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Present-day stress orientation in the Clarence-Moreton Basin of New South

Wales, Australia: A new high density dataset reveals local stress rotations

Article in Basin Research · February 2017

DOI: 10.1111/bre.12175

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Basin Research (2016) 1–19, doi: 10.1111/bre.12175

Present-day stress orientation in the Clarence-

Moreton Basin of New SouthWales, Australia: a new
high density dataset reveals local stress rotations
Mojtaba Rajabi,* Mark Tingay,* Rosalind King† and Oliver Heidbach‡
*Australian School of Petroleum, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
†School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
‡GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Telegrafenberg, Potsdam, Germany

ABSTRACT
Early phases of the Australian Stress Map project revealed that plate boundary forces acting on the
Indo-Australian Plate control the long wavelength of the maximum horizontal present-day stress ori-
entation in the Australian continent. However, all numerical models of the stress field to date are
unable to predict the observed orientation of maximum horizontal stress in the northeast of New
South Wales, Australia. Recent coal seam gas exploration in the Clarence-Moreton Basin, eastern
Australia, provides an opportunity to better evaluate the state of crustal stress in this part of the con-
tinent where only limited information was available prior to this study. Herein, we conduct the first
analysis of the present-day tectonic stress in the Clarence-Moreton Basin, from drilling-induced ten-
sile fractures and borehole breakouts interpreted using 11.3 km of acoustic image logs in 27 vertical
wells. A total of 2822 drilling-induced stress indicators suggest a mean orientation of N069°E (23°)
for the maximum horizontal present-day stress in the basin which is different from that predicted by
published geomechanical-numerical models. In addition, we find significant localised perturbations
of borehole breakouts, both spatially and with depth, that are consistent with stress variations near
faults, fractures and lithological contrasts, indicating that local structures are an important source of
stress in the basin. The observation that structures can have a major control on the stresses in the
basin suggests that, while gravity and plate boundary forces have the major role in the long wave-
length (first-order) stress pattern of the continent, local perturbations are significant and can lead to
substantial changes in the orientation of the maximum horizontal present-day stress, particularly at
the basin scale. These local perturbations of stress as a result of faults and fractures have important
implications in borehole stability and permeability of coal seam gas reservoirs for safe and sustainable
extraction of methane in this area.

Australian continent shows considerable directional vari-

INTRODUCTION
The contemporary stress field of Australia is highly vari-
able and unique as compared to other continents (Zoback,
1992; Hillis & Reynolds, 2003; Heidbach et al., 2010).
Maximum horizontal present-day stress (SHmax) orienta-
tion in other continental plates such as, North America,
South America and Western Europe, observed to be pri-
marily parallel to absolute plate motion, supporting the
notion that the plate boundary forces that drive tectonic
plates also control the intra-plate stress field (Richardson,
1992; Zoback, 1992). However, the Australian continent
displays a complex pattern of present-day stress and is not
oriented (sub) parallel to the north-northeast absolute
plate motion (Richardson, 1992; Zoback, 1992; Hillis &
Reynolds, 2003). The orientation of SHmax in the
Correspondence: Mojtaba Rajabi, Australian School of Petro-
leum, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia.
E-mail: mojtaba.rajabi@adelaide.edu.au
ability on a 200–500 km wavelength, being broadly east-
west in south-western part of the continent, northeast-
southwest to north-south in northern and north-western
Australia, and primarily northwest-southeast in south-
eastern side of the continent (Fig. 1), (Hillis & Reynolds,
2003). North-eastern Australia is characterised by a dis-
tinctive ‘horse-shoe’ shaped rotation from approximately
north-south in the Amadeus Basin, east-west in the
Cooper-Eromanga Basins and north-south in the Bowen
Basin (Fig. 1), (Hillis & Reynolds, 2003). A large amount
of this complexity has been explained by combination of
far-field plate boundary forces; however, the detail pat-
tern of stress in eastern Australia has not been satisfacto-
rily captured in these previous studies (Coblentz et al.,
1995, 1998; Reynolds et al., 2002, 2003; Sandiford et al.,
2004; Hillis et al., 2008).
Most of our information and understanding about
the state of stress in eastern Australia is based on stress
observations in the Bowen and Sydney Basins (Hillis

© 2015 The Authors

Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists 1
M. Rajabi et al.
et al., 1999), which are mostly from hydraulic fracture
and overcoring test measurements. These limited set of
observational stress indicators have been used in numer-
ous geomechanical-numerical models to constrain and
predict the contemporary state of stress in the Australian
continent (Cloetingh & Wortel, 1985, 1986; Coblentz
et al., 1995, 1998; Reynolds et al., 2002, 2003; Zhao &
M€ uller, 2003; Burbidge, 2004; Dyksterhuis et al., 2005a;
M€ uller et al., 2012). However, all these large scale models
have been unable to explain the pattern of SHmax orienta-
tion particularly in north-eastern Australia and New
South Wales (NSW). Furthermore, predicted stress mag-
nitudes and thus the stress regime are also not predicted
reasonably. For example, Cloetingh & Wortel (1985,
1986) by using a homogenous elastic model predicted a
significant east-northeast – west-southwest extension for
the most eastern parts of Australia. Reynolds et al. (2002,
2003), also using a 2D elastic approach predicted a gener-
ally north-northwest – south-southeast orientation for
SHmax in the eastern part of NSW and north-northeast –
south-southwest for the eastern part of Queensland. Bur-
bidge (2004) suggested an alternative anelastic model and
predicted an east-northeast – west-southwest SHmax ori-
entation for most parts of north-eastern Australia and
NSW; but it has been unable to predict the observed
SHmax orientation and the stress regime in many other
basins throughout the continent. Dyksterhuis et al.
(2005a, b); Dyksterhuis & M€ uller (2008) and M€ uller et al.
(2012) by 2D elastic models predict a generally north-
west-southeast SHmax orientation for most eastern part of
Australia which is not in agreement with the observed
SHmax orientation in different basins of eastern Australia.
Also the 3D model of Australia from Zhao & M€ uller
(2003) could not resolve these regional to local deviations
from the general trend.
2 Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists
Fig. 1. Present-day stress pattern of
Australia (Hillis & Reynolds, 2003; Heid-
bach et al., 2010). Different symbols
show the orientation of maximum hori-
zontal stress (SHmax) and different col-
ours show different types of stress
indicators and the stress regimes (TF,
thrust faulting; SS, strike–slip faulting;
NF, normal faulting; black, unknown).
Length of the lines indicates the quality
of data. The SHmax orientations clearly
demonstrate the variability in stress
(compared with plate motion) particu-
larly in northeast Australia where pat-
terns show a ‘horseshoe shape’ trend.
Solid grey lines show stress trajectories of
Hillis & Reynolds (2003). Note the lack
of the present-day stress indicators in the
Clarence-Moreton Basin.
These studies reveal that although it is clear that plate
boundary forces contribute significantly to the overall
stress state and control the long wavelength stress pattern
of the SHmax orientation; it is not clear to what extent local
structures, regional to local rock strength and density con-
trasts contribute to the stress state particularly in most
eastern Australia. To better understand the relative con-
tribution of these parameters, more observational stress
indicators and geomechanical-numerical models (regional
to local scales) are required to investigate the potential
influence of local stress sources (Heidbach et al., 2007).
The recent exploration of coal seam gas in eastern
Australia provides an opportunity to make the first pre-
sent-day stress map in this poorly resolved part of the
Australian continent where no information was available
prior to this study. This paper aims to map the present-
day stress field in the Clarence-Moreton (C-M) Basin
using interpretation of borehole failure on acoustic
image logs in 27 vertical coal seam gas wells. We
examine the SHmax orientation of the C-M Basin in
north-eastern NSW and compare the observed stress
field with previous Australian stress models. We show
these models do not accurately predict the observed
east-northeast – west-southwest mean SHmax orientation
in this sedimentary basin. We then investigate the
observation of localised rotations in the SHmax orienta-
tion, and describe how these appear to be caused by
faults and fractures perturbing the stress field. The
strong influence of faults and fractures on the orienta-
tion of SHmax suggests that local structures are impor-
tant sources of stress in the C-M Basin. Finally, we
highlight the significant implications of local stress per-
turbations around deformational structures for coal seam
gas exploration and production, particularly the mod-
elling and planning of hydraulic fracture stimulations.
© 2015 The Authors

GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF THE
CLARENCE-MORETON BASIN
The intracratonic C-M Basin which is located in south-
eastern Queensland and north-eastern NSW (Fig. 2) cov-
ers areas of approximately 26000 km2 onshore and
1000 km2 offshore (Jell et al., 2013). The basin was origi-
nally formed in association with extensive Late Permian
to Early Triassic plutonic rocks and silicic volcanics that
were emplaced into the New England Orogen during a
period of back-arc extension and strike-slip faulting
(Shaw & Flood, 1981; O’Brien et al., 1994). The C-M
Basin and other Mesozoic basins, such as the Esk Trough
and Ipswich Basin, were initiated on basement by major
strike-slip faults during this time. Oblique extension ter-
minated in the early Late Triassic and was followed by
thermal relaxation subsidence, resulting in significant
Fig. 2. Simplified geology and struc-
tural elements of the Clarence-Moreton
Basin (modified from Stewart & Adler,
1995; Wells & O’Brien, 1994). Cecil
Plains, Laidley and Logan are three
major sub-basins of the C-M Basin.
© 2015 The Authors
Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists
Localised perturbations of the present-day stress
deposition of continental sediments (Stewart & Adler,
1995). According to the tectonic history of the basin, pro-
posed by Sommacal et al. (2008), several events con-
trolled the development of the C-M Basin. Sommacal
et al. (2008) suggested that numerous pre-existing struc-
tures, which originally formed in the early-middle Trias-
sic Hunter-Bowen event, were reactivated during the
compressional/transpressional Moonie event (95 Ma)
where conjugate strike-slip faults accommodated crustal
shortening of the C-M Basin (Sommacal et al., 2008).
Following the Moonie event, extensive Neogene volcanic
activity has also been reported mainly due to the initiation
of rifting and sea floor spreading along the eastern Aus-
tralian margin (Sommacal et al., 2008).
The C-M Basin, which is divided into three north
trending sub-basins, namely Cecil Plains, Laidley and
Logan from north-west to south-east, (Martin & Saxby,
3
M. Rajabi et al.
1982); (Fig. 2), is flanked by the D’Aguilar Block, Esk
Trough and Yarraman Block in the north; Beenleigh
Block in the east; Coffs Harbour, Emu Creek, Woolomin-
Texas and Silverwood blocks in the South and South-
west. To the west, in Queensland, Kumbarilla Ridge sep-
arates the C-M Basin from the Surat Basin (Fig. 2).
However, Day et al. (2008) and more recently Jell et al.
(2013) have suggested that the boundary between Surat
and C-M basins is poorly defined and should be placed
further eastward at the Toowoomba Strait so that the
Cecil Plains Sub-basin would be considered as a part of
the Surat Basin (Fig. 2).
The Triassic-Jurassic ‘non-marine sediments’ of the C-
M Basin (Fig. 3), which unconformably overlie older sed-
iments, metasediments and igneous rocks, are similar to
the Eromanga and Surat basins in terms of age and depo-
sitional environment (Powell et al., 1993). The sedimen-
Fig. 3. Stratigraphy and petroleum potential of the Clarence-Moreton Basin (after Stewart & Adler, 1995; Wells & O’Brien, 1994).
Most of the studied wells penetrated into the Walloon Coal Measures.
4 Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists
tary succession in this basin (particularly in NSW) has
potential for both conventional and unconventional
hydrocarbon production (Fig. 3). The Walloon Coal
Measures has high vitrinite content and, due to numerous
fault structures in the basin, has excellent potential for
coal seam gas production (Stewart & Adler, 1995). The
Ipswich and Walloon Coal Measures of the C-M Basin
are considered as potential conventional source rocks
(Powell et al., 1993; Willis, 1994; Ingram et al., 1996; Jell
et al., 2013). For example, Powell et al. (1993) showed
that Walloon Coal Measure and Koukandowie Formation
contain type II/III kerogen and are mature for oil genera-
tion in south-eastern Queensland and in the central part
of the basin in NSW, but are overmature along its eastern
margin. In addition, they also proposed that the genera-
tion of hydrocarbon took place in the period of 80–
100 Ma. Some formations, mainly sandstone have good
© 2015 The Authors

