Fermented Foods: Fermented Vegetables and Other Products
R Di Cagno, P Filannino, and M Gobbetti, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Lactic Acid Bacteria as Cell Factories for the
Production of Health-Promoting Compounds
Food fermentations are typically driven by microbial consortia,
which may lead to significant changes in the health-promoting
properties of fermented foods. Besides the potential direct role
of food-borne microorganisms on the gut microbiota ecosys-
tem, their indirect role in the modification of the bioavailabil-
ity of certain food elements may also have a biogenic effect.
The latter depends on the specific metabolic traits of the micro-
organisms, whereby several biochemical mechanisms allow
them to fulfill the role of efficient cell factories for the synthesis
and release of health-promoting compounds. As a result, fer-
mentation may lead to a marked increase of the concentration
of vitamins or amino acids, a higher bioavailability of phyto-
chemicals and minerals, and an improvement of the nutri-
tional qualities of foods by increasing digestibility and
removing antinutrients (e.g., oxalate, protease and a-amylase
inhibitors, lectins, condensed tannins, and phytic acid). The
proteolytic system of lactic acid bacteria may also contribute to
the liberation of bioactive peptides. Based on the previously
mentioned considerations, lactic acid fermentation represents
a simple and valuable biotechnology to exploit the health-
promoting properties of fruits and vegetables.
Fruits and Vegetables as Carriers for Probiotic
Microorganisms
Raw, minimally treated, and, especially, fermented vegetables
are the vehicles of high-value nutrients and new lineages of
commensal bacteria that interact with the gastrointestinal res-
ident microbiota. Few and, in some cases, controversial in vivo
studies have shown the direct causal relationship between
microbes conveyed by fermented vegetable foods and gut
microbiota. The consumption of fermented kimchi, for
instance, delivers  8 log cfu g 1 of autochthonous lactic acid
bacteria and can lead, after administration of about 60 g day 1
for 2 weeks, to a positive effect on the number of beneficial
human intestinal microbiota (Lactobacillus sp. and Leuconostoc
sp.). In vivo intervention studies based on short-term consump-
tion of diets, consisting entirely of plant foods, have shown
that food-borne bacteria associated to diet can transiently col-
onize the gut. Although there is still debate on the link between
fermented vegetables and other fermented foods on the one
hand and the gut microbiota on the other hand, it is conceiv-
able that ingestion of fermented foods is a source of beneficial
microbes that remain viable during transit and at least interact
with the gastrointestinal microbiota. More than other food
ecosystems, raw fruits and some vegetables possess intrinsic
chemical and physical parameters that, for some traits, mimic
those of the human gastrointestinal tract, such as the very acid
environment, buffering capacity, presence of antinutritional
668 Encyclopedia of Food and Health
factors (e.g., tannins and phenols), and high concentration
of indigestible compounds (fiber, inulin, and fructo-
oligosaccharides). Indigestible molecules protect probiotic
microorganisms from the acidic environment of the stomach
and are a source of nutrients for the microbiota, which
positively influences bacterial survival. Plant tissues have a
microstructure composed of intercellular spaces, stomas, lenti-
cels, capillaries, irregularities naturally occurring on the surface
tissue, and tissue lesions. These sites favor microbial internal-
ization and offer protection. Thus, raw fruits and vegetables
may harbor functional strains able to survive gastric and
intestinal fluids and capable of adhering to the gut epithelium
and hydrolyzing dietary constituents, which cannot be metab-
olized by the host.
Microbiota of Raw Vegetables and Fruits
Vegetables and fruits, providing a variety of nutrients, are
attractive hosts for microbes that colonize surfaces (epiphytes)
and tissues (endophytes). Type, availability, and concentration
of substrate; buffering capacity; competing microorganisms;
and natural plant antagonisms provide a unique environment
harboring a rather constant microbiota. However, farming and
storage conditions may influence the composition and abun-
dances of microbial communities found on raw vegetables and
fruits. The microbial population of these raw matrices
fluctuates between 5 and 7 log cfu g 1, which may include
spoilage (e.g., Erwinia carotovora), pathogenic (e.g., Listeria
monocytogenes), and beneficial (i.e., lactic acid bacteria)
microbes. As also shown by deep sequencing approaches
(high-throughput pyrosequencing analysis of the 16S rRNA
gene), the microbiota of fruits is dominated by yeasts and
fungi, and that of vegetables mainly consists of bacteria, espe-
cially aerobes (e.g., pseudomonads, enterobacteria, and coryn-
eforms). Lactic acid bacteria are only a relatively small part
(2–4 log cfu g 1) of the autochthonous microbiota of raw veg-
etables and fruits. Hetero- and homofermentative species
belonging to species of Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus, Weissella,
Enterococcus, and Pediococcus have been variously identified,
depending on the species of vegetables. Nevertheless, Weissella
cibaria/W. confusa and, especially, Lactobacillus plantarum are
the most frequently found species. Lactobacillus plantarum is
considered to be a ubiquitous and metabolic versatile bacte-
rium, which is largely found in fruits and vegetables. Recently,
fructophilic lactic acid bacteria (FLAB) were described as bac-
teria that prefer fructose to glucose as growth substrate. They
are found in fructose-rich niches such as fruits and fermented
foods made from fruits and flowers. Only two Lactobacillus spp.
