Construction and Building Materials 285 (2021) 122833

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Utilization of inorganic solid wastes in cementitious materials – A

systematic literature review
Fábio Friol Guedes de Paiva, Jacqueline Roberta Tamashiro, Lucas Henrique Pereira Silva, Angela Kinoshita ⇑
University of Western São Paulo - UNOESTE, 19060-900 Presidente Prudente, São Paulo, Brazil

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

 Application of inorganic solid wastes

in cementitious materials is reviewed.
 Feasibility of replacement in
cementitious materials by wastes
studied are summarized.
 Partial replacements generally
improve the mechanical properties.
 Inorganic solid wastes in concrete
helps to reduce the environmental
impacts.
 This paper aims to encourage and
promote the use of wastes in
cementitious materials.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Civil construction is an opportune way of using industrial by-products, leading to the reduction of con-
Received 29 June 2020 sumption of natural resources. This paper is a systematic review of the literature, addressing the appli-
Received in revised form 18 February 2021 cation of inorganic residues in cementitious composites. The Web of Science search was performed
Accepted 23 February 2021
using keywords: Foundry Sand; Foundry Slag; Electric Arc Furnace Dust; Concrete Waste; Ceramic
Available online 12 March 2021
Waste; Glass Waste; Sugarcane Bagasse Ash; Bamboo Leaf Ash. A total of 107 papers were analyzed,
and the effects of these residues in the mechanical properties, the optimal percentages for substitution,
Keywords:
main applications and suggestions for future research are organized in this paper.
Industrial waste
Inorganic solid waste
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Cementitious composites
Concrete
Mortar

1. Introduction

Concrete is the most popular material worldwide used in the

Abbreviations: C&D, Construction and demolition; WFS, waste foundry sand;
WFSC, waste foundry sand calcinated; EAFD, electric arc furnace dust; FS, foundry
slag; UHSC, ultra-high strength concrete; OPC, ordinary Portland cement; RCA,
recycled concrete aggregates; CoW, concrete waste; CWP, concrete waste powder;
RHPC, recycled high performance concretes; SCHPC, self-compacting high-
performance concrete; CW, ceramic waste; TCW, tile ceramic waste; RCB, red clay
bricks; CSW, ceramic sanitary ware; GW, glass waste; GP, glass powder; ASR, alkali-
silica reactivity; FA, fly ash; SBA, sugarcane bagasse ash; BLA, bamboo leaf ash.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: angelamitie@gmail.com, angela@unoeste.br (A. Kinoshita).
building industry, mainly for its accessibility, low cost and avail-
ability, among other advantages. The annual consumption of con-
crete in the world is approximately 25 billion tonnes [1].
Concrete manufacturing requires several natural resources in large
scale, as well as the Portland cement, that accounts for ~ 5–7% of
the CO2 emissions globally for its production [2]. These factors con-
tribute to major impacts on the environment. In the last decades, a
series of studies has been carried out to find alternatives to the use

