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Study Guide in GEE 2 Philippine Indigenous Communities Module No._7_

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. __

Selected Indigenous Peoples of the Philippines

MODULE OVERVIEW

The Indigenous Communities of the Philippines is known for their unique practices and
belief systems that dates back prior to the arrival of the Western colonizers. Across the
archipelago, many indigenous communities has continued to preserve their way of life. In
appreciation of how they make sense of their world, this module looks into the life of
selected indigenous groups from Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1.) Understand the worldview of selected indigenous peoples through a look on their
traditional beliefs and practices.
2.) Determine the differences as well as the similarities of different IPs in the Philippines in
relation to their customs.
3.) Appreciate the way of life of indigenous peoples.

LEARNING CONTENTS

a.) Kalinga

(Photo courtesy of Lars Krutak and Agricultural Training Institute in the Cordilleras)

The Kalingas are Indigenous Peoples found in the northeastern portion of the
Cordilleras. They mainly live in the province of Kalinga. Their communities are usually
located in terraced areas or slopes of mountain near the rivers of Chico and Tanduan
Rivers. In relation to the toponym of the group’s name, the term Kalinga can be traced to
the Gaddang/Ibanag language which translates as “headhunter.”

Kalinga Livelihood

Living in areas rich with natural resources, the Kalingas main source of livelihood are
as follows: payaw (rice fields) and uma (swidden farm). Aside from rice, they cultivate a
variety of crops such as coffee, banana, and sugarcane in which they obtain their wine
called “basi.” Since their communities can also be found along the banks of the rivers, they

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also obtain fishes from it which they generally call as “ugadiw.”

In addition to their involvement in the agriculture sector, the Kalingas are also involved in
the production of traditional crafts. Example of these traditional crafts are basket weaving,
blacksmithing, and pottery. Nonetheless, the Kalingas are well known for their textiles and
beaded jewelry making.

Kalinga Religion and Folklore

Similar with many indigenous groups in the country, the Kalingas also believe in the
anitos. Among their deities, they consider Kaboniyan as their principal deity—the one who
created the world. Moreover, if Filipino Catholics have their guardian angels, the Kalingas
also have one through the Sangasang which they consider as guardian spirits. Aside from
good spirits, the Kalingas also believe in spirits that may bring harm to them. Example of
these are: (1) ngilin, which is a malevolent water spirit living in the rivers of Kalinga. They
believe that if a woman encountered this creature, the latter would prevent the woman
conceiving. Ngilins usually take the form of a human pygmy. Another example of a harmful
spirit are the (2) alan or kotmo. These are giant ghouls who consume corpses.

In order to appease the bad spirits, the Kalingas offer prayer, chants, and sacrifices.In their
community, such rituals are officiated by a priestess called mangalasig or mandadawak.
Aside from their function in appeasing the spirits, the mandadawak also takes the role of a
healer. With this, she is also knowledgeable in traditional healing.

Kalinga Birth Rituals

(Photo Courtesy of Jeff Wilson)

A notable birth ritual among the Kalingas is the ontad. This ritual involves butchering
a hen and a rooster to welcome the infant to the world. Moreover 10 days after the birth of
the baby,a pig should be butchered and be eaten in the house of the baby. The host family
should also give meat to the community. Aside from welcoming the child into the world, the
purpose of ontad is protect the newborn from evil spirits. For the succeeding one and a half
year, six ontad ceremonies would be done for the child.

In relation to the ontad ritual, other practices should be observed:

 The father of the baby is also not allowed to leave the village after childbirth
 A month after the birth of a child, the family should not eat beef, cow’s milk, eel,
frogs, taro, and dog meat.

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 A month after, a priest/priestess will go to the house of the newborn to sweep the
house with anaao. He also removes the reeds placed in the four corners of the
house. This act signifies the end of the child-bearing period of the mother.

Kalinga Marriage Practices

In the Kalinga society, traditional contract marriage also exists. For instance after the
birth of the boy, his parents may choose a suitable partner for him. Through a feast called
“banat,” the parents of the boy will present beads to the prospective parents of the girl as a
gift. Moreover, the contract marriage in the banat feast would also be marked with the
sharing of meat of the two families.

