(b) Multiplication of vector by scalars : 9. SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS (DOT PRODUCT):
r r r r r r r r r r r r
(i) m(a) = (a)m = ma (ii) m(na) = n(ma) = (mn)a (a) a.b =|a ||b| cos q (0 £ q £ p) , q is angle between a & b .
r r r r r r r v r
Note that if q is acute then a.b > 0 & if q is obtuse then
(iii) (m + n)a = ma + na (iv) m(a + b) = ma + mb
r r
a.b < 0
5. POSITION VECTOR :
y B r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
Let O be a fixed origin, then the position (b) a.a =|a|2 = a2 , a.b = b.a (commutative) a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c
b (distributive)
r r r r r r
®
A
vector of a point P is the vector OP . If (c) a.b = 0 Û a ^ b ; (a, b ¹ 0)
r r a
a & b are position vectors of two O x (d) î .î = ˆj.ˆj = kˆ .kˆ = 1 ; î .ˆj = ˆj.kˆ = kˆ .iˆ = 0 a
point A and B, then,
r a.b r r
® r r r
AB = b - a = pv of B – pv of A. (e) Projection of a on b = r .
|b| Projection of a on b b
6. SECTION FORMULA : Note :
r r r r
If a & b are the position vectors of two points A & B then the p.v. (i) The vector component of a along b i.e.
of a point which divides AB in the ratio m : n is given by : r r
r r r æ a.b ö r a
r na + mb a1 = ç r ÷ b and perpendicular a2
r= . è b2 ø
m+n
r r a1 b
7. VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE : r r r æ a.b ö r r r r

r to b i.e. a2 = a - çç r 2 ÷÷ b (a = a1 + a2 )
Parametric vector equation of a line passing through two point A(a) è b ø
r r r r r r
& B(b) is given by, r = a + t(b - a) where t is a parameter. If the r
(ii) The angle f between a & b is given by
r r
line pass through the point A(a) & is parallel to the vector b then rr
a.b
r r r cos f = r r 0 £ f £ p
its equation is r = a + tb , where t is a parameter.. | a || b |
r r
8. TEST OF COLLINEARITY OF THREE POINTS : (iii) If a = a1î + a2ˆj + a 3 kˆ & b = b1î + b2ˆj + b3 kˆ then
r r r
(a) Three points A, B, C with position vectors a , b , c respectively r r
a.b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a 3 b3
are collinear, if & only if there exist scalars x, y, z not all zero
r r r r
r 2 2
a = a1 + a 2 + a 3 , b = b1 + b2 + b3
2 2 2 2
simultaneously such that ; xa + yb + zc = 0 , where x + y + z = 0
(b) Three points A, B, C are collinear, if any two vectors r r r r r r
uuur uuur uuur (iv) - |a||b|£ a.b £|a||b|
AB, BC, CA are parallel. r r r r r ˆˆ
(v) Any vector a can be written as, a = (a.î)iˆ + (a.ˆj)jˆ + (a.k)k
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ALLEN ALLEN
(vi) A vector in the direction of the bisector of the angle between r r r r
r r (i) a ´ b ¹ b ´ a (not commutative)
r r
the two vectors a & b is r
a
+
b
r . Hence bisector of the r r r r r r
|a| |b| (ii) (ma) ´ b = ax(mb) = m(a ´ b) where m is a scalar..
r r r r r r r r r
ˆ , where (iii) a ´ (b + c) = (a ´ b) + (a ´ c) (distributive)
angle between the two vectors a & b is l (aˆ + b)
r r (vi) î ´ î = ˆj ´ ˆj = kˆ ´ kˆ = 0
l Î R + . Bisector of the exterior angle between a & b is
ˆ ˆj ´ kˆ = î, kˆ ´ î = ˆj
î ´ ˆj = k,
ˆ , l Î R+
l (aˆ – b)
r r
r r r r r r (e) If a = a1î + a2ˆj + a 3 kˆ & b = b1î + b2ˆj + b3 kˆ then
(vii) |a ± b|2 =|a|2 +|b|2 ± 2a.b
(viii) |a + b + c|2 =|a|2 +|b|2 +|c|2 + 2(a.b + b.c + c.a) î kˆ
ˆj
r r
a ´ b = a1 a2
a3
10. VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS (CROSS
PRODUCT) : b1 b2
b3
r r r
r (f) Geometrically |a ´ b| = area of
(a) If a & b are two vectors & a×b b
the parallelogram whose two adjacent
q is the angle between them, r r
sides are represented by a & b . a
r r r r C = A ×B B
r
then a ´ b =|a||b|sin qnˆ , r
(g) (i) Unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a & b is
where n̂ is the unit vector
q
r r
a ´ b
r n̂ = ± r r
perpendicular to both a & A
|a ´ b|
r r r r –C = B × A
b such that a , b & n forms (ii) A vector of magnitude ‘r’ & perpendicular to the plane of

r r
a right handed screw system . r r r(a ´ b)
r a & b is ± r r
r |a ´ b|
(b) Lagranges Identity : For any two vectors a & b ;
r r
r r r r r r |a ´ b|
r r 2 r2 r2 r r 2 a.a a.b (iii) If q is the angle between a & b then sin q = r r
(a ´ b) = a b - (a.b) = r r r r |a||b|
a.b b.b
(h) Vector area :
(c) Formulation of vector product in terms of scalar product : The r r r
r r r (i) If a, b & c are the pv’s of 3 points A, B & C then
vector product a ´ b is the vector c , such that
1 r r r r r r
r r2 r2 r r 2 r r r r the vector area of triangle ABC = éa ´ b + b ´ c + c ´ a ù .
(i) c = a b - (a.b) (ii) c.a = 0; c.b = 0 and 2 ë û
r r r r r r r r r
(iii) a , b , c form a right handed system The points A, B & C are collinear if a ´ b + b ´ c + c ´ a = 0
r r
r r r r r r (ii) Area of any quadrilateral whose diagonal vectors are d1 & d2
(d) a ´ b = 0 Û a & b are parallel (collinear) (a ¹ 0, b ¹ 0)
r r 1 r r 1 r r
i.e. a = Kb , where K is a scalar is given by d1 ´ d2 . Area of D = |a ´ b|
2 2
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ALLEN ALLEN
11. SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO LINES : 12. SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT / BOX PRODUCT / MIXED
Lines which do not PRODUCT :
A r r r
intersect & are also a L p (a) The scalar triple product of three vectors a, b & c is defined
r r r r r r
as: ( a ´ b ) .c =|a||b||c|sin q cos f
not parallel are
called skew lines. In where q is the angle
p× q
other words the r r
between a & b & f
lines which are not
c cos f
is the angle between fc
coplanar are skew M q r r r
B b a ´ b & c . It is also
lines. For Skew lines r r r q b
defined as [a b c] , a
the direction of the
spelled as box product.
shortest distance vector would be perpendicular to both the lines. (b) In a scalar triple product the position of dot & cross can be interchanged
r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
The magnitude of the shortest distance vector would be equal to that i.e. a.(b ´ c) = (a ´ b).c OR [a b c] = [b c a] = [c a b]
®
of the projection of AB along the direction of the line of shortest r r r r r r r r r rrr
(c) a.(b ´ c) = -a.(c ´ b) i.e. [a b c] = - [a c b]
® r r r r r r r r r r r
distance, LM is parallel to p ´ q (d) If a , b , c are coplanar Û [a b c] = 0 Þ a , b , c are
® ® ®
linearly dependent.
i.e. LM = |Projection of AB on LM| (e) Scalar product of three vectors, two of which are equal or parallel
r r r r r
® is 0 i.e. [a b c] = 0
= |Projection of AB on p ´ q |
r r r r r r r r r r rrr rrr
r r r r (f) [i j k] = 1; [K a b c] = K[a b c] ; [(a + b) c d] = [a c d] + [b c d]
® r r