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122833
0950-0618/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Fábio Friol Guedes de Paiva, Jacqueline Roberta Tamashiro, Lucas Henrique Pereira Silva et al.
of natural resources in the manufacture of cementitious materials.
The replacement of cement and aggregates, by inorganic solid
waste from different economic sectors, is one of the most viable
solutions that has been explored in several studies, searching for
ideal conditions for replacements, considering the properties
required for their application.
Construction and demolition waste (C&D) represents from 30%
to 40% of total urban waste, contributes to one of the most signif-
icant waste flows in the city producing a series of impacts on soci-
ety and the environment, such as landfill or illegal dumping,
emission of harmful gases and water pollution [3,4]. Many research
works have been carried out by using concrete, ceramic and glass
waste as a replacement material for cement, fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate., According to the characteristics of the waste,
its usage and applications, safe building materials are the result
[5–9].
Some industrial wastes are used as substitutes for components
of cementitious materials enhancing mechanical performance in
concrete [10]. The casting industry produced 113 million tonnes
of metal casting worldwide [11], resulting in different by-
products, such as waste foundry sand, slag waste and electric arc
furnace dust, in a similar amount as the metals. Therefore, their
application in building materials can be considered as an environ-
mental benefit. The foundry wastes have different physical and
chemical characteristics, according to the process and the type of
metal produced. Many studies have been conducted to explore
their potential, enabling their use as components in cementitious
materials, such as mortars and concrete [12–15].
The agroindustrial sector is responsible for a large volume of
fibrous wastes. Among the various cultivation crops, sugarcane
stands out for the volume of residues generated. Approximately
1.9 billion tonnes is cultivated annually worldwide [16], from
which, the juice is extracted for ethanol and sugar production and
the resulting bagasse is incinerated for energy generation. So, ash
is the most common final waste from this agroindustrial sector.
Due to pozzolanic activity of ash, several studies have been carried
out to use sugarcane bagasse ash and bamboo leaf ash, among
others, to substitute cement in cementitious matrices [17–20]. Cur-
rently, fly ash from combustion of pulverized coal is one of the
wastes most applied as pozzolanic mineral admixture in cement,
decreasing heat of hydration and enhancing the workability and
durability. Fly ash has commercial application in many countries
and its use is already standardized by the ASTM C618-19 [21].
Therefore, a huge volume of waste is produced in all sectors of
the economy and the use of industrial residues in the composition
of construction materials has aroused wide scientific interest. It is
an advantageous solution to aid the environment, reducing waste
disposed in landfills and/or dumped illegally and, simultaneously,
the use of natural resources. In this work, a systematic literature
review comprising three different economic activities and eight
wastes, which were studied as component of cementitious com-
posites, are presented.
2. Materials and methods
The Web of Science (Clarivate Analytics company) advanced
search was done, restricted to papers published in the last 5 years.
The following keywords were used in the field ‘‘TOPIC” with the
boolean ‘‘AND” and ‘‘OR”, according to the residue, as shown in
Table 1.
These residues were selected because they are generated in
large volume and several research works have been carried out
to enable their application in cementitious materials.
The period of 5 years was chosen because as the theme is of
intense research activity, the works of the last 5 years should
include the previous ones. The field ‘‘TOPIC” was chosen because
2
Construction and Building Materials 285 (2021) 122833
Table 1
Advanced search keywords used in the Web of Science.
Waste Material Advanced Search keyword
Foundry Sand TS=”Foundry Sand” AND TS=(mortar* OR concrete)
Foundry Slag TS = Foundry Slag AND TS=(mortar* OR concrete)
Electric Arc Furnace TS=”Electric Arc Furnace Dust” AND TS=(mortar* OR
Dust concrete)
Concrete Waste TS=”Concrete Waste” AND TS=(mortar* OR concrete)
Ceramic Waste TS=”Ceramic Waste” AND TS=(mortar* OR concrete)
Glass Waste TS=”Glass Waste” AND TS=(mortar* OR concrete)
Sugarcane Bagasse TS=”Sugarcane Bagasse Ash” AND TS=(mortar* OR
Ash concrete)
Bamboo Leaf Ash TS = Bamboo Leaf Ash AND TS=(mortar* OR concrete)
Legend: TS Topic; *Variation of singular and plural (one column).
this kind of search is general, covering the title, abstract, keywords
of author and keywords plus of the papers. From the results
obtained, the following exclusion criteria were applied:
1) papers that are literature review;
2) if the application of the residue is not in a cementitious
matrix (concrete, mortar and pastes);
3) papers in which the influence of the residue on the mechan-
ical property of the cementitious composite are not reported.
The flow diagram of method part is shown in Fig. 1:
3. Results and discussion
The number of papers, after advanced searching and exclusion
criteria applied to compose the systematic literature review, is
shown in Table 2.
The data of chemical, physical and mechanical characteristics
were extracted from the 107 papers in table 2 that satisfied the
exclusion criteria. These are displayed in Tables 3, 4 and 5.
3.1. Physical and chemical attributes of different inorganic solid wastes
The inorganic solid waste, when used as partial substitute of
cement or aggregates in mortar and concrete, should result in suit-
able cementitious material, meeting all requirements of workabil-
ity, durability and mechanical properties. These attributes are
directly influenced by their physical and chemical characteristics.
Table 3 shows the chemical constituents in percentage by weight
of inorganic solid wastes as reported in the papers considered in
this systematic literature review. Table 4 includes the specific grav-
ity, water absorption, density and fineness modulus of inorganic
solid wastes as reported.
3.2. Influence on mechanical properties of cementitious materials
produced by waste replacement
The replacement of components by inorganic wastes in cemen-
titious material should result in materials that meet several
parameters, mechanical properties being one of the most relevant
in the scope of application in civil engineering. Table 5 summarizes
the properties regarding these aspects showing the feasibility of
the use of residue.
3.3. Waste foundry sand (WFS)
WFS is a by-product of ferrous or nonferrous metal casting
industries. The potential of this waste is due to its high concentra-
tions of silica, as demonstrated in Table 3. In the last census (2019)
a volume of 113 million metric tonnes of metal casting produced
worldwide was related [11], and the most common way to produce
metal casting is in sand molds. Commonly, the mold is made of
mixture of natural sand (80–95%), carbonaceous additive (2–
Fábio Friol Guedes de Paiva, Jacqueline Roberta Tamashiro, Lucas Henrique Pereira Silva et al. Construction and Building Materials 285 (2021) 122833

