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12.1 Identifying the Substance of Genes  397

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1 12.1 Identifying the Substance of Genes

Lesson Overview
12.1 Identifying the Substance of Genes

2 Bacterial Transformation
To truly understand genetics, scientists realized they had to discover the chemical nature of the gene.
If the molecule that carries genetic information could be identified, it might be possible to understand how
genes control the inherited characteristics of living things.

3 Gri!th’s Experiments
Gri!th isolated two di"erent strains of the same bacterial species.
Both strains grew very well in culture plates in Gri!th’s lab, but only one of the strains caused pneumonia.
The discovery of the chemical nature of the gene began in 1928 with British scientist Frederick Gri!th, who
was trying to figure out how certain types of bacteria produce pneumonia.
Gri!th isolated two di"erent strains of the same bacterial species.
When Gri!th injected mice with disease-causing bacteria, the mice developed pneumonia and died.
When he injected mice with harmless bacteria, the mice stayed healthy.
Perhaps the S-strain bacteria produced a toxin that made the mice sick? To find out, Gri!th ran a series of
experiments.
Both strains grew very well in culture plates in Gri!th’s lab, but only one of the strains caused pneumonia.
The disease-causing bacteria (S strain) grew into smooth colonies on culture plates, whereas the harmless
bacteria (R strain) produced colonies with rough edges.

4 Gri!th’s Experiments
When Gri!th injected mice with disease-causing bacteria, the mice developed pneumonia and died.
When he injected mice with harmless bacteria, the mice stayed healthy.
Perhaps the S-strain bacteria produced a toxin that made the mice sick? To find out, Gri!th ran a series of
experiments.

5 Gri!th’s Experiments
First, Gri!th took a culture of the S strain, heated the cells to kill them, and then injected the heat-killed
bacteria into laboratory mice.
The mice survived, suggesting that the cause of pneumonia was not a toxin from these disease-causing
bacteria.

6 Gri!th’s Experiments
In Gri!th’s next experiment, he mixed the heat-killed, S-strain bacteria with live, harmless bacteria from the
R strain and injected the mixture into laboratory mice.
The injected mice developed pneumonia, and many died.
The lungs of these mice were filled with the disease-causing bacteria. How could that happen if the S strain
cells were dead?

7 Transformation
He called this process transformation, because one type of bacteria had been changed permanently into
another.
Because the ability to cause disease was inherited by the o"spring of the transformed bacteria, Gri!th
concluded that the transforming factor had to be a gene.
Gri!th reasoned that some chemical factor that could change harmless bacteria into disease-causing
bacteria was transferred from the heat-killed cells of the S strain into the live cells of the R strain.

8 The Molecular Cause of Transformation

Avery extracted a mixture of various molecules from the heat-killed bacteria and treated this mixture with
enzymes that destroyed proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and some other molecules, including the nucleic
acid RNA.
Transformation still occurred.
A group of scientists at the Rockefeller Institute in New York, led by the Canadian biologist Oswald Avery,
wanted to determine which molecule in the heat-killed bacteria was most important for transformation.

9 The Molecular Cause of Transformation

Then they destroyed the DNA in the mixture and transformation did not occur.
Therefore, DNA was the transforming factor.
By observing bacterial transformation, Avery and other scientists discovered that the nucleic acid DNA
stores and transmits genetic information from one generation of bacteria to the next.

10 Bacteriophages
The kind of virus that infects bacteria is known as a bacteriophage, which means “bacteria eater.”
A typical bacteriophage is shown.
Several di"erent scientists repeated Avery’s experiments. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase performed the
most important of the experiments relating to Avery’s discovery.
Hershey and Chase studied viruses—nonliving particles that can infect living cells.
When a bacteriophage enters a bacterium, it attaches to the surface of the bacterial cell and injects its
genetic information into it.
The viral genes act to produce many new bacteriophages, which gradually destroy the bacterium.
When the cell splits open, hundreds of new viruses burst out.