AB.(p ´ q) (b - a).(p ´ q) (g) (i) The Volume of the tetrahedron OABC with O as origin & the
= r r = r r r r r
p´q |p ´ q| pv’s of A, B and C being a, b & c are given by
r r 1 r r r
(a) The two lines directed along p & q will intersect only if shortest V = [a b c]
6
distance = 0 (ii) Volume of parallelopiped whose co-terminus edges are
i.e. (b - a).(p ´ q) = 0 i.e. (b - a) lies in the plane containing a, b & c is [a b c] .
r r r r r r
ë (
p & q Þ é b - a p qù = 0 ) û
(h) Remember that :
r r r r r r
(i) [a - b b - c c - a] = 0
r r r
(b) If two lines are given by r1 = a1 + K1 b a2 r r r r r r r r r
(ii) [a + b b + c c + a] = 2[a b c]
r r r
& r2 = a2 + K 2 b i.e. they d r r r r r r
a.a a.b a.c
r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
b
b ´ (a2 - a1 ) a1 (iii) [a b c]2 = [a ´ b b ´ c c ´ a] = b.a b.b b.c
are parallel then, d = r r r r r r r
|b| c.a c.b c.c
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
13. VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT : 15. COPLANARITY OF FOUR POINTS :
r r r r r r r r r r
Let a, b & c be any three vectors, then that expression a ´ (b ´ c) Four points A, B, C, D with position vectors a, b, c, d respectively
is a vector & is called a vector triple product.
r r r r rr r rr are coplanar if and only if there exist scalars x, y, z, w not all zero
(a) a ´ (b ´ c) = (a.c)b - (a.b)c r r r r
simultaneously such that xa + yb + zc + wd = 0
r r r r rr r rr
(b) (a ´ b) ´ c = (a . c)b - (b . c)a where, x + y + z + w = 0
r r r r r r
(c) (a ´ b) ´ c ¹ a ´ (b ´ c) 16. RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS :
14. LINEAR COMBINATIONS / LINEAR INDEPENDENCE AND r r r r r r
If a, b, c & a ' , b' , c ' are two sets of non coplanar vectors such
DEPENDENCE OF VECTORS : r r
Linear combination of vectors : r r r r
that a . a ' = b . b ' = c . c' = 1 then the two systems are called
r r r Reciprocal System of vectors.
Given a finite set of vectors a, b, c ,........... then the vector
r r r r
r r r r b ´ c r r r r
r = xa + yb + zc + ............ is called a linear combination of a ' = r c ´ a r a ´ b
Note : r r ; b' = r r r ; c' = r r r
r r r [a b c] [a b c] [a b c]
a, b, c ,........ for any x, y, z ....... Î R . We have the following results :
r r r
(a) If x1 , x2 ,....x n are n non zero vectors, & k1 , k2 ,....k n are n 17. TETRAHEDRON :
r r r (i) Lines joining the vertices of a tetrahedron to the centroids of the
scalars & if the linear combination k1 x1 + k2 x2 + .....kn xn =0
Þ k1 = 0, k2 = 0......k n = 0 th en we say th at vecto rs opposite faces are concurrent and this point of concurrecy is called
r r r the centre of the tetrahedron.
x1 , x2 ,....x n are linearly independent vectors
r r r (ii) In a tetrahedron, straight lines joining the mid points of each pair
(b) If x1 , x2 ,.......xn are not linearly independent then they are of opposite edges are also concurrent at the centre of the
said to be linear dependen t vectors. i .e. if

r r r tetrahedron.
k1 x1 , k 2 x2 + .......k n x n = 0 & if there exists at least one k r ¹ 0
r r r (iii) The angle between any two plane faces of regular tetrahedron is
then x1 , x2 ,...x n are said to be linearly dependent.
r r cos -1
1
(c) Fundamental theorem in plane : let a, b be non zero, non
3
r r r
collinear vectors. then any vector r coplanar with a, b can be
r r
expressed uniquely as a linear combination of a, b i.e. there
r r r
exist some unique x, y Î R such that xa + yb = r
r r r
(d) Fundamental theorem in space : let a, b, c be non-
r
zero, non-coplanar vectors in space. Then any vector r , can
r r r
be uniquely expressed as a linear combination of a, b, c i.e.
The re exist some uniqu e x, y, z Î R s uch th at
r r r r
r = xa + yb + zc .
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
5. DIRECTION RATIOS :
3D-COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Any three numbers a, b, c proportional to direction cosines l, m, n
are called direction ratios of the line.
1. DISTANCE FORMULA :
l m n
The distance between two points A (x1, y1, z1) and B (x2, y2, z2) is i.e. = =
a b c
given by AB = [(x2 - x1 )2 + (y2 - y1 )2 + (z 2 - z1 )2 ] It is easy to see that there can be infinitely many sets of direction
ratios for a given line.
2. SECTION FORMULAE :
6. RELATION BETWEEN D.C’S & D.R’S :
Let P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) be two points and let R (x, y, z) divide
l m n
PQ in the ratio m1 : m2. Then R is = =
a b c
æ m x + m2 x1 m1 y2 + m2 y1 m1 z 2 + m2 z1 ö l2 m2 n2 l2 + m2 + n2
(x, y, z) = ç 1 2 , ,
è m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 ÷ø \
a2
= 2 = 2 = 2
b c a + b2 + c 2
If (m1/m2) is positive, R divides PQ internally and if (m1/m2) is ±a ±b ±c
\ l= ; m= ; n=
negative, then externally. a + b2 + c 2
2 2
a +b +c2 2
a + b2 + c 2
2
æ x + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2 ö
Mid point of PQ is given by ç 1 , , ÷ 7. DIRECTION COSINE OF AXES :
è 2 2 2 ø
3. CENTROID OF A TRIANGLE : Direction ratios and Direction cosines of the line joining