Fig. 1. Flow Diagram of systematic review steps.

Table 2 ment at 900 °C and mechanical properties were compared with the
Number of papers found in advanced search using keywords in Table 1 and after non-treated. The replacement with 50% of waste foundry sand cal-
exclusion criteria.
cinated (WFSC) achieved an increase of 13% in compression resis-
Waste Material Total number of Number of papers after tance, while with total replacement, it increased by 134%
papers exclusion criteria compared to non-treated WFS. It was verified that calcination
Concrete Waste 115 6 removed the pulverized coal and formed amorphous phases in
Ceramic Waste 91 39 the WFSC, factors that may have improved its performance [76].
Glass Waste 43 9
Arulrajah et al. analyzed the metal WFS leaching, and found that
Foundry Sand 70 15
Foundry Slag 22 6 the concentration of majority hazardous metals delivered is below
Electric Arc Furnace Dust 19 7 the acceptable safety limits. However, the concentration of poly
Sugarcane Bagasse Ash 57 22 aromatic hydrocarbons exceeds the limits depending on the origins
Bamboo Leaf Ash 9 3
of WFS [125,126]. Sua-Iam et al. [25] studied the effect of partial
Total 426 107
replacement of cement by waste foundry sand. The use of waste
(one column). increased the water required to achieve the desired slump and
decreased compressive strength. Additionally, the increase in
WFS content (10 to 40) leads to a delay in setting times and a
10%), bentonite clay (4–10%) and water (2–5%) [122]. When the higher resistance to sulfates and sulfuric acid attack at 154 days
casting parts are removed from the mold, waste foundry sand is of exposure.
produced. Thus, it can be concluded that usually the replacement of natu-
Depending on the type of casting, it is estimated that each ton of ral sand by waste foundry sand (10–35%) increases the mechanical
castings consumes 0.8 to 1.0 ton of natural sand, which is a mate- resistance. The presence of organic components on the surface of
rial of non-renewable origin, extracted directly from the environ- the residue compromises the mechanical properties, at higher
ment [123]. The accumulation of this waste in landfills generates replacement ratios, but reaches acceptable characteristics accord-
significant environmental impacts due to the presence phenols ing to European Standards. Calcination treatment may represent
and inorganic elements such as lead, chromium, cadmium, iron, an alternative to enhance the mechanical properties allowing
among others. Currently, the literature relates several technologi- replacement of natural sand up to 100%, requiring further studies
cal applications in engineering [12,76,77,96–98]. to analyze the process viability. However, the use as cement substi-
Çevik et al. [13] studied the effects on the mechanical properties tute decreased the mechanical resistance, according to all studies
of cement mortars after partial replacement of natural sand with analyzed. This is associated with reduction of cement hydration
WFS (15% to 60%). The results demonstrated that a replacement rate and high porosity of composites, resulting in high water
with WFS up to 30% increased compressive strength by 13% at absorption, as listed in Table 5.
3 days of curing. Sua-Iam et al. and others found similar results
[14,27,96–98,124], as shown in Table 5. Although this enhance- 3.4. Electric Arc Furnace Dust (EAFD)
ment was not verified at higher proportions, the replacement with
up to 60% of WFS is acceptable for the European Standards - TS EN The generation of EAFD occurs due to the volatility of metals in
standards, even with the reduction of mechanical resistance. In the melting process, that react with oxygen, condensing into solid
recent work, the waste foundry sand was calcinated by heat treat- particles [127]. Approximately 70% of electric arc furnace dust is