have been classified as fructophilic until now, that is, Lactobacil-
lus plantarum and Lactobacillus kunkeei. The latter has originally
been isolated from grape juice. All other FLAB were grouped into
the genus Fructobacillus, which contains Fructobacillus durionis,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00284-1
 Fermented Foods: Fermented Vegetables and Other Products
F. ficulneus, F. fructosus, F. pseudoficulneus, and F. tropaeoli. All
these species are phylogenetically related to the genera Leuconos-
toc, Oenococcus, and Weissella. F. pseudoficulneus was isolated
from figs and banana. FLAB species are separated into two
groups: obligately and facultatively fructophilic. Obligately
FLAB grow well on fructose, whereas external electron acceptors
such as fructose, pyruvate, and oxygen are needed for glucose
metabolism. Molecular typing of lactic acid bacteria isolated
from vegetables and fruits is useful to group them into clusters
that reflect their distribution in the raw matrix and, presump-
tively, their way of entry. Besides, intraspecific differentiation is
the important preliminary step to select starter cultures.
Fermentation of Vegetable Products
When favorable conditions of anaerobiosis, water activity, salt
concentration, and temperature occur, raw vegetables and
fruits may be subjected to spontaneous lactic acid fermenta-
tion. Alcoholic fermentation may take place concomitantly.
Usually, Gram-negative bacteria are inhibited starting from
the early stage of fermentation. Spontaneous fermentation
may be optimized through back-slopping, commonly used
for sauerkraut production (i.e., inoculation of the raw material
with a small quantity of a previously performed successful
fermentation). Hence, back-slopping results in the dominance
of the best-adapted strains and represents a way of using a
selected microbial consortium to shorten the fermentation
and to reduce the risk of fermentation failure. The same effect
is achieved through the use of starter cultures, especially when
these are selected within the autochthonous microbiota. In
either cases (spontaneous and with starters), the composition
of the microbiota completely changes, showing high cell den-
sities of lactic acid bacteria towards the end of the fermentation
Table 1 Examples of vegetables and fruits successfully subjected to fermentation by selected autochthonous lactic acid bacteria
Vegetables and fruits Autochthonous lactic acid bacteria
Almagro eggplant Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus
plantarum
Leek Leuconostoc mesenteroides and
Lactobacillus plantarum
Carrots, French Lactobacillus plantarum, Leuconostoc
beans, or marrows mesenteroides, and Pediococcus
pentosaceus
Red and yellow Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus
peppers curvatus, and Weissella confusa
Pineapple Lactobacillus rossiae and Lactobacillus
plantarum
Sweet cherry puree Pediococcus pentosaceus and Lactobacillus
added of stem plantarum
infusion
Tomato juice Lactobacillus plantarum
Kimchi Lactobacillus sakei
669
(9 log cfu g 1). Under these conditions, humans are solely
exposed to beneficial bacteria without the need for drastic
processing.
Nowadays, the use of starter cultures is increasing in vege-
table fermentation technology. Yet, contrary to other fermen-
ted foods (e.g., dairy, meat, and baked goods), only few
cultures are used for fruit and vegetable fermentations, with
Lactobacillus plantarum as the most frequently used one. It has
been shown that the use of selected autochthonous lactic acid
bacteria as starters, when contrasted to allochthonous/com-
mercial cultures or to spontaneous fermentation, guaranteed
the prolonged shelf life of fermented vegetables and fruits and
maintained agreeable nutritional, rheological, and sensory
properties. These effects may be the consequence of the mod-
ified profile of organic acids, the synthesis of lactic and acetic
acids, and the metabolism of free amino acids. Recently, a
number of vegetables and fruits were successfully subjected to
fermentation by selected autochthonous lactic acid bacteria
(Table 1). Adaptation to the intrinsic features of the raw matri-
ces guarantees high survival ( 8–9 log cfu g 1) during fermen-
tation and storage (c.40 days), whereas allochthonous strains
show longer latency phases of growth and acidification with
respect to selected autochthonous strains. Autochthonous cul-
tures may also synthesize bacteriocins to improve competitive-
ness and contribute to food safety.