When the boy reached 12 years old, he could already render bride-service to the girl and
her family. By 17, the boy and the girl are already allowed to sleep together. However before
the boy is allowed to do so, he must observe some practices. First, the boy should be
accompanied by his aunts to the girl’s house and upon reaching the house of the latter, her
parents should give meat to the boy’s aunt so that it could be given to his parents. Last, after
two weeks, the boy should present beads to the girl’s family and this would be the time
where they could permitted to sleep together.

During the wedding day, everyone in the community is invited to partake in the celebration.
Two carabaos are usually butchered for the feast. The wedding celebration may last for two
nights and one day. When the couple was already married, another ritual should be done
called the “songa.” This ritual which usually lasts for three days involves the service of a
mandawak or priestess. In the evening of the first day, she will recite prayers for the spirits
so that the couple will have children. The Mandawak uses coconut bowls and winnowing
tray (bilao) during this ritual to cast away bad spirits. For the duration of three days, three
rituals would also be done wherein in the last day, a pig will be butchered to end the Songa
activity.

Kalinga Funeral Practices

When a person dies in a Kalinga community, a pig will be immediately butchered in

order to recognize the spirit of the dead. This butchered meat is prohibited to be eaten by
the relatives and should be given only to visitors and neighbors. The size of the livestock
that will be butchered will also depend on the age of the dead person, hence the older the
dead is, the bigger the livestock that will be butchered.

The wake usually lasts for two nights and three days only and after the burial, another set of
animals will be butchered. This is the only time where the relatives of the dead could partake
in consuming the meat. However, in cases where a person died in the hands of the enemy,
no form of butchering would be done by the bereaved family. Moreover, the wake period
would only last for only one day and one night.

The Whachang Practice

It has been a custom in Kalinga that whenever one family would experience difficulty
in planting or harvesting their crops, it is expected that their community members will
voluntarily assist them. The reason for this is because in Kalinga communities, they believe
that rice should not fall on mud if it is already time for harvest or rice seedlings should be

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planted as early as possible to avoid spoilage.

The Art of Tattooing

(Courtesy of Atlas Obscura)

The Kalingas are popularly known for their tattoo art. They call their tattoo as batok,
thus a tattooist is referred as mambabatok. The original purpose of the tattoo was to
symbolize bravery and courage. Numerous tattoos in the body indicates numerous
heads took by their Butbut headhunters from their enemy. At present there had been
a renewed interest on the Kalinga art of tattooing especially from persons outside of
the Kalinga community who had experienced the tattooing process. Apo Whang Od
has been known as one of the few remaining mambabatok in the Kalinga
community.

The material used for tattooing is a bamboo stick attached with calamansi
thorn/pomelo tree thorns. This is then tapped by another bamboo stick. For the ink,
charcoal and water are mixed together.

b.) Ibaloi

(Photo courtesy of the City Government of Baguio)

The Ibalois are indigenous peoples primarily living in Benguet Province. The term Ibaloi
means “people who live in the houses.” For their livelihood, they are mainly involved in rice
cultivation in terraced fields, similar to other groups in the Cordilleras. Moreover, the Ibalois
are also involved in swidden farming, mining, hunting, and fishing.

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Ibaloi Religion

Similar to the Kalingas, the Ibalois also believe in the existence of a supreme deity
which they call as Kabunian. He is also credited as the deity who introduced rice to the
world. Interestingly, the Ibalois believed that their ancestors where the group of people who
survived the Great Flood made by their God Kabunian to punish evil persons. These
ancestors who were spared from the catastrophe is said fled Mt.Pulag.

The Ibalois also believe in other deities such as Kabigat, a deity known to obtain trees from
the underworld into the middleworld. They attribute him as the deity responsible for the
existence of forests on earth. On the other hand, the Ibalois also recognize the spirits of
their dead loved ones. These spirits are called “kaamaran.” They are heavily respected in
the Ibaloi community.

Ibaloi Social Stratification

The Ibalois basically have two-tiered social system: the “baknang” which refers to the
wealth persons and the “abitug” which pertains to the poor members of the community. The
baknang households are typically consist of extended families, numbering at around four to
five families. They had people working under them to serve as sheperds of their animals
and to help them in the preparation rituals such as canao. On the other hand, abiteg
households are composed one family only, composed of husband, wife, and offspring. They
were usually the one who assist the baknangs in their tasks.