reservoir quality, but the lack of an appropriate seal in
many parts of the basin is the biggest challenge to com-
plete a typical source-to-reservoir petroleum system.
Although, the C-M Basin has not been extensively
explored, the NSW portion of the basin is considered to
be most favourable for hydrocarbon exploration (O’Brien
et al., 1994; Stewart & Adler, 1995; Jell et al., 2013).
DRILLING-RELATED STRESS
INDICATORS
Assuming that the vertical stress (SV) is a principal stress,
the 3D state of crustal stress in the earth can be described
by four components: the magnitude of three principal
stresses (i.e. SV, SHmax and Shmin) and the SHmax orienta-
tion (Bell, 1996a, b). Of these four components, the orien-
tation of SHmax plays an important role in different
aspects of geosciences such as geodynamics, tectono-
physics, and petroleum geomechanics (Zoback et al.,
1989; Richardson, 1992; Bell, 1996b). The present-day
SHmax orientation is commonly derived in petroleum
basins from interpretations of stress-induced failure of
boreholes, known as drilling-induced tensile fractures and
borehole breakouts (Plumb & Hickman, 1985; Zoback,
1992; Bell, 1996a; Aadnoy & Bell, 1998).
Borehole breakouts (BOs) are enlargements of the well-
bore due to stress concentration around the well (circum-
ferential or hoop stress), (Bell & Gough, 1979). The
enlargement of the wellbore is the result of compressive
shear failure on the borehole wall which causes spalling of
pieces of the borehole wall (Bell & Gough, 1979). Hence,
BOs develop perpendicular to the present-day SHmax ori-
entation (Bell & Gough, 1979). Drilling-induced tensile
fractures (DITFs) are related to tensile failure of the bore-
hole wall and occur where the circumferential stress is less
than the tensile strength of the rock (Aadnoy, 1990; Bar-
ton & Moos, 2010). These vertical fractures form parallel
to the SHmax orientation in vertical boreholes (Aadnoy &
Bell, 1998; Barton & Moos, 2010). Figure 4 shows the
typical examples of these features in the studied wells in
the C-M Basin.
In this study, the present-day SHmax orientation was
determined from interpretation of BOs and DITFs picked
on acoustic borehole image logs, as described in detail in
the following section. Borehole geometry logging tools,
which are a type of four-arm caliper log, have also been
used to interpret breakouts in two of the studied wells,
based on the standard procedure proposed by the World
Stress Map (WSM) Project (Plumb & Hickman, 1985;
Bell, 1990; Zajac & Stock, 1997; Reinecker et al., 2003).
Interpretation of drilling-related stress
indicators in acoustic image logs
Borehole image logs provide a ‘pseudo-picture’ of the
borehole wall based on a physical (for example, resistivity
© 2015 The Authors
Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists
Localised perturbations of the present-day stress
and acoustic) contrast of rock and fluids. Drilling-induced
tensile fractures appear as pairs of low-amplitude vertical
fractures on acoustic images which separated by approxi-
mately 180° (Aadnoy & Bell, 1998). Borehole breakouts
appear as a pair of elongation zones (low-amplitude zones)
parallel to the borehole axis and separated by approxi-
mately 180° (Fig. 4).
Interpretation of BOs on acoustic image logs, which
provides a fully (360°) covered picture of the borehole
wall, allows breakouts to be interpreted in various stages
of development, ranging from very early initial stages of
failure (incipient borehole breakout) right through to a
mature or fully developed stage. Up to now, several
authors have demonstrated the evolution and formation
of BOs in laboratory samples (e.g. Haimson & Herrick,
1986; Lee & Haimson, 1993; Haimson, 2007). Haimson
(2007) examined the formation of BOs at microscopic
scale, and revealed two general types of breakout, termed
‘dog-eared’ and ‘slot-like’. Regardless of different modes
of failure for breakout formation (e.g. tensile, shear failure
and compaction band), we attempt to show the different
stages in the formation of BOs using in situ acoustic image
log data from a single well.
Incipient BOs form at the initial stage in breakout
development (Barton & Moos, 2010) and are pairs of frac-
tures on opposite sides of the borehole wall (Aadnoy &
Bell, 1998; Barton & Moos, 2010); (Fig. 5a, b). These
fractures propagate and intersect horizontally and verti-
cally (Fig. 5b, c) and start to cause pieces to break off
from the wellbore wall (Fig. 5d). The zone of conjugate
fractures may propagate further, causing the breakout to
become more fully developed and finally form as a mature
breakout (Fig. 5e, f). When breakouts are very small, or
only just partially developed (Fig. 5a, b or even c), they
are similar to DITFs and there is a risk of misinterpreting
BOs as DITFs, particularly in instances where there is no
mature BOs in the well.
THE ORIENTATION OF MAXIMUM
HORIZONTAL PRESENT-DAY STRESS IN
THE CLARENCE-MORETON BASIN
We analysed 11.3 km of acoustic image logs and borehole
geometry tools for interpretation of BOs and DITFs in 27
vertical coal seam gas wells in the C-M Basin of NSW,
Australia. The location and details of the studied wells are
summarised in Table 1 and Fig. 2. This is an area where
no prior information about SHmax was available in the
WSM database. A total of 2805 BOs and 17 DITFs, with
a combined length of 1606 m, were interpreted in the
studied wells (Table 1). The quality ranking system of
the WSM project (Heidbach et al., 2010) was used to
assess the reliability of the results in each well (Table 1
and 2).
The regional stress pattern of the Australian continent
for each basin has been described by the concept of ‘stress
5
M. Rajabi et al.

Fig. 4. (a) Orientation of borehole breakouts (BOs) and drilling-induced tensile fractures (DITFs) with respect to the circumferential
stress around the wellbore (modified from Hillis & Reynolds, 2000). (b and c) Typical examples of DITFs observed on opposite sides
of the wellbore in Corella#E07 and South Casino#07 (separated by approximately 180°). The DITFs picked here are oriented approx-
imately east-northeast – west-southwest representing the orientation of maximum horizontal present-day stress. (d) An example of
BOs in acoustic image in the Middle Creek#1A which are interpreted as a pair of low-amplitude zones on the opposite sides of the
borehole wall. These BOs have a north-south orientation and thus show an east-west orientation for maximum horizontal stress in this
depth interval.