Let A(x1, y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2), C(x3, y3, z3) be the vertices of a triangle two points :
ABC. Then its centroid G is given by Let A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) be two points, then d.r.’s of AB are
æ x + x 2 + x 3 y1 + y 2 + y 3 z 1 + z 2 + z 3 ö 1 1
G =ç 1 , , ÷ø x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1 and the d.c.’s of AB are (x2 – x1), (y2 – y1),
è 3 3 3 r r
4. DIRECTION COSINES OF LINE : 1 uuur
(z2 – z1) where r = [S (x2 - x1 )2 ] =|AB|
If a, b, g be the angles made by a line with r
x-axis, y-axis & z-axis respectively then g
b 8. PROJECTION OF A LINE ON ANOTHER LINE :
cosa, cosb & cosg are called direction
cosines of a line, denoted by l, m & n a
Let PQ be a line segment with P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2 ) and let L
respectively and the relation between l,
be a straight line whose d.c.’s are l, m, n. Then the length of projection
m, n is given by l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
D. cosine of x-axis, y-axis & z-axis are respectively of PQ on the line L is |l (x2 – x1) + m (y2 – y1) + n (z2 – z1)|
1, 0, 0; 0, 1, 0; 0, 0, 1
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
(b) Equation of the line through two points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2)
9. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES :
x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
Let q be the angle between the lines with d.c.’s l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, is x - x = y - y = z - z
2 1 2 1 2 1
n2 then cos q = l1 l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 . If a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 be 12. FOOT, LENGTH AND EQUATION OF PERPENDICULAR
D.R.’s of two lines then angle q between them is given by FROM A POINT TO A LINE :
Let equation of the line be
(a1a2 + b1 b2 + c1c2 )
cos q = x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
(a + b12 + c12 ) (a 22 + b22 + c22 )
2
= = =r (say) .......... (i)
1
l m n
10. PERPENDICULARITY AND PARALLELISM : and A (a, b, g) be the point. Any point on the line (i) is
P(lr + x1, mr + y1, nr + z1) .......... (ii)
Let the two lines have their d.c.’s given by l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 If it is the foot of the perpendicular, from A on the line, then AP is ^
to the line, so l (lr + x1 – a) + m (mr + y1 – b) + n (nr + z1 – g) = 0
respectively then they are perpendicular if q = 90° i.e. cos q = 0, i.e.
i.e. r = (a – x1) l + (b – y1) m + (g – z1) n
l1 l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0. since l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
l 1 m1 n1 Putting this value of r in (ii), we get the foot of perpendicular from

Also the two lines are parallel if q = 0 i.e. sin q = 0, i.e. = =
l 2 m2 n2 point A to the line.
Note: Length : Since foot of perpendicular P is known, length of
If instead of d.c.’s, d.r.’s a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 are given, then
perpendicular,
the lines are perpendicular if a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0 and parallel

if a1/a2 = b1/b2 = c1/c2 . AP = [(lr + x1 - a )2 + (mr + y1 - b)2 + (nr + z1 - g )2 ]
11. EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE IN SYMMETRICAL Equation of perpendicular is given by
FORM : x-a y-b z-g
= =
(a) One point form : Let A(x1, y1, z1) be a given point on the lr + x1 - a mr + y1 - b nr + z1 - g
straight line and l, m, n the d.c’s of the line, then its equation is
13. EQUATIONS OF A PLANE :
x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
= = =r (say) The equation of every plane is of the first degree i.e. of the form
l m n
ax + by + cz + d = 0, in which a, b, c are constants, where a2 + b2 + c2 ¹
It should be noted that P(x1 + lr, y1 + mr, z1 + nr) is a general point
0 (i.e. a, b, c ¹ 0 simultaneously).
on this line at a distance r from the point A(x 1, y1, z1) i.e. AP = r.
One should note that for AP = r; l, m, n must be d.c.’s not d.r.’s. (a) Vector form of equation of plane :
r r
If a, b, c are direction ratios of the line, then equation of the line If a be the position vector of a point on the plane and n be a
x - x1 y - y1 z - z1 vector normal to the plane then it’s vectorial equation is given
is = = = r but here AP ¹ r r r r r r r r
a b c by ( r - a ) .n = 0 Þ r .n = d where d = a.n = constant.
E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
(b) Plane Parallel to the Coordinate Planes : 14. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO PLANES :
(i) Equation of y-z plane is x = 0. Consider two planes ax + by + cz + d = 0 and a' x + b' y + c' z + d' = 0.
(ii) Equation of z-x plane is y = 0. Angle between these planes is the angle between their normals.
(iii) Equation of x-y plane is z = 0.
aa ' + bb '+ cc '
(iv) Equation of the plane parallel to x-y plane at a distance c is cos q =
a + b + c 2 a '2 + b '2 + c '2
2 2
z = c. Similarly, planes parallel to y-z plane and z-x plane are
respectively x = c and y = c. \ Planes are perpendicular if aa' + bb' + cc' = 0 and they are parallel
(c) Equations of Planes Parallel to the Axes : if a/a' = b/b' = c/c'.
If a = 0, the plane is parallel to x-axis i.e. equation of the plane Planes parallel to a given Plane :
parallel to x-axis is by + cz + d = 0. Equation of a plane parallel to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
Similarly, equations of planes parallel to y-axis and parallel to ax + by + cz + d' = 0. d' is to be found by other given condition.
z-axis are ax + cz + d = 0 and ax + by + d = 0 respectively. 15. ANGLE BETWEEN A LINE AND A PLANE :
(d) Equation of a Plane in Intercept Form : x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
Equation of the plane which cuts off intercepts a, b, c from the Let equations of the line and plane be = = and
l m n
x y z ax + by + cz + d = 0 respectively and q be the angle which line
axes is + + =1.
a b c makes with the plane. Then (p/2 - q) is the angle between the line
(e) Equation of a Plane in Normal Form : and the normal to the plane.
If the length of the perpendicular distance of the plane from
al + bm + cn n

the origin is p and direction cosines of this perpendicular are (l, So sin q =
e
(a + b + c ) (l + m + n )
lin
2 2 2 2 2 2
m, n), then the equation of the plane is lx + my + nz = p.
Line is parallel to plane if q = 0 q
(f) Vectorial form of Normal equation of plane :
If n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane from the origin to the i.e. if al + bm + cn = 0.
plane and d be the perpendicular distance of plane from origin Line is ^ to the plane if line is parallel to the normal of the plane
r
ˆ =d.
then its vector equation is r .n a b c
i.e. if = = .
(g) Equation of a Plane through three points : l m n
The equation of the plane through three non-collinear points 16. CONDITION IN ORDER THAT THE LINE MAY LIE ON THE
x y z 1 GIVEN PLANE :
(x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) (x3, y3, z3) is

x1 y1 z1 1
=0 The line x - x1 = y - y1 = z - z1 will lie on the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
x2 y2 z2 1 l m n
x3 y3 z3 1 if (a) Al + Bm + Cn = 0 and (b) Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D = 0