Main Fermented Vegetable Products
Many fruits and vegetables are processed through lactic acid
fermentation for the production of a wide range of traditional
fermented products in various worldwide regions, mainly in
the Mediterranean area. Sauerkraut, kimchi, and fermented
cucumbers are the most studied lactic acid-fermented
Effects
Synthesis of most preferred end products with regard to sensory properties
High microbiological quality, extensive consumption of carbohydrates, and
synthesis of various end products
Rapid decrease of pH, marked consumption of fermentable carbohydrates,
and inhibition of Enterobacteriaceae and yeasts
Rapid decrease of pH, marked consumption of fermentable carbohydrates,
inhibition of Enterobacteriaceae and yeasts, high firmness, high color
indexes
Inhibition of yeasts, maintaining agreeable sensory and nutritional features
Evident consumption of organic acids (e.g., malic acid) and free amino acids,
especially throughout storage and preservation of phenolic compounds
Synthesis of exopolysaccharides and high viscosity; preservation of elevated
values of ascorbate, glutathione, and total antioxidant activity during
storage; synthesis of volatile compounds having a positive log odor value
(e.g., 3-methyl-3-butan-1-ol, 2,3-butanedione, and 3-hydroxy-2-butanone)
Mild acidifying properties, synthesis of volatile compounds (diacetyl, acetoin,
acetaldehyde, secondary alcohols, esters, and lactones) affecting the
sensory properties
670 Fermented Foods: Fermented Vegetables and Other Products
vegetables mainly due to their commercial importance. The
manufacturing protocols for some traditional fermented vege-
tables are described in the following.
Fermented Olives
Table olives are one of the main pickled products with industrial
importance. The trade standard applying to table olives of
the International Olive Oil Council defines table olives as
“the sound fruit of varieties of the cultivated olive trees
(Olea europaea L.) that are chosen for their production of olives
whose volume, shape, flesh-to-stone ratio, fine flesh, taste, firm-
ness and ease of detachment from the stone make them partic-
ularly suitable for processing; treated to remove their bitterness
and preserved by natural fermentation; or by heat treatment,
with or without the addition of preservatives; packed with or
without covering liquid.” Table olive processing has been a very
old tradition in all Mediterranean countries and, from the begin-
ning of this century, has become popular all over the world. The
high nutritional value of table olives is well known, since they
contain several nutritional components (e.g., vitamins E and A
and polyphenols), which largely depend on the olive variety, the
maturation stage of the olive fruit, the cultivating conditions, and
the processing method. Because of the bitterness caused by the
phenolic glycoside oleuropein, raw olives are not suitable for
consumption without any processing step. The main commer-
cial preparations, namely, (a) treated green olives (Spanish
style), (b) naturally black olives (Greek style), and (c) ripe olives
processed by alkaline oxidation (Californian style), are among
the first three processing methods defined by the standard.
Spanish-style olive manufacture combines a lye treatment with
a NaOH solution (1–3.5% w/v) and a fermentation step. It has
been generally established that lactic acid bacteria are responsi-
ble for the fermentation of treated olives. However, lactic acid
bacteria and yeasts compete for the fermentation of natural
olives. The predominant bacterial genus is Lactobacillus. Other
genera of lactic acid bacteria have also been isolated to a lesser
extent (e.g., Weissella, Pediococcus, Enterococcus, and Leuconostoc).
Yeasts play a minor role, though they may contribute to the
flavor and aroma of table olives. According to the Greek-style
process, the fermentation occurs in a brine solution with high
NaCl content (6–15% w/v), which promotes the growth of
yeasts (mainly Candida spp., Debaryomyces spp., Pichia spp., and
Rhodotorula spp.). The predominant lactic acid bacteria genera
are the same as the ones involved in Spanish-style processing.
Californian-style processing is based mostly on a lye treatment to
remove the bitterness and may include only a weak fermentation
step.
Microbial starter selection, bacteriocin production, avail-
ability of nutrients, probiotication, and adjustment to deter-
minants affecting the fermentation process (e.g., pH,
temperature, NaCl, and polyphenol content) are some of the
main current challenges for the table olive industry.
Sauerkraut
Sauerkrauts, widely consumed in many European countries and
in the United States, are manufactured by spontaneous lactic
fermentation of white cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata).
After removal of the core and outer leaves, fresh cabbage is
shredded and mixed with 2–3% (w/w) salt before allowing for
natural fermentation. Cabbages are quickly surrounded by
brine and covered with plastic sheeting draped over the tank, to
ensure air exclusion. Sauerkraut production typically relies on a
sequential microbial process that involves hetero- and homo-
fermentative lactic acid bacteria, such as Leuconostoc spp. and
Weissella spp. in the early phase and Lactobacillus spp., Lactococcus
lactis, and Pediococcus spp. in the subsequent phases. Lactobacillus
plantarum prevails during late fermentation, leading to further
acidification and a final pH of 3.5–3.8. Sauerkraut brine is an
important by-product of the cabbage fermentation industry and
may be used as a substrate for the production of carotenoids by
Rhodotorula rubra. Sauerkraut fermentation lasts several weeks,
depending on the fermentation conditions, sensory attributes,
the autochthonous microbiota of cabbages, and the related sugar
contents. Secondary fermentations, such as those carried out by
yeasts, are undesirable.
Kimchi
Kimchi is a Korean traditional fermented vegetable made from
Chinese cabbage (beachu), radish, green onion, red pepper pow-
der, garlic, ginger, and fermented seafood (jeotgal), which is
traditionally made at home and served as a side dish at meals.