provinces’ proposed by Hillis & Reynolds (2000, 2003).
This method aims to determine the average regional
SHmax orientation and its reliability for each basin. As the
observations of this study are from a single sedimentary
basin in a particular geographical region, we consider the
C-M Basin as a new stress province for the Australian
Stress Map (ASM) database. To calculate the statistical
parameters, all stress orientation indicators were first
weighted based on the results of the WSM quality rank-
ing system. D-quality data received a weight of ‘one’ up
to A-quality receiving a weight of ‘four’ (Hillis & Rey-
nolds, 2003).
In order to assess the significance of the mean SHmax
for the province, the Rayleigh test was used. This test is a
method to evaluate whether the population from which
the sample is drawn differs significantly from randomness
(Mardia, 1972; Davis, 2002). The Rayleigh test as an
approach to assess whether there is statistical evidence of
one-sidedness or directedness on the present-day stress
was first used by Coblentz & Richardson (1995) to analyse
the global stress pattern. Hillis & Reynolds (2000, 2003)
then applied this test for the concept of ‘stress province’
in the ASM project. To apply the test, we calculated the
mean SHmax orientation, standard deviation and R-value
(length of the mean resultant vector) for the C-M Basin.
R-value is used to reject the null hypothesis that there is
no statistical trend in the data at a certain confidence
level.
We defined a null hypothesis that ‘stress orientations in
the C-M province are random’ and assumed six types of
provinces. A type 1 stress province indicates that the null
hypothesis can be rejected at the 99.9% confidence level,

Fig. 5. A snapshot from different stages of borehole breakouts development on borehole wall. The first stage in breakouts formation
start by initiation of some vertical failures (see a) which is completely similar to drilling-induced tensile fractures (compare with Fig-
ure 4). These fractures come together and propagate (both vertically and horizontally) and this is the critical condition where rocks
start to fall off (see b, c and d). Check the cross-sections of the borehole wall (at a, b and c), which in spite of the presence of breakout,
are still circular. In time, more rocks spall off to the borehole and breakouts are more developed where the cross-sections of the bore-
hole wall are completely oval (e and f). Note that all the stages are from a single borehole.

© 2015 The Authors

6 Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists
 Localised perturbations of the present-day stress

(c)

(f)
(b)

(e)
(d)
(a)

© 2015 The Authors

Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists 7
 8
Table 1. Orientation of maximum horizontal stress in studied wells across the Clarence-Moreton Basin of NSW. Tool run shows the depth coverage of image log data in each well.

Stress indicators

Well location Maximum BO DITF

deviation
M. Rajabi et al.

of SHmax SHmax
borehole Combined orientation Combined orientation
Well name Latitude Longitude (deg) Tool run (m) Tool Count lengths (m) (deg) SD Quality Count lengths (m) (deg) SD Quality

Bungawalbin 29.064 153.232 3.3 80.01–777.4 AST 98 42.4 66 8.8 B 0 0 N/A N/A E
Creek 01
Bungawalbin 29.210 153.132 13 77–819 AST 87 77.9 34 13.7 B 0 0 N/A N/A E
Creek 02
Bungawalbin 29.173 153.179 12 88.61–660.9 AST 45 41.6 47 12.2 B 0 0 N/A N/A E
Creek 04
Cedar Point 01 28.699 153.004 3.3 399–783.8 BGT 37 104.6 50 12 B 0 0 N/A N/A E
Corella E01 28.764 152.967 6 427.7–736.3 AST 155 66.1 87 12.7 B 3 1.17 82 6.5 D
Corella E02 28.811 152.972 6.2 86.6–737.4 AST 167 116.3 61 12 A 0 0 N/A N/A E
Corella E03 28.763 152.921 8.7 321.01–376.41 AST 2 3 67 8.5 D 0 0 N/A N/A E
Corella E04 28.805 152.939 5.4 347.6–791.7 AST 185 77.9 69 19.8 B 2 0.72 55 0.8 D
Corella E06 28.774 153.024 6.9 408.6–802.5 AST 124 46 74 22.5 C 0 0 N/A N/A E
Corella E07 28.829 153.056 5.3 311.4–754 AST 181 94 62 18.5 B 2 1 55 0.7 D
Corella E08 28.766 153.067 2.8 451–755 AST 10 4.5 63 16.4 D 0 0 N/A N/A E
Corella E09 28.734 153.020 4.3 366.5–864.5 AST 215 100.2 81 18 B 0 0 N/A N/A E
Corella E10 28.738 153.078 2.9 339.17–779.8 AST 49 40.1 44 13.6 B 0 0 N/A N/A E
Geneva 04 28.559 153.014 0.8 670.49–892.37 AST 77 82 166 8.4 B 0 0 N/A N/A E
Keerrong 1 28.725 153.270 2.3 377.5–692.5 AST 17 8.4 126 6.3 D 0 0 N/A N/A E
Middle Creek 1 28.947 152.903 6 75.6–628.8 AST 87 51.4 93 18.6 B 4 4.2 97 4.4 D
Middle Creek 1A 28.950 152.920 4 319.4–617.2 AST 120 56.6 97 18 B 0 0 N/A N/A E
Riflebird E6 28.914 153.104 6 371.7–816.2 AST 165 78 48 28.5 D 0 0 N/A N/A E
Riflebird E7 28.864 153.219 5 415.6–822.8 AST 81 40.9 38 11.8 B 0 0 N/A N/A E
South Casino 01 28.892 153.062 3.6 139.1–608.2 BGT 28 34 80 10.9 C 0 0 N/A N/A E
South Casino 03 28.894 153.062 2 88–672 AST 110 62.4 77 19.8 B 0 0 N/A N/A E
South Casino 04 28.893 153.064 2.1 83.6–675.2 AST 73 58.6 80 22.3 C 0 0 N/A N/A E
South Casino 05 28.889 153.061 2.7 447.4–648.8 AST 177 89.1 93 19.5 B 0 0 N/A N/A E
South Casino 07 28.890 153.067 1.6 179.4–651.2 AST 166 109 80 15 B 3 3 113 9.1 D
South Casino 08 28.888 153.072 1.9 179.4–487.2 AST 20 12.5 42 6.6 D 0 0 N/A N/A E
Talma 1 29.173 152.991 5.8 475–834 AST 296 86.2 75 23 C 0 0 N/A N/A E
Tullymorgan 1 29.354 153.082 1.5 269.95–716.6 AST 33 10.6 58 8.7 D 3 1.7 46 12 D

BGT, borehole geometry tool; AST, acoustic image log.

© 2015 The Authors

Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists
 Localised perturbations of the present-day stress

Table 2. Quality ranking system of the World Stress Map project for the orientation of contemporary maximum horizontal stress
interpreted from four-arm caliper and acoustic image logs (Heidbach et al., 2010).