E E
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ALLEN ALLEN
17. POSITION OF TWO POINTS W.R.T. A PLANE : 20. PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE OF A POINT FROM THE
PLANE :
Two points P(x1, y1, z1) & Q(x2, y2, z2) are on the same or opposite sides
Perpendicular distance p, of the point A(x1, y1, z1) from the plane
of a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 according to ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d & ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by
ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d are of same or opposite signs.
|ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d|
p=
18. IMAGE OF A POINT IN THE PLANE : (a2 + b2 + c2 )
P
Let the image of a point P(x1, y1, z1) Distance between two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0
R d1 - d 2
in a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is & ax + by + cz + d2 = 0 is -
a + b2 + c 2
2
Q(x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) and foot of perpendicular Q 21. A PLANE THROUGH THE LINE OF INTERSECTION OF
TWO GIVEN PLANES :
of point P on plane is R(x3, y3, z3), then
Consider two planes
x - x1 y3 - y1 z 3 - z1 æ ax + by + cz + d ö u º ax + by + cz + d = 0 and v º a' x + b' y + c' z + d' = 0.
(a) 3 = = = - ç 1 2 1 2 12 ÷
a b c è a +b +c ø
The equation u + lv = 0, l a real parameter, represents the plane
x 2 - x1 y 2 - y1 z 2 - z1 æ ax + by + cz + d ö passing through the line of intersection of given planes and if planes
(b) = = = -2 ç 1 2 1 2 12 ÷
a b c è a +b +c ø are parallel, this represents a plane parallel to them.
22. BISECTORS OF ANGLES BETWEEN TWO PLANES :
19. CONDITION FOR COPLANARITY OF TWO LINES :

Let the equations of the two planes be ax + by + cz + d = 0 and
Let the two lines be
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0.
x - a1 y - b1 z - g 1 Then equations of bisectors of angles between them are given by
= = .......... (i)
l1 m1 n1
ax + by + cz + d a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1
x - a 2 y - b2 z - g 2 =±
2 2 2
and = = .......... (ii) (a + b + c ) (a12 + b12 + c12 )
l2 m2 n2
(a) Equation of bisector of the angle containing origin : First
a2 - a1 b2 - b1 g2 - g1
make both constant terms positive. Then +ve sign give the
These lines will coplanar if l1 m1 n1 =0
bisector of the angle which contains the origin.
l2 m2 n2
(b) Bisector of acute/obtuse angle : First making both constant
x - a1 y - b1 z - g1 terms positive,
the plane containing the two lines is l1 m1 n1 =0 aa1 + bb1 + cc1 > 0 Þ origin lies in obtuse angle
l2 m2 n2 aa1 + bb1 + cc1 < 0 Þ origin lies in acute angle
E E
194 195
ALLEN ALLEN
Let S = a1, a2, ......., an be the sample space
PROBABILITY
n
(a) P(S) = = 1 corresponding to the certain event.
n
1. SOME BASIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS
0
(a) An Experiment : An action or operation resulting in two or (b) P(f) = = 0 corresponding to the null event f or impossible
n
more outcomes is called an experiment. event.
(c) If A i = {a i }, i = 1, ....., n then A i is the event corresponding
(b) Sample Space : The set of all possible outcomes of an
1
experiment is called the sample space, denoted by S. An element to a single sample point ai. Then P(A i ) = .
n
of S is called a sample point.
(d) 0 £ P(A) £ 1
(c) Event : Any subset of sample space is an event.
(d) Simple Event : An event is called a simple event if it is a 3. ODDS AGAINST AND ODDS IN FAVOUR OF AN EVENT :
singleton subset of the sample space S. Let there be m + n equally likely, mutually exclusive and exhaustive
(e) Compound Events : It is the joint occurrence of two or more cases out of which an event A can occur in m cases and does not
simple events. occur in n cases. Then by definition, probability of occurrences of
(f) Equally Likely Events : A number of simple events are said m
event A = P(A) =
to be equally likely if there is no reason for one event to occur m+n
in preference to any other event. n
The probability of non-occurrence of event A = P(A') =
(g) Exhaustive Events : All the possible outcomes taken together m+n
\ P(A) : P(A' ) = m : n

in which an experiment can result are said to be exhaustive.
(h) Mutually Exclusive or Disjoint Events : If two events cannot Thus the odd in favour of occurrences of the event A are defined
occur simultaneously, then they are mutually exclusive. by m : n i.e. P(A) : P(A' ); and the odds against the occurrence of
If A and B are mutually exclusive, then A Ç B = f. the event A are defined by n : m i.e. P(A' ) : P(A).
(i) Complement of an Event : The complement of an event A,
4. ADDITION THEOREM
denoted by A , A' or AC, is the set of all sample points of the (a) If A and B are any events in S, then
space other then the sample points in A. P(A È B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A Ç B)
2. MATHEMATICAL DEFINITION OF PROBABILITY Since the probability of an event is a nonnegative number, it
Let the outcomes of an experiment consists of n exhaustive mutually follows that
exclusive and equally likely cases. Then the sample spaces S has
P(A È B) £ P(A) + P(B)
n sample points. If an event A consists of m sample points, (0 £
For three events A, B and C in S we have
m £ n), then the probability of event A, denoted by P(A) is defined
P( A È B È C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) – P(A Ç B) – P(B Ç C)
to be m/n i.e. P(A) = m/n.
– P(C Ç A) + P(A Ç B Ç C).
E E
196 197
ALLEN ALLEN
General form of addition theorem (c) Probability of at least one of the n Independent events
(Principle of Inclusion-Exclusion) If p1 , p2 , p3 , ....... pn are the probabilities of n independent
For n events A1, A2, A3, ...... An in S, we have events A1 , A2, A3 ..... An then the probability of happening of
P(A1 È A2 È A3 È A4 ........ È An) at least one of these event is
n
= å P(
i =1
A i)- å P(
i < j
Ai Ç A j ) + å
i < j < k
P( A i Ç A j Ç A k ) + . . . . . 1 – [ ( 1 – p1 ) ( 1 – p2 ) ..... (1– pn) ]
Þ P(A1 + A2 + A3+ ... + An ) = 1 – P( A1 ) P( A 2 ) P( A 3 ) ... P( A n )
+ (–1)n – 1 P(A1 Ç A2 Ç A3 ..... Ç An)
(b) If A and B are mutually exclusive, then P(A Ç B) = 0 so that 7. TOTAL PROBABILITY THEOREM :
P(A È B) = P(A) + P(B) .
B1 B2 B3 Bn
5. CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY :
If A and B are any events in S then the conditional probability of
B relative to A, i.e. probability of occurence of B when A has occured,
is given by
P(B Ç A)
P(B/A) = . If P(A) ¹ 0
P(A)
Let an event A of an experiment occurs with its n mutually exclusive
6. MULTIPLICATION THEOREM
& exhaustive events B1,B2,B3,........Bn
Independent event :
So if A and B are two independent events then happening of B then total probability of occurence of even A is

will have no effect on A.
n
(a) When events are independent :
P(A/B) = P(A) and P(B/A) = P(B), then
P(A) = P(AB1) + P(AB2) +.......+ P(ABn) = å P (AB )
i =1
i
P ( A Ç B ) = P(A). P(B) OR P(AB) = P(A) . P(B)