Kimchi is a generic term indicating a group of traditional lactic
acid-fermented vegetables in Korea. Kimchi fermentation tradi-
tionally represents an efficient method of preserving the fresh and
crispy texture of vegetables during winter, when fresh vegetables
are not available. Actually, kimchi is a globally popular food, and
its market size is gradually increasing. Thanks to the physiological
effects of its ingredients and its microbial metabolites, kimchi is
widely perceived as a health-promoting food. Vegetables are
soaked with water, cut, and placed in the salt solution (5–7%)
for 12 h, until the salt content in the tissues reaches the value of
 2.0–4.0% of the total weight. Further, vegetables are rinsed
several times with freshwater and drained. The mixed ingredients
are then placed in fermentation vessels, covered with macerated
cabbage leaves, and pressed by stones to ensure anaerobic condi-
tions. Kimchi fermentation is a temperature-dependent process. It
ripens in 1 week at 15  C but takes only 3 days at 25  C. Low
temperature (2–6  C) is nevertheless preferred in kimchi fermen-
tation to prevent the production of strong acidity and over-
ripening, as well as to extend the period of optimum taste. The
time for the fermentation of kimchi may thus vary from few
days to several months, depending on the temperature and
concentration of NaCl. Kimchi fermentation is carried out by
various autochthonous microorganisms. The microbiota is largely
affected by the fermentation conditions (e.g., anaerobiosis, ingre-
dients, salt concentrations, and temperature). Generally,
Leuconostoc mesenteroides and Lactobacillus plantarum have been
identified as the predominant species, but several studies suggest
that lactic acid bacteria contributing to kimchi fermentation also
include Leuconostoc citreum, Leuconostoc gasicomitatum, Lactobacil-
lus brevis, Lactobacillus curvatus, Lactobacillus sakei, Lactococcus lactis,
Pediococcus pentosaceus, W. confusa, and W. koreensis.
Pickled Cucumbers
The manufacture of pickled cucumbers requires that fully ripe
cucumbers are washed and drained and, in some cases, sliced.
 Fermented Foods: Fermented Vegetables and Other Products
Further, regular-shaped cucumbers are dipped into brine
(5–7% of NaCl). Industrial fermentations are carried out by
the spontaneous growth of lactic acid bacteria. The fermenta-
tion lasts 2–3 weeks, depending on the temperature
(20–27  C), which allows to reach a final pH of  3.1–3.5.
Because of the high concentration of NaCl, the growth of
Leuconostoc mesenteroides and other less salt-tolerant species is
inhibited. Only homofermentative lactic acid bacteria, such as
Pediococcus pentosaceus and Lactobacillus plantarum, are respon-
sible for fermentation. Strictly heterofermentative species are
undesirable. The synthesis of CO2 leads to texture defects and
bloater damage, with serious economic losses. Since CO2
results also from the cucumber respiration or the malolactic
fermentation by Lactobacillus plantarum, fermentation vessels
are sometimes purged with inert nitrogen gas. Salt, consump-
tion of fermentable carbohydrates, and low values of pH pre-
vent undesirable secondary fermentations by yeasts and other
lactic acid bacteria (e.g., Lactobacillus buchneri), which often
cause cucumber spoilage. Blanching of cucumbers is also
used to decrease the concentration of NaCl (4% or less), par-
tially inhibit the autochthonous microbiota, and improve the
texture, through the inactivation of endogenous pectin esterase
and glycosidases. Partial or complete replacement of NaCl by
CaCl2 has been suggested as an efficient method to prevent
softening.
Household-Level Fermentations and Traditional
Products
Besides the semi-industrial and globally popular products, a
large variety of fermented vegetables are manufactured around
the world at household level as fundamental components of
the daily diet, representing a culture heritage. Perishable and
seasonal raw plant substrates are fermented into edible prod-
ucts using indigenous methods of biopreservation. Lactic acid
fermentation is the simplest way to preserve fruits and
vegetables and helps in solving with the issue of food security.
A brief description of some traditional fermented vegetable
products from different regions of the world is reported later
in the text.
Africa
Fermented foods have a long history in Africa. Substrates used
in fermented plant food production include vegetables, fruits,
seeds, cereals, roots, and tubers. Some fermented products,
usually obtained from carbohydrate-rich raw matrices, serve
as main course meals or as beverages, while others, resulting
from the fermentation of protein-rich seeds, are used as food
condiments.
Fermented seeds are an important cheap source of dietary
protein. Examples of traditional fermented seeds used as fla-
voring agents include iru (fermented Parkia biglobosa seeds),
ogiri (fermented Citrullus vulgaris seeds), dawadawa (fermen-
ted soybean (Glycine max) seeds), and okpehe (fermented Pro-
sopis africana seeds). Often, Bacillus species are predominant
during these fermentations.