Table 3
Chemical constituent (wt%) of ordinary Portland cement and waste materials according to the 107 papers in Table 2.

Materials SiO2 Al2O3 ZnO Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO2 PbO2 LOI References
OPCa 19.5–19.9 4.21–4.52 3.19–3.46 62.7–68.0 1.25–1.45 1.59–5.17 0.92–3.26 [13,22,23]
Waste Foundry Sand 78.5–94.1 0.21–6.10 – 0.95–5.80 0.17–2.44 0.20–3.56 0.04–0.57 0.95–3.50 0.95–3.63 [13–15,23–28]
Electric Arc Furnace Dust 2.65–3.89 0.94–1.04 31.3–38.3 28.9–35.9 2.93–13.3 1.58–2.25 1.07–2.60 0.25–0.3 4.25 [22,29–32]
Foundry Slag 33.1–45.0 8.20–13.3 – 0.69–3.54 25.4–42.8 5.57–10.6 1.41–1.81 – 0.99–2.08 [33–36]
Sugarcane Bagasse Ash 51.1–72.9 1.68–14.6 – 0.21–11.6 2.26–7.77 0.57–2.82 1.80–4.33 – 10.5–22.9 [37–41]
Bamboo Leaf Ash 70.5–80.2 0.63–2.27 – 0.47–2.34 3.30–7.86 1.46–1.84 0.84–3.31 – 7.79–11.3 [17,18,42]
Concrete Waste 17.3–68.1 0.16–18.5 – 0.45–5.59 14.4–38.5 0.31–9.20 0.79–1.50 – 13.3–30.8 [5,43–47]
Glass Waste 64.9–88.4 0.81–6.30 – 0.26–3.72 2.14–18.5 0.26–1.16 0.11–2.66 – 1.14–5.42 [9,48–50]
Ceramic Waste 28.8–71.2 13.3–26.9 – 0.55–16.6 0.10–24.1 0.36–5.50 0.01–3.30 – 0.10–3.63 [7,51,52,53–59,60–69,
70,71]

Legend: aOrdinary Portland Cement; LOI Loss on Ignition. (two columns).

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Fábio Friol Guedes de Paiva, Jacqueline Roberta Tamashiro, Lucas Henrique Pereira Silva et al. Construction and Building Materials 285 (2021) 122833

Table 4
Physical properties of ordinary Portland cement, natural sand and waste materials.

Materials Specific gravity (g/cm3) Water absorption (%) Density (kg/m3) Fineness modulus References
a
OPC 3.01–3.14 1.78 – – [23,35,72,73]
Natural Sand 2.57–2.64 1.63–3.65 2700 2.45–2.95 [49,72–74]
Waste Foundry Sand 2.18–2.61 1.40–4.82 1378–2589 1.00–3.36 [12,14,15,22–26,75,76,77]
Electric Arc Furnace Dust 3.81–3.84 – 3488 – [22,29–31]
Foundry Slag 2.38–3.57 0.26–2.30 1315 2.58–3.00 [24,73,78,79]
Sugarcane Bagasse Ash 1.51–2.69 0.79–0.80 2100–2190 1.04 [19,20,37,38,40,41,74,80–82,83]
Bamboo Leaf Ash 2.00 – – – [42]
Concrete Waste 1.90–2.69 2.94–4.30 2631–2880 – [44,84,85].
Glass Waste 2.50–2.63 0.10–0.40 – 7.86 [9,86,87]
Ceramic Waste 2.13–2.87 0.23–22.84 2200–2720 2.20–7.95 [6,7,52,53,59,60,70,71,91,92,93–98]

Legend: aOrdinary Portland Cement. (one column).