The Cañao Tradition

One of the popular practices done by the Ibalois is the Canao.

Basically, canao is a celebration performed in order to give
thanks to the spirits or seek approval/blessing from them
especially during birthdays and marriages. During the
celebration a tapuy or rice wine is offered to the deities. This
wine was considered a special commodity in the past and was
only served during special occasions. Moreover, to appease
the deities, a pig or carabao is offered through butchering
them. As a community celebration,the canao also feature the
pechit or pesshet wherein it involves feeding the whole
community.

Getty Images. Courtesy of Andy Zapata

Ibaloi Mummification

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Ibalois are well-known for their mummification of the dead. The mummification involves
cleaning the corpse and covering it with salt and herbs before it is put near the fire in a
seated position. Tobacco smoke is also blown into the mouth the dead to dry the fluids in
his/her internal organs. Aside from this, guava and patani leaves are rubbed into the corpse
so that it would not be consumed by maggots/worms. The mummification process takes
from months to years to accomplish.
(Photo courtesy of nup.org.ph)

c.) Suludnon

The Suludnons, also known as the Tumandok or Panay-Bukidnon are indigenous peoples
found in Capiz, Panay Island in Visayas. The term Suludnon came from the root word
“sulod,” which means interior. Therefore it roughly translates as “those from the interiors.”
During the Spanish colonial period, they were branded as “mundo” from the Spanish word
“vagamundo” meaning fierce, uncivilized or wild.

The Binukot

(Photo courtesy of Rappler)

The Panay-Bukidnons are known for their binukots. The binukots are women from their
tribe that are kept in their houses. They were not allowed to be exposed/seen outside of
their homes until she becomes a young woman. The reason for this stringent measure in
the life of a binukot is because of her important role in the preservation of culture of the
Panay-Bukidnons. The binukots serves as the repository of oral traditions of the group.
With this, she has to
acquaint herself with all the epics, chants, and
rituals that are practiced by their group. Moreover, the binukots are excellent chanters,
wherein they could chant an epic for up to thirty hours.

The term binukot came from word “bukot” which means “to hide” or to “tokeep.” In special
cases where the binukot is transported outside of her home, she must be carried by a
hammock in order to prevent her feet from touching the ground.

Other Practices of the Suludnons

The Binukots also had a variety of practices observed during stages of courtship and
marriage:

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 Binanog- a dance that imitates the movement of hawk. It is performed as a

courtship dance.
 Pangayo- dowry for the bride.
 Panghagad- a labor offering observed by the soon-to-be-groom to the bride’s
household.

d.) Bagobo

The Bagobos are indigenous peoples residing in the Davao Region (West coast of
Davao Gulf). The environs of Mt. Apo are also their ancestral domain. Their communities is
drained by the Pulangi and Davao Rivers. At the present time, the Bagobos are one of
indigenous groups in Mindanao affected by the conflict between the Armed Forces of the
Philippines and the New People’s Army. The word “bagobo” is believed to came from the
words “bago” which means “new”, and “obo” which translates as “growth.” Hence, the word
Bagobo roughly translates as “new growth.”

Religious Beliefs and Practices of the Bagobos

(Mt. Apo, photo courtesy of Rappler)

The Bagobos believe in a one supreme deity which they call as Eugpamolak Manobo or
Manama. This deity is credited as the creator of the world among the Bagobos. Similar to
other indigenous groups, they recognize the presence of anitos which includes the spirits of
their dead ancestors. Religious practices and rituals in their community are officiated by a
Mabalian, a healer and priestess who is also skilled in weaving fabrics. Living in close
proximity to Mt. Apo, they consider the mountain as a sacred place, which is believed to be
the abode of Apo Sandawa, one of their revered deities.

Bagobo Political Structure and Social Stratification

Hierarchy in Bagobo Society:

1.) Matanum- chieftain of a Bagobo community. All conflicts in the community are arranged
by the Matanum in cooperation with the Council of Elders. Hecan have as many wives as
he can as long as it is approved by his first wife.