Pickled lemons are widely consumed in North Africa. Fer-
mentation helps in dealing with the issue of seasonality. Cured
671
lemon, called msayer or msir, is consumed in Morocco, while
lamoun makbouss are pickled lemons consumed in Libya and
Egypt. According to Moroccan style, the salted lemons are
stored in sealed glass container, kept in a cool dry place for
4–6 weeks, to allow the leakage of the lemon juice and the
dissolving of salt. The resulting strongly salty and acidic brine
promotes the growth of lactic acid bacteria and yeast (e.g.,
Candida parapsilosis and unclassified Saccharomycetales).
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is one of the most
important root crops in many African countries and ensures
the energetic food security for many millions of people. Sweet
varieties of cassava may be consumed directly, whereas bitter
varieties are traditionally processed into a wide range of tradi-
tional products: gari (partially gelatinized granular cassava
meal), fufu (pounded boiled cassava), lafun (fine powdery
cassava), kokonte (dried cassava flour), kivunde (retted cas-
sava), and cingwada (retted cassava). Lactic acid fermentation
may significantly prolong the short shelf life (only 5 days after
harvesting) of raw cassava and may have a role in cyanogen
reduction in bitter cassava. Lactobacillus plantarum typically
dominates the fermentation. Some Lactobacillus plantarum
strains isolated from fermented cassava are able to hydrolyze
resistant starch, thereby increasing the energy density.
Asia
Plant-based foods represent the core of the daily diet in Asian
countries, which are the first in the world for per capita con-
sumption of fruits and vegetables. Food fermentation in Asia is
strongly dependent on the availability of seasonal vegetables.
Ethnic fermented foods are linked to the Asian culture and
tradition, and hundreds of different forms of fermented vege-
tables are prepared by the different ethnic groups. A wide range
of substrates is subjected to fermentation, which includes veg-
etables, fruits, legumes, rice, and bamboo shoots. Processing is
still carried out at household-scale through spontaneous fer-
mentations (e.g., alcoholic, lactic, propionic, and acetic acid
fermentations).
Gundruk is a fermented leafy vegetable commonly pre-
pared by the Nepalis of the Himalayan region prepared during
the months of December to February, when the weather is less
humid and there is a wide supply of vegetables. For gundruk
preparation, fresh leaves of local cabbage, mustard, and cauli-
flower are wilted for 1–2 days. The dried leaves, after a mild
crushing procedure, are soaked briefly in hot water and hand-
pressed in an earthen pot to remove surplus water. Then, they
are kept in a warm and dry place for 15–22 days. Generally, a
spontaneous fermentation is started by Lactobacillus brevis and
Pediococcus pentosaceus and dominated by Lactobacillus plan-
tarum in the late stage. After a desirable fermentation, gundruk
is removed and sun-dried. Other examples of Asian fermented
leafy vegetables include hum-choy, produced in the south of
China from a local vegetable called gay-choy; anishi, goyang,
and ziang-sang, made in northeast India from local leafy veg-
etables; sunki, prepared from red turnip leaves in Japan; and
pak-gard-dong, produced in Thailand from mustard.
Khalpi is a fermented pickle consumed in the Himalayan
region. For its preparation, mature and ripened cucumbers are
cut and sun-dried for 2 days. Then, they are fermented into
sealed bamboo vessels for 4–7 days at room temperature.
672 Fermented Foods: Fermented Vegetables and Other Products
Khalpi is eaten as a pickle after mixing with mustard oil,
powdered chilies, and salt. The microbiota of khalpi is charac-
terized mainly by Leuconostoc fallax, Lactobacillus brevis, and
Pediococcus pentosaceus in the early stage and Lactobacillus plan-
tarum in the last stage of fermentation.
Sinki is prepared from radish taproots, and it is very popu-
lar in Nepali communities. The protocol for its manufacturing
is similar to that of gundruk. The fermentation may last up to
30–40 days and is commonly started by Lactobacillus fermentum
and Lactobacillus brevis and later replaced by Lactobacillus
plantarum.
Pickled fruits, such as lime, lemon, and mango, are very
popular in Asia. Burong mangga is a green mango pickle pro-
duced in the Philippines. For its manufacturing, peeled and
sliced fruits are fermented in brine for 3 days. Lactic acid
bacteria involved during burong mangga fermentation include
mainly Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus brevis, Pediococcus
cerevisiae, and Lactobacillus plantarum.
Tempoyak is a traditional Malaysian fermented condiment
made from the pulp of the durian fruit (Durio zibethinus).
Fermentation is carried out by lactic acid bacteria, such as
Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus mali, Lactobacillus fermentum,
Lactobacillus durianis, and Leuconostoc mesenteroides.
Kombucha is a refreshing beverage obtained by the fermen-
tation of sugared tea by a symbiotic mixture of bacteria (acetic
acid and lactic acid bacteria) and yeast. Native of China, kom-
bucha is currently common around the world. The many ben-
efits of kombucha for health were reported, such as anticancer
activity, detoxifying effects, and antibiotic activity. Its proper-
ties are mainly attributed to the acidic composition, to the
capacity of glucuronic acid to bind to toxin molecules, and to
the content of B-complex vitamins and phenols.
South America
Water kefir, also known as tibicos or sugar kefir, is a probiotic
beverage native of Mexico and currently common worldwide.