WSM quality A B C D E

Four-arm caliper tools (in a single well) Number of BOs ≥10 ≥6 ≥4 <4 No BOs or high standard
Standard deviation ≤12° ≤20° ≤25° ≤40° deviation (>40°)
Combined BO length (m) ≥300 ≥100 ≥30 <30
Acoustic image logs (in a single well) Number of BOs or DITFs ≥10 ≥6 ≥4 <4 No interpreted feature or high
Standard deviation ≤12° ≤20° ≤25° ≤40° standard deviation (>40°)
Combined BO length (m) ≥100 ≥40 ≥20 <20

Table 3. Results of circular statistics and Rayleigh test in the Clarence-Moreton Basin which is the first ‘high-quality stress province’
in the NSW.

Wells with BOs Wells with DITFs A B C D No. A–C quality Mean SHmax Azimuth SD R Conf.

27 6 1 16 4 12 21 069° 23° 0.71 99.90%

BO, borehole breakout; DITF, drilling-induced tensile fracture; R-value, length of the mean resultant vector; SD, standard deviation of stress orienta-
tion; A, B, C and D, WSM quality ranking; Conf., confidence level.

1 stress provinces according to the ASM regional ranking

scheme (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Plot of the Rayleigh test for the Clarence-Moreton
stress province in eastern Australia. Different lines show the
percentage-line according to cut-off values defined by Mardia
(1972). The province is type 1 if it passes the line of 99.90%,
type 2 if it passes line of 99.0% up to type 5. Type 6 of stress
shows the province cannot pass the line of 90% due to lack of
data or low R-value (high standard deviation). The Clarence-
Moreton stress province with 21 (A–C quality) stress indicators
and R-value of 0.71 passes the line of 99.9% and is defined as
type 1 of stress province.
type 2 at the 99% level, type 3 at the 97.5% level, type 4
at the 95% level, and type 5 at the 90% level. A type 6
stress province indicates that the null hypothesis (stress
orientations are random) cannot be rejected at the 90%
confidence level (Hillis & Reynolds, 2003). The results
show that the mean SHmax orientation of the basin is
N069°E. In addition, the standard deviation and R-value
is 23° and 0.71, respectively (Table 3), resulting in Type
DISCUSSION
Comparison of the C-M Basin SHmax with
published geomechanical-numerical models
Until recently, most of our information about the state of
stress in eastern Australian in general, and the C-M Basin
in particular, are from different published stress models
of the continent (Cloetingh & Wortel, 1985, 1986;
Coblentz et al., 1995, 1998; Reynolds et al., 2002; Hillis
& Reynolds, 2003; Reynolds et al., 2003; Zhao & M€ uller,
2003; Burbidge, 2004; Dyksterhuis et al., 2005a, b; Dyk-
sterhuis & M€ uller, 2008; M€uller et al., 2012). Almost all
of these models evaluated the relative importance of vari-
ous boundary forces acting on the Indo-Australian
Plate for the pattern of the SHmax orientation in the Aus-
tralian continent.
Cloetingh & Wortel (1985, 1986) calculated the in situ
stress in the Indo-Australian Plate by using a homoge-
neous 2D elastic model. They suggested a significant east-
west and northeast-southwest extension orientation for
north-eastern and southeastern Australia respectively.
Coblentz et al. (1995, 1998) investigated the origin and
first-order stress pattern on the Indo-Australian Plate by
applying different sets of boundary conditions. Their
elastic models (particularly model 4 of 1998) generally fit
the observed SHmax orientation for the western half of
Australia but failed to fit the observed SHmax orientation
for eastern Australia. Reynolds et al. (2002, 2003) pre-
sented results of 2D elastic finite element models and
showed that the plate boundary forces at the first-order
control the regional pattern of stress throughout the Aus-
tralian continent. Their best fit model demonstrated a

© 2015 The Authors

Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists 9
M. Rajabi et al.
generally northwest-southeast orientation for SHmax in
the eastern part of NSW including the C-M Basin.
In contrast to the previous models, which used an
exclusively elastic rheology to represent the crust/
lithosphere, Burbidge (2004) applied an anelastic model
based on ‘thin-plate spherical finite element code’ origi-
nally developed by Bird (1999). The best fit model of Bur-
bidge (2004) predicts an east-northeast – west-southwest
SHmax orientation for most of the north-eastern part of
Australia but it does not predict the SHmax orientation pat-
tern for the southern half of Western Australia, as well as
the Amadeus and Bowen basins in the central and the
north-eastern side of the continent. Furthermore, the pre-
dicted stress regime by this model is not consistent with
observations in Western Australia (Revets et al., 2009),
Bowen and Sydney Basins of eastern Australia (Hillis &
Reynolds, 2003). Indeed, Burbidge’s model (2004) illus-
trated a normal faulting stress regime for the most eastern
side of Queensland and north-eastern NSW, which is in
poor agreement with in situ stress data compilation of the
ASM database where thrust and strike-slip faulting is pre-
vailing for that region. Dyksterhuis et al. (2005a, b) and
M€ uller et al. (2012) used 2D numerical and elastic models
with realistic material properties for cratons, fold belts,
basins and continental shelf and predicted generally north-
west-southeast SHmax orientation for the C-M Basin.
The regional SHmax orientation for the C-M Basin is
N069°E (23°) and the analysis presented in this study
highlight that none of these models can predict the orien-
tation of the basin satisfactorily (Fig. 7). As outlined
above, only Burbidge’s model (2004) predicted an east-
northeast – west-southwest SHmax trend on the C-M
Basin but this model was unable to fit both stress orienta-
tion and regime for most other parts of the continent.
10 Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists
The poor correlation between plate-scale models and
the observed stress information in the C-M Basin, like
some major basins in northern, central and north-eastern
Australia (e.g. Hillis et al., 1999; Reynolds et al., 2003;
Brooke-Barnett et al., 2015), raises some important issues
about lack of model-independent data (i.e. observed
SHmax orientation) and modelling strategies in the previ-
ous published models. Calibration of geomechanical-
numerical models is the key step in geomechanical-
numerical modelling where model predictions are
adjusted to the model-independent data (Buchmann &
Connolly, 2007; Reiter & Heidbach, 2014). As outlined
above, there was no stress information over the C-M
Basin prior to this study to compare with and calibrate the
models. Hence, all the models were unable to predict even
the regional trend of SHmax (east-northeast – west-south-
west) in this basin. Furthermore, almost all previous
geomechanical-numerical models of the Indo-Australian
Plate simplified the 3D heterogeneities of density and
rock properties with 2D homogenous model approaches.
However, there are numerous studies in different regions
worldwide that documented the role of heterogeneity, dif-
ferent rock mechanical properties, in spatial/lateral per-
turbation of stress (Bott & Dean, 1972; Gale et al., 1984;
Stein et al., 1989; Sonder, 1990; Zhang et al., 1994; Bell,
1996b; Zhang et al., 1996; Enever et al., 1999; Dykster-
huis et al., 2005a; Hergert & Heidbach, 2011; King et al.,
2012; Brooke-Barnett et al., 2015; Hergert et al., 2015).
Localised variations have usually been explained by the
juxtaposition of different types of rocks that have differ-
ent geomechanical properties. For example, Gale et al.
(1984) observed in situ stress variation at the Nattai Bulli
colliery, NSW (Australia) and by an analytical model
explained the role of basement topography on the stress
Fig. 7. The present-day maximum hori-
zontal stress (SHmax) orientation map of
the Clarence-Moreton Basin. Results of
recent geomechanical-numerical models
(Reynolds et al., 2003; M€ uller et al.,
2012) superimposed on the map (green
lines are stress trajectories from Hillis &
Reynolds, 2003). None of these models
could predict the orientation of SHmax for
this basin satisfactorily. The models pre-
dicted northwest-southeast SHmax orien-
tation for the Clarence-Moreton Basin,
while the observations show northeast-
southwest orientation for the SHmax. The
rose diagram shows the mean orientation
of SHmax based on our results in the
basin.
© 2015 The Authors