Þ P(A) = P(B1) P(A|B1) + P(B2) P(A|B2) + .... + P(Bn) P(A|Bn)
(b) When events are not independent
= SP(Bi) P(A|Bi)
The probability of simultaneous happening of two events A and
B is equal to the probability of A multiplied by the conditional 8. BAYE'S THEOREM OR INVERSE PBOBABILITY :
probability of B with respect to A (or probability of B multiplied Let A1, A2, ....., An be n mutually exclusive and exhaustive events
by the conditional probability of A with respect to B) i.e of the sample space S and A is event which can occur with any
P ( A Ç B ) = P (A) . P(B/A) or P (B) . P (A/B)
æA ö P(A i ) P(A / A i )
of the events then P ç i ÷= n
OR èA ø
P (AB) = P(A) . P (B/A) or P (B) . P (A/B)
å P(A i ) P(A / A i )
i = 1
E E
198 199
ALLEN ALLEN
9. BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION FOR REPEATED TRIALS (vii) P(AB) £ P(A) P(B) £ P(A + B) £ P(A) + P(B)
Binomial Experiment : Any experiment which has only two (viii) P(AB) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A + B)
outcomes is known as binomial experiment.
(ix) P(Exactly one event) = P (A B) + P (A B)
Outcomes of such an experiment are known as success and failure.
= P(A) + P(B) – 2P(AB)= P(A + B) – P(AB)
Probability of success is denoted by p and probability of failure by q.
(x) P(neither A nor B) = P (A B) = 1 – P(A + B)
\ p + q = 1
If binomial experiment is repeated n times, then (xi) P (A + B) =1 – P(AB)
(a) Probability of exactly r successes in n trials = Crp q n r n– r (b) Number of exhaustive cases of tossing n coins simultaneously
r (or of tossing a coin n times) = 2n
(b) Probability of at most r successes in n trails = å
l = 0
n
Cl pl q n -l (c) Number of exhaustive cases of throwing n dice simultaneously
n
(or throwing one dice n times) = 6n
(c) Probability of atleast r successes in n trails = å
l = r
n
C l p l q n -l
(d) Playing Cards :
(d) Probability of having I success at the r trials = p q
st th r– 1
. (i) Total Cards : 52(26 red, 26 black)
The mean, the variance and the standard deviation of binomial
(ii) Four suits : Heart, Diamond, Spade, Club - 13 cards each
distribution are np, npq, npq . (iii) Court Cards : 12 (4 Kings, 4 queens, 4 jacks)
Note : (p + q)n = nC0 qn + nC1pqn – 1 + nC2p2qn – 2 +...+ nCr pr qn – r + .... (iv) Honour Cards : 16 (4 aces, 4 kings, 4 queens, 4 jacks)
...+ nCn pn = 1

(e) Probability regarding n letters and their envelopes :
10. SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS If n letters are placed into n directed envelopes at random, then
(a) Let A and B be two events, then 1
(i) Probability that all letters are in right envelopes = .
n!
(i) P(A) + P( A ) = 1
1
(ii) P(A + B) = 1 – P (A B) (ii) Probability that all letters are not in right envelopes = 1 –
n!
(iii) Probability that no letters is in right envelopes
P(AB)
(iii) P(A/B) = 1 1 1 1
P(B) = - + - ..... + ( -1)n
2! 3! 4! n!
(iv) P(A + B) = P(AB) + P (A B) + P (A B) (iv) Probability that exactly r letters are in right envelopes
(v) A Ì B Þ P(A) £ P(B) 1 é1 1 1 1 ù
= - + - ..... + ( -1)n - r
r! êë 2! 3! 4! (n - r)! úû
(vi) P (A B) = P(B) – P(AB)
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11. PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION :
(a) A Probability Distribution spells out how a total probability of 1 STATISTICS
is distributed over several values of a random variable.
(b) Mean of any probability distribution of a random variable is MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY :
given by : An average value or a central value of a distribution is the value of
variable which is representative of the entire distribution, this
m=
åp x i i
= å pi x i ( Since S pi = 1 ) representative value are called the measures of central tendency.
åp i
Generally there are following five measures of central tendency :
(c) Variance of a random variable is given by, s² = å ( xi - µ)². pi (a) Mathematical average
(i) Arithmetic mean (ii) Geometric mean
s² = å pi x²i - µ² (Note that Standard Deviation (SD) = + s )
2
(iii) Harmonic mean
(d) The probability distribution for a binomial variate ‘X’ is given (b) Positional average
by; P (X= r)= n C r pr q n-r where: (i) Median (ii) Mode
p = probability of success in a single trial, q = probability of
1. ARITHMETIC MEAN/MEAN :
failure in a single trial and p + q = 1.
(e) Mean of Binomial Probability Distribution (BPD) = np ; variance (i) For ungrouped dist. : If x1, x2, ...... xn are n values of variate
of BPD = npq. xi then their mean x is defined as
(f) If p represents a person’s chance of success in any venture and n
‘M’ the sum of money which he will receive in case of success, x1 + x2 + ..... + xn åx i

x= = i =1
then his expectations or probable value = pM n n
Þ Sxi = n x
(ii) For ungrouped and grouped freq. dist. : If x1, x2, .... xn are
values of variate with corresponding frequencies f1, f2, ... fn then
their mean is given by
n
f1 x1 + f2 x2 + .... + fn x n åf x i i n
x= = i =1
, where N = åf i
f1 + f2 + .... + fn N i =1
(iii) By short cut method :

Let di = xi – a
Sfi d i
\ x =a+ , where a is assumed mean
N
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(iv) By step deviation method : 2. MEDIAN :
di x i - a The median of a series is the value of middle term of the series when
Let ui = = the values are written in ascending order. Therefore median, divides
h h
an arranged series into two equal parts.
æ Sf u ö Formulae of median :
\ x = a + ç i i ÷h
è N ø (i) For ungrouped distribution : Let n be the number of variate
(v) Weighted mean : If w1, w2, ...... wn are the weights assigned to in a series then
the values x1, x2, ..... xn respectively then their weighted mean is éæ n + 1 ö th
defined as êç ÷ term, (when n is odd)
n êè 2 ø
Median = ê
w1 x1 + w 2 x 2 + ..... + w n x n åw x i i
th th
ê Mean of æ n ö and æ n + 1 ö terms, (when n is even)
Weighted mean = = i =1
êë ç ÷ ç ÷
w1 + ..... + w n n
è2ø è2 ø
åw i
i =1 (ii) For ungrouped freq. dist. : First we prepare the cumulative
(vi) Combined mean : If x1 and x2 be the means of two groups frequency (c.f.) column and Find value of N then
having n1 and n2 terms respectively then the mean (combined mean)
éæ N + 1 öth
of their composite group is given by combined mean êç ÷ term, (when N is odd)
n1 x1 + n 2 x2 êè 2 ø
Median = ê
= th th
n1 + n 2 êMean of æ N ö and æ N +1 ö terms, (when N is even)
ç2÷ ç2 ÷
If there are more than two groups then, ëê è ø è ø
n1 x1 + n1 x 2 + n3 x 3 + .... (iii) For grouped freq. dist : Prepare c.f. column and find value of
combined mean =