Water kefir is obtained through fermentation of sweetened
water with a symbiotic culture of lactic acid bacteria, bifido-
bacteria, and yeast. Figs and lemons are traditionally added for
additional flavor and nutrients. Microorganisms are intro-
duced through water kefir grains (polysaccharide matrix in
which microorganisms are imbibed), handed down from
household to household. Water kefir grains are thought to
have originated from fermented sap on the pads of the Opuntia
cactus.
Eastern Europe and Middle East
Researchers and food manufacturers have become increasingly
interested in Turkish fermented nonalcoholic beverages due to
their value as probiotic source. Shalgam, for instance, is a lactic
acid-fermented beverage that is very popular in Turkey. Its
manufacturing requires that bulgur flour, sourdough, and salt
are mixed with water and left to ferment by lactic acid bacteria
and yeasts for 3–5 days at room temperature. Then, vegetables
(e.g., carrots) and water are added to the fermented product of
the first stage. Fermentation is carried out in wooden barrels for
3–10 days, mainly by Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus para-
casei subsp. paracasei, Lactobacillus fermentum, and Lactobacillus
brevis, although yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae may con-
tribute to flavor development. Hardaliye is a Turkish grape-based
nonalcoholic traditional beverage. Pressed grapes and cherry
leaves are mixed with pressed mustard and fermented in barrels
at room temperature for 5–10 days. After incubation, the mixture
is filtered and kept in a cool place. The predominant lactic acid
bacteria species are Lactobacillus paracasei subsp. paracasei and
Lactobacillus casei subsp. pseudoplantarum.
Innovative Plant-Based Fermented Products
During the last decade, innovation in food biotechnology has
led to an increase in the number of new products with func-
tional claims for an estimated growth rate of 28% per year. This
is paralleled by a rise in the amount of scientific papers dealing
with this topic. The global market of functional foods is a
growing field of the food industry, driven by modern
consumer’s demand for foods that may improve well-being
and reduce the risk of disease. The ongoing trend of vegetari-
anism, the increasing prevalence of lactose intolerance, and the
cholesterol effects of dairy products drive the research towards
nondairy functional foods. The suitability of several vegetables
and fruits as raw materials for the manufacturing of functional
products has opened new perspectives. There is a strong inter-
est in the development of plant-based functional foods, as
juices, smoothies, and yogurt-mimicking beverages. Lactic
acid fermentation represents an innovative and attractive
approach to improve the nutritional, functional, and hedonis-
tic features of plant material, although several applications
often originate from or are inspired by ethnic food (e.g.,
Asian). In order to develop novel fermented functional foods,
implementation strategies relate to the exploitation of micro-
bial functionalities, the testing of novel formulations with
ingredients that either are of natural origin or originate from
industrial by-products as functional ingredients, and the forti-
fication with probiotics and prebiotics.
Fruit and Vegetable Juices
One of the most attractive opportunities is the development of
lactic acid-fermented fruit and vegetable juices, also named
‘lacto-juices.’ Since the latter have flavor profiles that are pleas-
ing to all age groups and are perceived as healthy and refresh-
ing beverages, they promise a considerable market value. Fruit
and vegetable juices are ideal substrates for functional beverage
making, due to their content of essential nutrients. Further-
more, formulation with different substrates may provide dif-
ferent combinations of health-promoting components (e.g.,
antioxidants, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins). The tech-
nological options for the production of fermented vegetable
juices mainly include (i) spontaneous fermentation by autoch-
thonous microbiota, (ii) fermentation by selected starter cul-
tures added to raw vegetables, and (iii) fermentation of mildly
heat-treated vegetables by starter cultures. Selection of lactic
acid bacteria that are able to adapt to the inherent features of
each raw material (e.g., availability of nutrients and physic-
ochemical features) may assure fermented vegetable juices with
optimal characteristics. Fruits and vegetables tested in novel
lacto-juices include watermelon, sapodilla, carrot, beetroot,
 Fermented Foods: Fermented Vegetables and Other Products
pepper, parsley, lettuce, lemon, cabbage, spinach, tomato,
pomegranate, blackcurrant, orange, grapes, and sweet pota-
toes. Pomegranate juices fermented with selected strains of
Lactobacillus plantarum have, in general, improved health-
promoting and sensory properties. Besides higher phenolic
concentration and antioxidant activity, a positive immunomo-
dulation activity distinguishes fermented pomegranate juices
from unfermented ones. Fermentation by autochthonous lac-
tic acid bacteria also positively affects the health-promoting
and sensory properties of tomato juice, leading to improved
viscosity, color, and, especially, ascorbic acid, glutathione, and
total antioxidant contents. A fermented juice based on vegeta-
bles, seeds, and sprouts of germinated lentils and cowpeas was
proposed as potential functional beverage, due the content of
ACE-inhibiting substances, bile acid-binding activities, and
hemagglutinating activities. Fermented carrot juice, in addition
to being microbiologically stable, has good sensory properties
and a potentially high nutritional value, due to the improved
iron solubility and overall mineral availability. The preserva-
tion of pigments and the synthesis of health-promoting sub-
stances, such as aglycones and b-carotene, have been shown in
lactic acid-fermented beetroots and sweet potatoes. Red beets
were also evaluated as a potential substrate for the production
of probiotic beet juice by four species of lactic acid bacteria
(Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus del-
brueckii, and Lactobacillus plantarum). Although the probiotica-
tion of several fruit and vegetable juices with lactic acid bacteria
and bifidobacteria seems promising, some cultures may nega-
tively affect the sensory properties of the juices or show sensi-
tivity towards the low pH of the raw matrices and
postfermented products, fermentation metabolites, processing
temperature, and gastrointestinal tract conditions. The addi-
tion of yeast autolysate (e.g., spent brewer’s yeast) into the
juices may increase the number of lactic acid bacteria during
fermentation, reduce the time of fermentation, and enrich the
juices with amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants.