pattern of sedimentary covers. Enever et al. (1999) also
observed significant lateral perturbation of SHmax in coal
basins of eastern Australia and highlighted the impact of
geological structures, particularly basement topography.
More recently, Brooke-Barnett et al. (2015) investigated
the in situ stress pattern of the Surat Basin in southeast of
Queensland, approximately 350 km to the west/north-
west of the C-M Basin, and observed a significant varia-
tion in SHmax orientation in the vicinity of basement
structures which is consistent with our results. Hence,
modelling the Australian continent using only a simple
2D model is a possible reason that published models are
unable to accurately predict the stress pattern in many
eastern Australian basins, where there is significant lateral
variation in sediment thickness. For example in the C-M
Basin, the sediments are juxtaposed between basement
rocks of the New England Orogen which have different
geomechanical properties (Fig. 2).
Although previous published models are unable to pre-
dict the regional pattern of stress within many eastern
Australian basins (Hillis et al., 1999; Brooke-Barnett
et al., 2015 and our results), most do fit the observed
regional SHmax throughout other sedimentary basins in
western, central and south eastern Australia, which high-
lights that the long wavelengths of the Australian stress
pattern can be primarily explained in terms of the interac-
tion of plate boundary forces (Reynolds et al., 2003).
Besides the spatial variations of SHmax orientation, we also
observed numerous localised perturbations of stress ori-
entation in most wells of the C-M Basin, particularly in
the vicinity of geological features such as faults, fractures
and lithological contrasts (discussed further in the follow-
ing section). These observations are consistent with scat-
tered SHmax orientations in the Sydney (Hillis et al.,
1999) and Surat (Brooke-Barnett et al., 2015) basins to
the south and northwest respectively of the C-M Basin.
Controls on the C-M Basin stress orientation:
the importance of faults and fractures
The pattern of present-day stress in sedimentary basins
provides valuable information on the sources of stress
(Bell, 1996b; Tingay et al., 2006; Heidbach et al., 2007).
Numerous studies around the world have demonstrated
that the SHmax pattern at small scales can be simple, sug-
gesting that the present-day stress of the basin is directly
linked to far-field forces, or can be complex due to inter-
action of different forces at different scales (e.g. Bell,
1996b; Tingay et al., 2006; Heidbach et al., 2007; Rei-
necker et al., 2010).
As outlined above, the regional pattern of SHmax over
the C-M Basin is not predicted by plate-scale published
models and we discussed that the modelling strategies
could be improved to predict the local and regional vari-
ability in the SHmax orientation in the basin. In addition to
this, our investigation in the C-M Basin revealed localised
perturbations of SHmax orientation in most studied wells,
particularly due to the presence of geological structures,
© 2015 The Authors
Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists
Localised perturbations of the present-day stress
including faults, fractures and igneous intrusions into
sedimentary layers of the basin. Faults, fractures and
lithological contrasts have been highlighted as being
important controls on the third-order SHmax orientation
in several sedimentary basins worldwide (e.g. Mount &
Suppe, 1987; Bell et al., 1992; Zhang et al., 1994; Bell,
1996a; Yale, 2003; Tingay et al., 2006; Heidbach et al.,
2007; Tingay et al., 2010) and in Australia (e.g. Gale
et al., 1984; Enever et al., 1999; Hillis et al., 1999; Rey-
nolds et al., 2005; Camac et al., 2006; Flottmann et al.,
2014; Brooke-Barnett et al., 2015).
The formation of the C-M and other Mesozoic basins
in this area has been described as being controlled by
strike-slip faults located in basement rocks. Our results
show variations in the SHmax orientation both laterally
(from well to well) and with depth within single wells,
which points to some smaller-scale sources for these vari-
ations. Detailed analysis of image logs, core and drilling
reports in most of the studied wells showed that large,
local rotations of BOs occur near faults and fractures. The
scale and angle of the SHmax rotations are variable and
depend on the density of faults and fractures. For exam-
ple, Fig. 8(a) shows different SHmax orientations in a
12 m interval of the borehole that are related to the pres-
ence of faults (green sinusoids); Fig. 8(c) displays a 90°
rotation of SHmax orientation over only 4 m. According to
our observations, the abrupt changes of SHmax are more
consistent with the presence of faults; while gradual rota-
tions occur close to fractures and lithological contrasts
such as igneous intrusions (Fig. 8d, e). However it should
be noted that most wells studied herein show stress varia-
tions that are localised over short distances, such as sev-
eral meters, and then return back to the regional trend.
Hence, in this situation, the variability may not be cap-
tured in the statistical results (Table 1).
In addition, Sommacal et al. (2008) interpreted several
fault maps for the basin with respect to different tectonic
events from Carboniferous up to the Late Cretaceous.
Figure 9 shows a general map of the basin with these
major faults superimposed by observed SHmax orientation
from this study. Although the mean SHmax orientation
throughout the C-M Basin is N069°E, the SHmax orienta-
tions within individual wells are variable and are (sub)
parallel to the faults. Fault-parallel SHmax orientations
have been observed in several places worldwide (e.g.
Aleksandrowski et al., 1992; Yale et al., 1994; Yale, 2003;
Reynolds et al., 2005; Tingay et al., 2010). According to
Homberg et al. (1997) a high differential stress is neces-
sary to have fault-parallel SHmax orientation. In the C-M
Basin there is no information about the stress magnitude
but we observed numerous BOs in each well (Table 1).
According to the Kirsch equations (Kirsch, 1898), if we
consider all other parameters to be equal, a high differen-
tial stress is required to have large number of borehole
failures in a vertical well. In addition, high differential
stresses have been reported in the Cooper-Eromanga
(Reynolds et al., 2006), Gippsland (Nelson & Hillis,
2005) and some part of Surat basins (Brooke-Barnett
11
M. Rajabi et al.