n1 + n2 + n 3 + .... N
then find the class which contain value of c.f. is equal or just
(vii) Properties of Mean : 2
greater to N/2, this is median class
l Sum of deviations of variate about their mean is always zero
æN ö
i.e. S(xi – x ) = 0, Sfi(xi – x ) = 0 ç 2 –F÷
\ Median = l + è ø ×h
l Sum of square of deviations of variate about their mean is f
minimum i.e. S(xi – x )2 is minimum where l — lower limit of median class
f — freq. of median class
l If x is the mean of variate xi then mean of (xi + l) is x + l
F — c.f. of the class preceding median class
mean of (lxi) = l x h — Class interval of median class
3. MODE :
mean of (axi + b) is a x + b (where l, a, b are constant)
In a frequency distribution the mode is the value of that variate which
l Mean is independent of change of assumed mean i.e. it is not have the maximum frequency
effected by any change in assumed mean.
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Method for determining mode : (i) Range : The difference between the greatest and least values of
(i) For ungrouped dist. : The value of that variate which is repeated
variate of a distribution, are called the range of that distribution.
maximum number of times
If the distribution is grouped distribution, then its range is the
(ii) For ungrouped freq. dist. : The value of that variate which
difference between upper limit of the maximum class and lower
have maximum frequency.
limit of the minimum class.
(iii) For grouped freq. dist. : First we find the class which have maximum
difference of extreme values
frequency, this is model calss Also, coefficient of range =
sum of extreme values
f0 - f1
\ Mode = l + ×h (ii) Mean deviation (M.D.) : The mean deviation of a distribution
2f0 - f1 - f2
is, the mean of absolute value of deviations of variate from their
where l — lower limit of model class statistical average (Mean, Median, Mode).
f0 — freq. of the model class If A is any statistical average of a distribution then mean deviation
f1 — freq. of the class preceding model class about A is defined as
f2 — freq. of the class succeeding model class n
h — class interval of model class

å|x i - A|
Mean deviation = i =1
(for ungrouped dist.)
4. RELATION BETWEEN MEAN, MEDIAN AND MODE : n
n
In a moderately asymmetric distribution following is the relation between
å f |x i i - A|
mean, median and mode of a distribution. It is known as impirical Mean deviation = i =1
(for freq. dist.)

formula. N
Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean Note :- It is minimum when taken about the median
Note : (i) Median always lies between mean and mode
Mean deviation
(ii) For a symmetric distribution the mean, median and mode Coefficient of Mean deviation =
A
coincide. (where A is the central tendency about which Mean deviation is taken)
5. MEASURES OF DISPERSION :
(iii) Variance and standard deviation : The variance of a
The dispersion of a statistical distribution is the measure of deviation of distribution is, the mean of squares of deviation of variate from
its values about the their average (central) value. their mean. It is denoted by s2 or var(x).
Generally the following measures of dispersion are commonly used. The positive square root of the variance are called the standard
(i) Range deviation. It is denoted by s or S.D.
(ii) Mean deviation
(iii) Variance and standard deviation Hence standard deviation = + variance
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Formulae for variance :
l If means of two series containing n1, n2 terms are x1 , x 2 and
(i) for ungrouped dist. :
their variance's are s12 , s22 respectively and their combined mean
S (x i - x) 2
s2x = is x then the variance s2 of their combined series is given by
n
following formula
2 2
Sx 2 Sx i æ Sx i ö
s = i – x2 =
2 -ç ÷ n1 (s12 + d12 ) + n2 ( s22 + d 22 )
x
n n è n ø s2= where di = x1 - x , d2 = x 2 -x
(n1 + n 2 )
2
Sd2i æ Sd i ö
s2d = -ç ÷ , where di = xi – a n1 s12 + n2 s22 n1 n2
n è n ø i.e. s2 = + (x1 - x 2 )2
n1 + n2 (n1 + n2 )2
(ii) For freq. dist. :
Sfi (x i - x)2
s2x = N
2
Sfi x2i Sfi x2i æ Sfi x i ö
s2x = – (x) 2 = -ç ÷
N N è N ø
2
Sf d 2 æ Sf d ö
s2d = N - ç N ÷
i i i i
è ø
é Sf u2 æ Sf u ö2 ù

di
s = h êê N – èç N ø÷ úú
i i i i
2
u
2
where ui =
ë û h
s
(iii) Coefficient of S.D. =
x
s
Coefficient of variation = ×100 (in percentage)
x
Note :- s2 = s2x = s 2d = h2 s 2u
6. MATHEMATICAL PROPERTIES OF VARIANCE :

l Var.(xi + l) = Var.(xi)
Var.(lxi) = l2.Var(xi)
Var(axi + b) = a2.Var(xi)
where l, a, b, are constant
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5. TRUTH TABLE :
MATHEMATICAL REASONING Conjunction Disjunction Negation
p q pÙq q pÚq
1. STATEMENT : p
T T T T T T p (~ p)
A declarative sentence which is either true or false but not both, is called
T F F T F T T F
a statement. A sentence which is an exclamatory or a wish or an
F T F F T T F T
imperative or an interrogative can not be a statement.
F F F F F F
If a statement is true then its truth value is T and if it is false then its truth
Conditional Biconditional
value is F.
p q p®q (p ® q) Ù (q ® p)
2. SIMPLE STATEMENT : p q p®q q®p
T T T or p « q
Any statement whose truth value does not depend on other statement T T T T T
T F F
are called simple statement. F T T T F F T F
3. COMPOUND STATEMENT : F F T F T T F F
F F T T T
A statement which is a combination of two or more simple statements
are called compound statement. Note : If the compound statement contain n sub statements then its
truth table will contain 2n rows.
Here the simple statements which form a compound statement are known
6. LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE :
as its sub statements.

Two compound statements S1(p, q, r...) and S2(p, q, r ....) are said to be
4. LOGICAL CONNECTIVES : logically equivalent or simply equivalent if they have same truth values
The words or phrases which combines simple statements to form a for all logical possibilities
compound statement are called logical connectives. Two statements S1 and S2 are equivalent if they have identical truth
table i.e. the entries in the last column of their truth table are same. If
S.N. Connectives Symbol Use Operation
statements S1 and S2 are equivalent then we write S1 º S2
1. and Ù p Ù q conjunction
2. or Ú p Ú q disjunction i.e. p ® q º~ p Ú q
3. not : or ' : p or p' negation
4. If .... then ..... Þ or ® pÞq Implication or 7. TAUTOLOGY AND CONTRADICTION :
or p ® q conditional (i) Tautology : A statement is said to be a tautology if it is true for all
5. If and only if (iff) Û or « pÛq Equivalence or logical possibilities
or p « q Bi-conditional i.e. its truth value always T. it is denoted by t.
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(ii) Contradiction/Fallacy : A statement is a contradiction if it is 10. NEGATION OF COMPOUND STATEMENTS :
false for all logical possibilities.
If p and q are two statements then
i.e. its truth value always F. It is denoted by c.
(i) Negation of conjunction : ~(p Ù q) º ~p Ú ~q
Note : The negation of a tautology is a contradiction and negation (ii) Negation of disjunction : ~(p Ú q) º ~p Ù ~q
of a contradiction is a tautology (iii) Negation of conditional : ~(p ® q) º p Ù ~q
(iv) Negation of biconditional : ~ (p « q) º (p Ù ~q) Ú (q Ù ~p)
8. DUALITY :
º (~p « q) º (p « ~q)
Two compound statements S1 and S2 are said to be duals of each other
As we know that p « q º (p ® q) Ù (q ® p)
if one can be obtained from the other by replacing Ù by Ú and Ú by Ù
\ ~(p « q) º ~[(p ® q) Ù (q ® p)]
If a compound statement contains the special variable t (tautology) and º ~ (p ® q) Ú ~ (q ® p)
c (contradiction) then we obtain its dual replacing t by c and c by t in º (p Ù ~q) Ú (q Ù ~p)
addition to replacing Ù by Ú and Ú by Ù. Note : The above result also can be proved by preparing truth table for
~(p « q) and (p Ù ~q) Ú (q Ù ~p)
Note :
11. ALGEBRA OF STATEMENTS :
(i) the connectives Ù and Ú are also called dual of each other. If p, q, r are any three statements then the some low of algebra of
statements are as follow
(ii) If S*(p,q) is the dual of the compound statement S(p,q) then
(i) Idempotent Laws :