Thus, a proper selection of the fruit matrices and probiotic
strains and, if required, the addition of other ingredients are
decisive steps to produce a palatable beverage that may be
consumed regularly, providing functional benefits.
Fruit and Vegetable Smoothies
As an alternative to the consumption of fresh fruits and vege-
tables, the food industry offers the manufacture of smoothies,
which consist of mixtures of fruits and vegetables processed to
pulp or puree. Recently, a novel protocol for the manufacture
of smoothies was set up, based on lactic acid fermentation of
white grape juice and Aloe vera extract mixed with fruit and
vegetable purees. Lactic acid fermentation by autochthonous
selected starters positively affects the content of antioxidant
compounds and enhances the sensory attributes of smoothies.
An alternative technological option for processing sweet
cherries involves the lactic acid fermentation of cherry puree
supplemented with cherry stem infusion, as to exploit the
nutritional, antioxidant, and sensory features of the raw mate-
rials. Likewise, broccoli puree fermented by Lactobacillus spp.
for the production of functional foods is enriched in phenolic
derivatives with increased bioavailability and biological
activity.
673
Minimally Processed Fruits and Vegetables
Minimally processed fruits and vegetables are products
obtained by trimming and/or peeling and/or cutting and
packaging and are characterized by convenience and ability
to maintain their freshness. Fermented pineapple slices by
autochthonous lactic acid bacteria, also without any heat treat-
ment, is an example of a shelf-stable minimally processed fruit
with elevated numbers of viable lactic acid bacteria and agree-
able nutritional and sensory properties. Lactic acid fermenta-
tion may promote the storage of peppers at room temperature
for extended shelf life. A protocol that includes blanching at
85  C for 2 min, fermentation at 35  C for 15 h in brine (1%,
w/v) with selected autochthonous starters, and heat treatment
at 85  C for 15 min allows the storage at room temperature for
30 days with better texture and sensory properties compared to
the ‘unstarted’ peppers. Moreover, the survival of Lactobacillus
plantarum and Lactobacillus fermentum strains on pineapple
pieces has been demonstrated throughout storage. A protective
effect against relevant food-borne pathogens was also success-
fully reported. Artichokes may act as a valuable vector, as they
are capable of supporting viable bacteria for at least 90 days. The
anchorage of strains to artichokes also improves the survival of
probiotic microorganisms during gastrointestinal digestion.
Fruit- and Vegetable-Based Yogurt-Like Products
The so-called vegetable milks might be used as raw materials to
develop yogurt-mimicking products. They are mainly obtained
from soy, cereals, and nuts. Other minor raw materials may be
hemp, sunflower, lupin seeds, and tubers (e.g., tiger nuts).
Although the production of yogurt-mimicking products may
differ according to the raw material and the microbial starters,
the main steps are (i) milk conditioning to the optimal growth
temperature of the starters, (ii) inoculation and incubation pro-
cedures, and (iii) cooling to 4  C. Protein coagulation and serum
separation during storage may cause physical stability problems.
The addition of hydrocolloids, such as xanthan gum, modified
starches, pectin, and cellulose derivatives, promotes physical
stability. In situ production of oligosaccharides and exopolysac-
charides by lactic acid bacteria positively affects the texture, since
these compounds act as emulsifiers or stabilizers and increase
viscosity and mouthfeel. Prebiotic compounds (e.g., starch and
fibers) are sometimes added to promote the survival of probiotic
starters, due to their nutritional contribution and protective
action, since they act as protective barriers within the human
gastrointestinal tract. The most popular vegetable milk derives
from soy. Soy-based beverages have a huge potential as func-
tional foods, since they may have a role in the prevention of
some chronic degenerative diseases, are poor in cholesterol and
saturated fats, and contain high levels of quality protein and
amino acids, dietary fiber, magnesium, phosphorus, vitamin K,
riboflavin, thiamine, folic acid, isoflavones, and other flavo-
noids. The low concentration of soluble carbohydrates of soy
milk may limit the growth and acidification of lactic acid
bacteria and make the addition of glucose and fructose indis-
pensible. Probiotic bacteria have been successfully incorporated
in soy milks, with a positive impact on the intestinal ecosystem.