Table 5
Waste material, replaced material, general feasibility of replacement, workability and mechanical strength (compressive, flexure and tensile) attributes of cementitious materials.

Waste Replaced General Workability Mechanical Considerations References

material Component feasibility of strength
replacement
(%)
Waste Cement 10–40 Generally Generally Decrease in workability and mechanical strength [12,23,25]
Foundry decreases decreases are mainly due to higher water absorption, reduced
Sand hydration rate and high porosity of the composites
Fine 10–35 Generally Generally Generally, the presence of coal and clay in the [12,13,14,15,26,27,75–
Aggregate decreases increases residue prevents high percentages of incorporation. 77,99,100–102]
However, the treatment with calcination allowed
total substitutions.
Electric Arc Cement 3–10 Comparable Comparable The high contend of Zn and Pb and high specific [22,29–32,100,101]
Furnace surface area of the waste results in porous
Dust composites and impair replacements higher than
10%.
Slag Foundry Fine 10–60 Generally Generally The increase in mechanical strength is generally [24,26,36,73,78,79]
Aggregate decreases Slightly attributed by formation of longer C-S-H chain,
Improves owing to the rapid hydration of cement, leading to
homogeneous and a compact microstructure
Sugarcane Cement 5–20 Generally Comparable The high concentrations of silica in ash and their [18,19,20,37–41,74,80,81–
Bagasse decreases ultrafine particle size enable pozzolanic reactivity, 83,105–111,112–114]
Ash improving the packing density of the composite.
Bamboo Leaf Cement 10–30 Generally Generally The reaction between the silica or aluminosilica [17,18,42]
Ash decreases increases with the calcium hydroxide forms additional C-S-H,
which fills the capillary pores, increasing the
mechanical strength.
Concrete Cement 10–30 Generally Comparable Alkaline activation of concrete residue enables [5,43–47]
Waste decreases formation of nucleation sites of C-S-H and C-S-A-H,
leading to fast hardening.
Ceramic Cement 10–50 Generally Generally The reduction in the early compressive strength is [51,52,54,55,56,58–61,63,64–
Waste decreases decreases mainly due to the immature pozzolanic reaction in 66,68–70,98,115–117,118]
the concrete; the growth of C–S–H gel is affected by
the non-hydraulic feature of ceramic powder.
Fine 10–100 Generally Generally The increase of mechanical strength is mainly due [6,53,62,66,67,93,94,96,119,120,121]
Aggregate decreases Increases to the higher fine particle percentage in ceramic
residue, that acted as a filler, providing a dense
matrix and additional pozzolanic behavior.
Ceramic Coarse 10–100 Generally Generally The increase on mechanical strength is mainly due [7,64,69,90,92,94,95,119]
Waste Aggregate decreases Increases to its hardness which is higher than that of
conventional coarse aggregate and the better
bonding with the cement paste.
Glass Waste Cement 10–20 Generally Comparable Mechanical strength increases due to hydrolysis of [9,50]
increases the GP into free ions of SiO2, CaO and Na2O in the
water solution, forming C–S–H.
Fine 10–50 Generally Generally The improvement in mechanical properties is due [8,48,49,87,120,121]
Aggregate increases Slighty to the amorphous content of glass that should
Improves eventually participate in the cement hydration
reaction and develop a compact matrix.
Coarse 10–30 Generally Generally The mechanical strength generally decreases due to [86]
Aggregate decreases decreases the smooth glass surface and less water absorption
resulting in a weak aggregate-matrix interfacial
bond.

(two columns).

deposited in landfills worldwide [2]. The composition of EAFD is posites is studied, but with a previous treatment to avoid metal
variable, depending on the type of steel produced, scrap used mobility and further leaching of potential heavy metals into the
and furnace operating conditions. Its application in cement com- environment [2].