(a) S*(~p, ~q) º ~S(p, q) (b) ~S*(p, q) º S(~p, ~q) (a) pÙpºp (b) pÚpºp
(ii) Commutative laws :
9. CONVERSE, INVERSE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE OF THE
(a) pÙqºqÙp (b) pÚqºqÚp
CONDITIONAL STATEMENT (p ® q): (iii) Associative laws :
(i) Converse : The converse of the conditional statement (a) (p Ù q) Ù r º p Ù (q Ù r)

p ® q is defined as q ® p (b) (p Ú q) Ú r º p Ú (q Ú r)
(iv) Distributive laws :
(ii) Inverse : The inverse of the conditional statement p ® q is
(a) p Ù (q Ú r) º (p Ù q) Ú (p Ù r)
defined as ~p ® ~q
(b) p Ú (q Ù r) º (p Ú q) Ù (p Ú r)
(iii) Contrapositive : The contrapositive of conditional statement
(v) De Morgan Laws :
p ® q is defined as ~q ® ~p.
(a) ~ (p Ù q) º ~p Ú ~q
Note : (p ® q) º (~q ® ~p) º (~p Ú q).
(b) ~(p Ú q) º ~p Ù ~q
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(vi) Involution laws (or Double negation laws) : ~(~p) º p
(vii) Identity Laws : If p is a statement and t and c are tautology SETS
and contradiction respectively then
(a) p Ù t º p (b) p Ú t º t (c) p Ù c º c (d) p Ú c º p 1. SET :
(viii) Complement Laws : A set is a collection of well defined objects which are distinct from each
other.
(a) p Ù (~p) º c (b) p Ú (~p) º t
Set are generally denoted by capital letters A, B, C, .... etc. and the
(c) (~t) º c (d) (~c) º t
elements of the set by a, b, c .... etc.
12. QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS AND QUANTIFIERS :
If a is an element of a set A, then we write a Î A and say a belongs
The words or phrases "All", "Some", "None", "There exists a" are ex-
to A.
amples of quantifiers.
If a does not belong to A then we write a Ï A,
A statement containing one or more of these words (or phrases) is a
quantified statement. 2. SOME IMPORTANT NUMBER SETS :
Note : Phrases "There exists a" and "Atleast one" and the word "some" N = Set of all natural numbers
have the same meaning. = {1, 2, 3, 4, ....}

NEGATION OF QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS : W = Set of all whole numbers
(1) 'None' is the negation of 'at least one' or 'some' or 'few' = {0, 1, 2, 3, ....}
Similarly negation of 'some' is 'none' Z or I set of all integers
(2) The negation of "some A are B" or "There exist A which is B" = {.... –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ....}

is "No A are (is) B" or "There does not exist any Z+ = Set of all +ve integers
A which is B". = {1, 2, 3, ....} = N.
(3) Negation of "All A are B" is "Some A are not B".
Z– = Set of all –ve integers
= (–1, –2, –3, ....}
Z0 = The set of all non-zero integers.
= {±1, ±2, ±3, ....}
Q = The set of all rational numbers.
ìp ü
= í :p, q Î I ,q ¹ 0 ý
îq þ
R = the set of all real numbers.
R–Q = The set of all irrational numbers
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3. REPRESENTATION OF A SET : Proper subset : If A is a subset of B and A ¹ B then A is a proper
(i) Roster Form : In this form a set is described by listing elements, subset of B. and we write A Ì B
separated by commas and enclose then by curly brackets Note-1 : Every set is a subset of itself i.e. A Í A for all A
(ii) Set Builder Form : In this case we write down a property or Note-2 : Empty set f is a subset of every set
rule p Which gives us all the element of the set Note-3 : Clearly N Ì W Ì Z Ì Q Ì R Ì C
A = {x : P(x)} Note-4 : The total number of subsets of a finite set containing n elements
4. TYPES OF SETS : is 2n
Null set or Empty set : A set having no element in it is called an Universal set : A set consisting of all possible elements which occur
Empty set or a null set or void set it is denoted by f or { } in the discussion is called a Universal set and is denoted by U
A set consisting of at least one element is called a non-empty set or Note : All sets are contained in the universal set
a non-void set. Power set : Let A be any set. The set of all subsets of A is called
Singleton : A set consisting of a single element is called a singleton power set of A and is denoted by P(A)
set. Some Operation on Sets :
Finite Set : A set which has only finite number of elements is called (i) Union of two sets : A È B = {x : x Î A or x Î B}
a finite set. (ii) Intersection of two sets : A Ç B = {x : x Î A and x Î B}
Order of a finite set : The number of elements in a finite set is called (iii) Difference of two sets : A – B = {x : x Î A and x Ï B}
the order of the set A and is denoted O(A) or n(A). It is also called
(iv) Complement of a set : A' = {x : x Ï A but x Î U} = U – A
cardinal number of the set.
(v) De-Morgan Laws : (A È B)' = A' Ç B'; (A Ç B)' = A' È B'
Infinite set : A set which has an infinite number of elements is called

(vi) A – (B È C) = (A – B) Ç (A – C); A – (B Ç C) = (A – B) È (A – C)
an infinite set.
Equal sets : Two sets A and B are said to be equal if every element (vii) Distributive Laws : A È (B Ç C) = (A È B) Ç (A È C) ; A Ç (B È C)
of A is a member of B, and every element of B is a member of A. = (A Ç B) È (A Ç C)
If sets A and B are equal. We write A = B and if A and B are not (viii) Commutative Laws : A È B = B È A ; A Ç B = B Ç A
equal then A ¹ B. (ix) Associative Laws : (A È B) È C = A È (B È C); (A Ç B) Ç C
Equivalent sets : Two finite sets A and B are equivalent if their number = A Ç (B Ç C)
of elements are same (x) A Çf= f; A ÇU = A
i.e. n(A) = n(B) AÈf= A; A ÈU = U
Note : Equal sets are always equivalent but equivalent sets may not (xi) AÇB ÍA ; A ÇB ÍB
be equal. (xii) A Í A È B ; B Í A È B
Subsets : Let A and B be two sets if every element of A is an element (xiii) A Í B Þ A Ç B = A
B, then A is called a subset of B i.e. A Í B (xiv) A Í B Þ A È B = B
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Disjoint Sets : 5. SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS ON NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN
IF A Ç B = f, then A, B are disjoint. SETS :
Note : A Ç A' = f \ A, A' are disjoint.
If A, B and C are finite sets, and U be the finite universal set, then
Symmetric Difference of Sets :
A D B = (A – B) È (B – A) (i) n(A È B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A Ç B)
l (A')' = A (ii) n(A È B) = n(A) + n(B) Û A, B are disjoint sets
l A Í B Û B' Í A' (iii) n(A – B) = n(A) – n(A Ç B) i.e. n(A – B) + n(A Ç B) = n(A)
If A and B are any two sets, then
(iv) n(A D B) = No. of elements which belong to exactly one of A or B
(i) A – B = A Ç B'
(ii) B – A = B Ç A' = n((A – B) È (B – A))
(iii) A – B = A ÛA ÇB = f = n(A – B) + n(B – A) [Q (A – B) and (B – A) are disjoint]
(iv) (A – B) È B = A È B = n(A) – n(A Ç B) + n(B) – n(A Ç B)
(v) (A – B) Ç B = f
= n(A) + n(B) – 2n(A Ç B)
(vi) (A – B) È (B – A) = (A È B) – (A Ç B)
Venn Diagram : = n(A) + n(B) – 2n(A Ç B)
(v) n(A È B È C)
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A Ç B) – n(B Ç C) – n(A Ç C) + n(A Ç B Ç C)
(vi) Number of elements in exactly two of the sets A, B, C