11 The Hershey-Chase Experiment

American scientists Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase studied a bacteriophage that was composed of a
DNA core and a protein coat.
They wanted to determine which part of the virus—the protein coat or the DNA core—entered the bacterial
cell
Hershey and Chase grew viruses in cultures containing radioactive isotopes of phosphorus-32 (P-32) sulfur-
35 (S-35)
Their results would either support or disprove Avery’s finding that genes were made of DNA.
Since proteins contain almost no phosphorus and DNA contains no sulfur, these radioactive substances
could be used as markers, enabling the scientists to tell which molecules actually entered the bacteria and
carried the genetic information of the virus.

12 The Hershey-Chase Experiment

Nearly all the radioactivity in the bacteria was from phosphorus P-32 , the marker found in DNA.
Hershey and Chase concluded that the genetic material of the bacteriophage was DNA, not protein.
Hershey and Chase’s experiment with bacteriophages confirmed Avery’s results, convincing many scientists
that DNA was the genetic material found in genes—not just in viruses and bacteria, but in all living cells.
The two scientists mixed the marked viruses with bacterial cells, waited a few minutes for the viruses to
inject their genetic material, and then tested the bacteria for radioactivity.

13 The Role of DNA

The DNA that makes up genes must be capable of storing, copying, and transmitting the genetic
information in a cell.
When a cell divides, each daughter cell must receive a complete copy of the genetic information.
Careful sorting is especially important during the formation of reproductive cells in meiosis.
The loss of any DNA during meiosis might mean a loss of valuable genetic information from one generation
to the next.

14 Lesson Overview
12.2 The Structure of DNA

15 Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides

Nucleic acids are long, slightly acidic molecules originally identified in cell nuclei.
Nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides, linked together to form long chains.
DNA’s nucleotides are made up of three basic components: a 5-carbon sugar called deoxyribose, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

16 Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides

The nucleotides in a strand of DNA are joined by covalent bonds formed between their sugar and
phosphate groups.
DNA has four kinds of nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
The nucleotides can be joined together in any order, meaning that any sequence of bases is possible.

17 Charga"’s Rules
Erwin Charga" discovered that the percentages of adenine [A] and thymine [T] bases are almost equal in
any sample of DNA. The same thing is true for the other two nucleotides, guanine [G] and cytosine [C].
The observation that [A] = [T] and [G] = [C] became known as one of “Charga"’s rules.”

18 Franklin’s X-Rays
Rosalind Franklin used X-ray di"raction to reveal an X-shaped pattern that showed:
The strands of DNA are twisted around each other like the coils of a spring.
That there are two strands in the structure.
That the nitrogen bases may be near the center.
In the 1950s, British scientist Rosalind Franklin used a technique called X-ray di"raction to get information
about the structure of the DNA molecule.

19 The Work of Watson and Crick

The clues in Franklin’s X-ray pattern enabled Watson and Crick to build a model that explained the specific
structure and properties of DNA.
They built three-dimensional model of DNA in a double helix, in which two strands were wound around
each other.
At the same time, James Watson, an American biologist, and Francis Crick, a British physicist, were also
trying to understand the structure of DNA.
Early in 1953, Watson was shown a copy of Franklin’s X-ray pattern.

20 Antiparallel Strands
In the double-helix model, the two strands of DNA are “antiparallel”—they run in opposite directions.
This arrangement enables the nitrogenous bases on both strands to come into contact at the center of the
molecule.
It also allows each strand of the double helix to carry a sequence of nucleotides, arranged almost like
letters in a four-letter alphabet.

21 Hydrogen Bonding
Watson and Crick discovered that hydrogen bonds could form between certain nitrogenous bases,
providing just enough force to hold the two DNA strands together.
Hydrogen bonds are relatively weak chemical forces that allow the two strands of the helix to separate.
The ability of the two strands to separate is critical to DNA’s functions.

22 Base Pairing
Watson and Crick realized that base pairing explained Charga"’s rule. It gave a reason why [A] = [T] and [G]
= [C].
This nearly perfect fit between A–T and G–C nucleotides is known as base pairing, and is illustrated in the
figure.
Watson and Crick’s model showed that hydrogen bonds could create a nearly perfect fit between
nitrogenous bases along the center of the molecule.
These bonds would form only between certain base pairs—adenine with thymine, and guanine with
cytosine.
For every adenine in a double-stranded DNA molecule, there had to be exactly one thymine. For each
cytosine, there was one guanine.
This nearly perfect fit between A–T and G–C nucleotides is known as base pairing, and is illustrated in the
figure.

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