Nut-derived milks also represent suitable raw substrates to
develop healthy yogurt-mimicking beverages, since they are
674 Fermented Foods: Fermented Vegetables and Other Products
rich in mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, proteins, dietary
fibers, phytosterols, phenolics, vitamins, and minerals. Probio-
tication of hazelnut milk through fermentation with Lactobacillus
rhamnosus and Streptococcus thermophilus has been successful,
ensuring high probiotic survival throughout cold storage
(108 cfu ml 1) and an in vitro simulation of the digestion
process (105 cfu ml 1). Minor raw materials, such as tuber
milk, may also be exploited for the production of yogurt-
mimicking products. Fermented tiger nut milk with good nutri-
tional, chemical, and sensory properties was produced through
pasteurization at 90  C for 15 min and fermentation at 45  C for
18 h using mixed cultures of Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactococcus
lactis, and Lactococcus thermophilus.
Conclusion
Fermented fruits and vegetables are associated with several
social and cultural aspects of different human communities.
Due to their high nutritional value, fermented vegetable foods
and beverages are estimated to constitute about one-third of
the foods daily consumed worldwide. Studies have shown that
fruits and vegetables may serve as a suitable carrier for probio-
tics. In addition, fermented fruits and vegetables contain a
large range of prebiotic compounds that can stimulate the
growth of beneficial bacteria. Therefore, exploitation of the
axis ‘fermented foods – human health’ based on plant fermen-
tations is a promising and conceivable strategy for the future.
Basic understanding of the relationship between food, benefi-
cial microorganisms, and human health can be important to
improve food quality and to prevent disease.
See also: Fermented Foods: Composition and Health Effects;
Fermented Foods: Use of Starter Cultures; Fruit Juices; Functional
Foods; Lactic Acid Bacteria; Probiotics.
Further Reading
Corbo MR, Bevilacqua A, Petruzzi L, Casanova FP, and Sinigaglia M (2014) Functional
beverages: the emerging side of functional foods. Comprehensive Reviews in Food
Science and Food Safety 13: 1192–1206.
Das AJ and Deka SC (2012) Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India.
International Food Research Journal 19: 377–392.
Di Cagno R, Cardinali G, Minervini G, Antonielli L, Rizzello CG, Ricciuti P, and
Gobbetti M (2010) Taxonomic structure of the yeasts and lactic acid bacteria
microbiota of pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr.) and use of autochthonous
starters for minimally processing. Food Microbiology 27: 381–389.
Di Cagno R, Coda R, De Angelis M, and Gobbetti M (2013) Exploitation of vegetables
and fruits through lactic acid fermentation. Food Microbiology 33: 1–10.
Di Cagno R, Surico RF, Paradiso A, et al. (2009) Effect of autochthonous lactic acid
bacteria starters on health-promoting and sensory properties of tomato juices.
International Journal of Food Microbiology 128: 473–483.
Do Espı́rito Santo AP, Perego P, Converti A, and Oliveira MN (2011) Influence of food
matrices on prebiotic viability: a review focusing on the fruity bases. Trends in Food
Science and Technology 22: 377–385.
Granato D, Branco GF, Nazzaro F, Cruz AG, and Faria JA (2010) Functional foods and
nondairy probiotic food development: trends, concepts, and products.
Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 9: 292–302.
Kabaka B and Dobson ADW (2011) An introduction to the traditional fermented
foods and beverages of Turkey. Critical Reviews in Food Science Nutrition
51: 248–260.
Lee CH (1997) Lactic acid fermented foods and their benefits in Asia. Food Control
8: 259–269.
Leff JW and Fierer N (2013) Bacterial communities associated with the surfaces of fresh
fruits and vegetables. PLOS One 8: e59310.
Swain MR, Anandharaj M, Ray RC, and Rani RP (2014) Fermented fruits and vegetables
of Asia: a potential source of probiotics. Biotechnology Research International
2014: 2090–3138.
Tamang JP, Tamang B, Schillinger U, Franz CM, Gores M, and Holzapfel WH (2005)
Identification of predominant lactic acid bacteria isolated from traditionally
fermented vegetable products of the Eastern Himalayas. International Journal of
Food Microbiology 105: 347–356.
Vitali B, Minervini G, Rizzello CG, et al. (2012) Novel probiotic candidates for humans
isolated from raw fruits and vegetables. Food Microbiology 31: 116–125.
Vorholt JA (2012) Microbial life in the phyllosphere. Nature Reviews Microbiology
10: 828–840.
Relevant Websites
http://www.fao.org/docrep/ – Fermented fruits and vegetables.
http://www.fao.org/documents/ – Traditional fermented food and beverages for
improved livelihoods.
http://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/
GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ – Draft Guidance for Industry: Acidified
Foods.
http://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/
GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ – Guidance for Commercial Processors
of Acidified & Low-Acid Canned Foods.
http://nchfp.uga.edu/index.html – Pickle.