(a) (b)

(c) (d) (e)

Fig. 8. Example of borehole breakouts (BOs) rotations observed in acoustic image logs of the Clarence-Moreton Basin. In these snap-
shots, which are from different wells, BOs are outlined in blue and interpreted faults and fractures marked in green sinusoids. Rose
diagrams illustrate the orientation of maximum horizontal present-day stress (SHmax) for each stress indicators (either breakouts or
drilling-induced tensile fractures). The scale and angle of rotations are variable and are different in each case. For example (a) Several
SHmax orientations in 12 m in the vicinity of faults. (b) Abrupt rotation of BOs in a short interval. (c) 90° rotation of BOs in 4 m depth
interval. (d) and (e) Example of gradual rotations in smaller scales.

et al., 2015) in Australia, but more investigations particu-
larly on stress magnitude are required to assess stress ani-
sotropy in the C-M Basin.
The analysis of the present-day stress field in numerous
regions worldwide has demonstrated that stress rotation
occur near faults and fractures due to either fault slip on
active faults or variable rock mechanical properties. Paillet
& Kim (1987), Shamir & Zoback (1992) and Barton &
Zoback (1994) explained rotation of BOs due to slip on
active faults that were intersected by boreholes. Barton &
Moos (2010) also suggested that BO rotation might occur
on planes of weakness, such as fractures, faults and bed-
ding planes, at or near the borehole. In contrast, it is clear
that fractures and faults may affect the mechanical prop-
erties of rocks to a different degree (e.g. Nelson, 2001;
Belayneh & Cosgrove, 2004; Faulkner et al., 2006; Heap
et al., 2010). The influence of juxtaposed stiff and weak
materials in perturbing the SHmax orientation has been

© 2015 The Authors

12 Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists
 Localised perturbations of the present-day stress

Fig. 9. The orientation of maximum

horizontal present-day stress and faults
(faults are after Sommacal et al., 2008) in
the Clarence-Moreton Basin. Most of the
SHmax orientations are consistent with
black coloured faults which according to
Sommacal et al. (2008), reactivated dur-
ing Moonie Event (95 Ma). The grey
faults are those that were present before
sedimentation of the Clarence-Moreton
Basin deposits.

(a) (b)

Fig. 10. Schematic plan view for rotation of maximum horizontal stress (SHmax) in the vicinity of geological structures (modified from
Bell, 1996b). Solid blue lines show the orientation of SHmax which is expected to swing perpendicular to mechanically stiff or hard
structures (a) and parallel to mechanically weak or soft structures (b). Structures such as cemented faults and igneous intrusions are
considered as stiff; while weak structures are open or weak faults and fractures.

shown schematically (Bell, 1996b) and from numerical

models (Pourjavad et al., 1998; Fig. 10). More recently,
numerous studies have explained how the presence of
cracks and fractures affect elastic moduli of rocks (de-
crease Young’s modulus and increase Poisson’s ratio), and
hence change the stress field (e.g. Faulkner et al., 2006;
Heap et al., 2010; Sahara et al., 2014, 2015). Our observa-
tions are consistent with Sahara et al. (2014, 2015), and
indicate that most BO rotations occur in the vicinity of
major and minor fractures, and most likely due to changes
in rock mechanical properties. However, it should be
noted that we observed some BO rotations on near-hori-
zontal weak planes (Fig. 8b) which indicates shear slip-
page on the pre-existing planes.
IMPLICATIONS FOR HYDROCARBON
EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION
The C-M Basin has potential for both conventional and
unconventional hydrocarbon resources. Implications of
SHmax orientation for conventional reservoirs have been
highlighted in numerous studies, particularly for wellbore
stability, fluid flow in naturally fractured reservoirs and
fault reactivation risk (Barton et al., 1995; Bell, 1996b;
Sibson, 1996; Tingay et al., 2005).
The C-M Basin is a major coal mining region and is of
significant interest for coal seam gas production in eastern
Australia. Coal seams are self-sourcing reservoirs with
low matrix permeability (Ayers, 2002), and thus the

© 2015 The Authors

Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists 13
M. Rajabi et al.

natural fracture system of coal (coal cleats) plays a critical
role in hydrocarbon production (Laubach et al., 1998;
Ayers, 2002; Olsen et al., 2003; Bell, 2006). Coal cleats
are opening-mode fractures, usually sub-vertical, and
form systematically in two perpendicular sets, namely
face cleat and butt cleat (Laubach et al., 1998; Moore,
2012). The face cleat is more continuous and connected,
while the butt cleat is discontinuous and terminates at face
cleats (Laubach et al., 1998; Moore, 2012). Therefore,
face cleats are more significant for fluid flow, and result in
permeability anisotropy in coals (Koenig, 1989, 1991;
Ayers, 2002; Massarotto et al., 2003; Olsen et al., 2003;
Titheridge, 2014). Numerous studies have shown that
fractures that are aligned parallel or within 30° to SHmax
orientation enhance fluid flow (e.g. Barton et al., 1995;
Sibson, 1996; Hillis, 1997). In addition, Heffer & Lean
(1991) and Heffer et al. (1997) observed the strong rela-
tionship between SHmax and preferred flow axis in flood-
ing operations of petroleum reservoirs. Hence, the angle
between face cleats and orientation of SHmax is likely to be
an important control in the permeability of coal seam gas
reservoirs (Titheridge, 2014). However, due to borehole

Fig. 11. Optimum orientations of hydraulically conductive cleats in relation to the maximum horizontal stress (SHmax) in different
stress regimes. Blue and grey lines indicate open and close cleats respectively. In these schematic figures we simply show two end-
members for the relationship between SHmax and face cleats (i.e. SHmax parallel and perpendicular to face cleats). The borehole stability
in different stress regimes has also highlighted to show that it is not always possible to deviate the well to intersect the majority of open
cleats (modified from Hillis & Williams (1993) and Hillis (1997)). Note that there could be more complex examples either due to differ-
ent angle between SHmax and cleats or shear failure and stress anisotropy.