= n(A Ç B) + n(B Ç C) + n(C Ç A) – 3n(A Ç B Ç C)
(vii) number of elements in exactly one of the sets A, B, C
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – 2n(A Ç B) – 2n(B Ç C) – 2n(A Ç C)
+ 3n(A Ç B Ç C)
(viii) n(A' È B') = n((A Ç B)') = n(U) – n(A Ç B)
(ix) n(A' Ç B') = n((A È B)') = n(U) – n(A È B)
Clearly (A – B) È (B – A) È (A È B) = A È B
(x) If A1, A2 ....... An are finite sets, then
U
æ n ö n
A n ç U Ai ÷ = ån(A ) - å i
n(A i Ç A j )
A' è i= 1 ø i= 1 1£ i < j £ n
+ å n(A i Ç A j Ç A k ) - .... + ( -1) n -1 n(A 1 Ç A 2 Ç .....A n )

Note : A Ç A' = f, A È A' = U 1£ i < j < k £ n
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Universal Relation : Let A be a set. Then A × A Í A × A and so it is
RELATIONS a relation on A. This relation is called the universal relation on A.
Identity Relation : Let A be a set. Then the relation IA = {(a, a) : a Î A}
on A is called the identity relation on A.
1. INTRODUCTION :
In other words, a relation IA on A is called the identity relation if every
Let A and B be two sets. Then a relation R from A to B is a subset of A ×B.
element of A is related to itself only.
thus, R is a relation from A to B Û R Í A × B. Reflexive Relation : A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if
Total Number of Relations : Let A and B be two non-empty finite every element of A is related to itself.
sets consisting of m and n elements respectively. Then A ×B consists of Thus, R on a set A is not reflexive if there exists an element A Î A such
mn ordered pairs. So total number of subsets of A × B is 2 mn. that (a , a) Ï R.
Domain and Range of a relation : Let R be a relation from a set A Every Identity relation is reflexive but every reflexive relation is not
to a set B. Then the set of all first components or coordinates of the identity.
ordered pairs belonging to R is called to domain of R, while the set of all Symmetric Relation : A relation R on a set A is said to be a symmetric
second components or coordinates of the ordered pairs in R is called relation iff
the range of R. (a, b) Î R Û (b, a) Î R
Thus, Domain (R) = {a : (a, b) Î R} i.e. a R b Û bRa
Transitive Relation : Let A be any set. A relation R on A is said to be
and, Range (R) = {b : (a, b) Î R}
a transitive relation iff
It is evident from the definition that the domain of a relation from A to B
(a, b) Î R and (b, c) Î R Þ (a, c) Î R
is a subset of A and its range is a subset of B.
i.e. a R b and b R c Þ a R c

Inverse Relation : Let A, B be two sets and let R be a relation from a Antisymmetric Relation : Let A be any set. A relation R on set A is
set A to a set B. Then the inverse of R, denoted by R–1, is a relation from said to be an antisymmetric relation iff
B to A and is defined by (a, b) Î R and (b, a) Î R Þ a = b
R–1 = {(b, a) : (a, b) Î R} Equivalence Relation : A relation R on a set A is said to be an
Clearly, (a, b) Î R Û (b, a) Î R–1 equivalence relation on A iff
Also, Domain(R) = Range(R–1) and Range (R) = Domain(R–1) (i) it is reflexive i.e. (a, a) Î R for all a Î A
(ii) it is symmetric i.e. (a, b) Î R Þ (b, a) Î R
Note : Relation on a set : If R is a relation from set A to A itself then R
(iii) it is transitive i.e. (a, b) Î R and (b, c) Î R Þ (a, c) Î R
is called Relation on set A.
It is not necessary that every relation which is symmetric and transitive is
2. TYPES OF RELATIONS :
also reflexive.
In this section we intend to define various types of relations on a given
set A.
Void Relation : Let A be a set. Then f Í A × A and so it is a relation
on A. This relation is called the void or empty relation on A.
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Mathematics HandBook
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6. Permutation & Combination 23

LOGARITHM TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS & IDENTITIES

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(b) cot A cot B + cot B cot C + cot C cot A = 1 1

(e) sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sinA sinB sinC

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–5p/2,0 –3p/2,0 –p/2,0 p/2,0 3p /2,0 5p/2,0

12. IMPORTANT NOTE : 3. GENERAL SOLUTIONS OF SOME TRIGONOMETRIC

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Note : constant. Thus in a GP the ratio of successive terms is constant. This

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5. ARITHMETICO - GEOMETRIC SERIES :

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(q0 + q1 + q2 + ....+ qb) (r0 + r1 + r2 + ....+ rc)... (3n)!

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4. BINOMIAL THEOREM FOR NEGATIVE OR FRACTIONAL

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3. REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER IN VARIOUS

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(c) a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca = (a + bw + cw2)(a + bw2 + cw)

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& min |z|=

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centre '–a' & radius = |a|2 - b

(c) Diameter form (z - z1 )(z - z2 ) + (z - z 2 )(z - z1 ) = 0

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represent a segment of circle passing through A(z1) & B(z2)

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If these values of x, y and z in The values of x, y, z doesn't entries are zero.

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A(B + C) = AB + AC ù A square matrix is said to be orthogonal matrix if A A T = I

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of order n × m and (AT)ij = (A)ji. Note that period of an idempotent matrix is 1.

Properties of transpose : (c) Nilpotent Matrix : A square matrix is said to be nilpotent

matrix formed by the cofactors of [ai j] in determinant |A| is

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(iv) If | A | = 0 , then matrix method fails æ B - Cö b - c A

Infinite solutions Inconsistent (no solution) æ A - Bö a - b C

C s(s - c) Point of intersection of two external angle B

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13. m-n THEOREM : a b

(m + n) cot q = n cot B – m cot C. q

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2. DISTANCE FORMULA AND ITS APPLICATIONS :

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