2.) Council of Elders- part of the elite members of the community, the council serves as
advisers of the Matanum especially in cases of conflicts and issues in the community.

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3.) The Magani- they are the village warriors tasked to defend the community from the
attacks of enemy tribes.

4.) Mabalian- they are the priestess and healers of the communities assigned in the
administration of religious services and rituals for the community.

5.) Al-lang- slaves

e.) T’boli

The T’bolis are indigenous peoples living in the southwestern Mindanao, particularly
in South Cotabato. Their community can be found also around Lake Sebu, also in the same
province. During the colonial period, Muslim resistance in the area helped them to be
defended from the incursions of the Spaniards. The T’bolis adopted the term “Lumad” to
refer to them and to other groups of unChristianized, and non-Muslim groups in Mindanao.

T’boli Origin Myth

Interestingly, just like the Ibalois up north, T’bolis also had their own origin myth
related to the Great Flood. According to their origin myth, the deity D’wata had warned the
humans in world for the upcoming great flood. In anticipation of the upcoming disaster, La
Bebe, La Lomi, T’mefeles, and La Kagef hid inside a giant bamboo. After the great flood,
the four persons came out from the stalks of the bamboo and was spared from the disaster.
Afterwards, La Bebe married La Lomi, while La Kagef and T’mefeles married each other.
The ancestors of the Christian Filipinos is said to be traced to the couples La Bebe and La
Lomi. On the other hand Bou and Umen, two of the eight offspring of La Kagef and
T’mefeles are said to be the ancestors of the T’bolis.

SUMMARY

It can be gleaned from a detailed look on selected indigenous groups across the
archipelago that despite their distinct set of beliefs and practices that sets them apart from
each other, there had been traces of similarities between them which creates a link of
relatedness to each one of them. Their worldviews and customs, viewed from their own
context and perspective are essential in truly understanding them. With a detailed view on
their practices, these aspects of their day to day life sheds light on how indigenous people
make sense of their world and express themselves.

Watch the I Witness Documentary entitled “Ang Huling Prinsesa” hosted by Kara David.
After watching the documentary, provide your own reflection on the plight of the Binukots.
What are the challenges faced by the Binukots? Why they are important in the

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Suludnon/Panay Bukidnon society? (The reflection is minimum of 300 words, maximum of

400 words only)

REFERENCES

A 101-Year-Old Tattoo Artist is Teaching Girls to Ink for Independence. Atlas Obscura.
https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/fang-od-oggay-kalinga-tattoo-philippines.

Bagobo. National Commission for Culture and the Arts.

https://ncca.gov.ph/about-ncca-3/subcommissions/subcommission-on-cultural-
communities-and-traditional-arts-sccta/central-cultural-communities/bagobo/.

Bigornia, Michael. The Kalingas. Ethnic Groups of the Philippines.

http://www.ethnicgroupsphilippines.com/2012/04/22/the-kalinga-people/.

Binukot: Revisiting Western Visayas' only indigenous group. The News Today.
http://www.thenewstoday.info/2007/11/26/binukot.revisiting.western.visayas.only.indigenou
s.group.html.

Binukot Women Philippines. Southeast Asia Globe.

https://southeastasiaglobe.com/binukot-women-philippines/.

Kalingas. Encyclopedia.Com. https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-

almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/kaiingas.

Peoples of the Philippines: Bagobo. National Commission on Culture and the Arts.
https://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/culture-profile/glimpses-peoples-of-the-
philippines/bagobo/.

Social and Cultural: The Traditional Practices in Kalinga. Virily.

https://virily.com/culture/social-and-cultural-the-traditional-practices-in-kalinga/.

T’boli Myths & Deities. Aswang Project. https://www.aswangproject.com/tboli-deities-

myths/.

The History of the Ibaloi Group from The Philippines. Make Heritage Fun!
https://www.makeheritagefun.com/who-are-the-ibalois/.

The Ibaloi People and Their Ancient Traditions. Ethnic Groups of the Philippines.
http://www.ethnicgroupsphilippines.com/2017/12/30/the-ibaloi-people-and-their-ancient-
traditions/.

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