© 2015 The Authors

14 Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists
 Localised perturbations of the present-day stress

stability problems (Hillis & Williams, 1993) it is not
always possible to drill wells to intersect as many
hydraulically conductive cleats as possible. As outlined
above, there is no detailed information about the magni-
tude of stresses (and stress regime) in this region and a
thrust or strike-slip regime can be expected based on the
ASM database. In Fig. 11, we schematically describe
borehole stability and hydraulically conductive coal cleats
in different stress regimes.
The permeability of coal seam gas reservoirs is gener-
ally low (Ayers, 2002; Olsen et al., 2007; Palmer, 2010),
and Palmer (2010) highlighted this issue as the ‘Achilles
heel’ for commercial extraction of gas from these reser-
voirs. Hence, the current focus on coal seam gas reservoirs
highlights the key challenge of finding reliable methods to
enhance extraction of gas from these reservoirs (Olsen
et al., 2003, 2007; Palmer, 2010). Hydraulic fracturing is
currently the most effective method to commercially pro-
duce these resources, and the propagation direction of
hydraulic fractures is primarily controlled by the present-
day SHmax orientation (Olsen et al., 2007; Seidle, 2011).
Thus, the control of local sources of stress on the stress
pattern in the C-M Basin, particularly the rotation of
stresses near faults and fractures, has significant implica-
tions for fracture stimulation and extraction of gas. For
example, Maxwell et al. (2009) showed a significant re-
orientation of hydraulic fractures due to presence of a
thrust fault that was cross-cut by a borehole in western
Canada. Their studied borehole penetrated twice into a
sand unit which was displaced vertically by a thrust fault.
Microseismic and fracture engineering data revealed two
different hydraulic fracture geometries in the same sandy
unit at approximately 50 m depth intervals, above and
below the fault.
Hence, localised rotation of horizontal stresses by
geological features can make complex fracture geometry
which is hard to be filled with proppant. In geological
settings such as the C-M Basin, hydraulic fracture
designs based on regional stress orientations can signifi-
cantly affect stimulations (causing tortuosity of induced
fractures; early screenouts and finally poor production
results). Therefore, it may not be appropriate to design
fracture experiments on the SHmax orientation observed
from just a few wells in a basin or field. Rather, it is
important to undertake detailed statistical analysis of
in situ stress from all available data to adequately con-
strain the regional and local-scale perturbations in the
stress field. Furthermore, current development and
hydraulic fracture stimulations of unconventional reser-
voirs worldwide have highlighted that stress anisotropy,
presence of natural fractures and brittleness of reservoirs
rocks significantly affect the geometry of induced
hydraulic fractures (Warpinski & Teufel, 1987; Fisher
et al., 2002; Olsen et al., 2003; Fisher et al., 2004;
Cipolla et al., 2008; Fisher & Warpinski, 2012; Leem
et al., 2014). Figure 12 schematically describes the

Fig. 12. Top) the pattern of induced hydraulic fractures due to presence of natural fractures and stress anisotropy (modified from
Fisher et al., 2002; Fisher & Warpinski, 2012; Leem et al., 2014). In the bottom row different pattern of hydraulic fractures are shown
in coal reservoirs due to stress anisotropy and the orientation of maximum horizontal stress (SHmax) with respect to cleats (i.e. SHmax is
parallel and perpendicular to the face cleats). (a) and (b) show planar hydraulic fractures which form parallel to the orientation of SHmax
in high stress anisotropy (i.e. high differential stress) while (c) and (d) show complex fractures due to low stress anisotropy and pres-
ence of natural fractures or cleats.

© 2015 The Authors

Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists 15
M. Rajabi et al.
importance of differential stress and presence of coal
cleats in the geometry and pattern of hydraulic fractures
in coal seam gas reservoirs.
CONCLUSIONS
This study presents the first determination of the pre-
sent-day stress orientation in north-eastern of NSW. The
analysis of 25 image logs and 2 oriented-caliper logs
demonstrates a mean SHmax orientation of N069°E (23°)
in the Clarence-Morton Basin, but also reveals that SHmax
is locally perturbed, both laterally and in depth, particu-
larly in proximity to faults, fractures and geomechanical
contrasts of rock properties. The localised perturbation of
stress is of particular importance for safe and sustainable
exploration and long-term production of gas in the region.
The east-northeast – west-southwest SHmax orientation
observed in the Clarence-Morton Basin is not predicted
by existing geomechanical-numerical models of the Aus-
tralian stress field. The inability of numerical models to
predict the observed stress orientations in the basin, when
combined with the numerous local stress perturbations,
suggests that second and third-order stress sources proba-
bly play a greater role in the Australian stress pattern than
previously recognised. Previously published models are
2D (except Zhao & M€ uller (2003) which is 3D but has
only two element layers over 100 km thickness) and may
not replicate the real lithospheric behaviour of the conti-
nent and hence the state of stress. The stress orientation
in the basin, as well as that observed in some major basins
in northern, central and north-eastern Australia, indicates
that, local perturbations due to presence of different geo-
logical features are significant and can lead to substantial
changes in the SHmax orientation, particularly at the basin
scale. Hence, to evaluate the detailed pattern of stress in
the continent both improvement in modelling approaches
and stress observations are required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully thank the New South Wales
Department of Resources and Energy for providing the
data of this study. This research was funded through the
Australian Research Council (DP120103849) and the
Australian Society of Exploration Geophysicists Research
Foundation (RF13P02). The authors also specially thank
Judith Sippel, Scott Mildren and an anonymous reviewer
of this article for their time and helpful comments. Ikon
Science of Adelaide (formerly JRS Petroleum Research)
is thanked for the provision of the JRS suite.This paper
forms TRaX record # 340.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
No conflict of interest declared.
16 Basin Research © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists
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