4
Fábio Friol Guedes de Paiva, Jacqueline Roberta Tamashiro, Lucas Henrique Pereira Silva et al.
The partial replacement of the siliceous filler component of
cement by 25, 50 and 100% of Electric Arc Furnace Dust was stud-
ied [29,128]. These results differ since in the first study [128], the
compressive strength increased 5% with 100% of replacement and
in the second study [29], the results indicated similar mechanical
properties with 25% and a high decrease with total replacement,
associated with higher open porosity of composites.
The positive characteristic of EAFD is its small size, resulting in
greater capability of filling voids, increasing the density of the mor-
tar. On the other hand, the detriment of cement hydration leads to
low mechanical resistance; the negative aspect.
Additionally, leaching of Pb was verified in mortar with up to
50% replacement, but within acceptable limits, according to the
environmental assessment [128]. Ledesma et al. [32,129] analyzed
chemical composition, for a compliance test, of two different
EAFDs and found high concentrations of Se, Cd, Mo, Pb and chloride
that exceeded the legal limits. Thus, the EAFDs. were classified as
hazardous waste requiring adequate treatment for landfill destina-
tion. However, when incorporated into mortars, the leakage of
metals into the environment is inhibited, different from a waste
in pure form. Its incorporation in mortars inhibited the release
launching of metals as occurs in a waste pure form. Only Pb release
continued with levels above the acceptable (>10 mg/kg) thus, it
cannot be classified as non-hazardous. New techniques to improve
Pb encapsulation are necessary.
Magalhães et al. [31] studied the mechanical properties of mortar
composites with 5 and 10% of cement replaced by EAFD, also varying
the water/binder (w/b) ratios, from 0.35 to 0.7. The best mechanical
properties were achieved with 0.35 w/b and 10% of cement replaced
by EAFD, reaching an increase of 5.2% in compressive strength. How-
ever, higher water/binder ratio damaged the mechanical properties
due to the decrease of the cementing efficiency. Alizadeh et al. [101]
reported similar results with the replacement of 5 and 10%, obtaining
a smaller increase in compressive strength with 5% cement replace-
ment, as well as the significant delay in the setting time and retarding
the cement hydration time. These results are associated with high
specificsurfaceareaoftheEAFDparticlesinrelationtocementparticles
and high concentration of Zn and Mn that lead to some reactions on
cementgrainswhich,inturn,leadtopostponingthehardeningprocess
of the concrete mixture. A similar effect is reported by Fauz et al. [130].
Few studies have reported a significant improvement in
mechanical properties with the addition of Electric Arc Furnace
Dust. In general, this dust in low concentrations (<10%) is accept-
able, as demonstrated in Table 5. The high concentration of Zn
and Pb results in a more reticular and porous microstructure,
impairing the incorporation in greater proportions. However, it
was found that most of the residues collected had a high content
of heavy metals, such as Zn and Pb (Table 3), which, even when
incorporated in the cement composites, presented leaching levels
above the acceptable (>10 mg/kg). Therefore, more approaches
are necessary to inhibit the mobility of heavy metals to enable
application in building materials.
3.5. Foundry slag (FS)
The foundry slag is a by-product of the casting of metallic mate-
rials in industry and its chemical properties depend on the metal
produced (iron, zinc, copper, steel, etc.). Just the ground granulated
blast furnace slag from pig iron and steel production generates 530
million [131] and 250 million tonnes [132] respectively, worldwide
annually. The production of granulated slag consists of rapidly
cooling the molten slag with water in a pond, or with powerful
water jets, resulting in a fine, granular and almost fully non-
crystalline powder, with hydraulic properties [133].
Portland cement production accounts for ~ 5–7% of the CO2
emissions globally, and several researchers have evaluated the par-
5
Construction and Building Materials 285 (2021) 122833
tial replacement of Portland cement and quartz sand by foundry
slag as a sustainable alternative for production of cleaner mortars
and concretes [24,36,73,78,134]. Usually, 95% of the foundry slag
composition is silica, calcium, aluminum, magnesium and oxygen
(Table 3). This chemical composition is very important for better
hydraulic activity [135].
Gholampour et al. [33] analyzed the effects of concrete with
partial replacement (50, 70 and 90%) of cement by granulated blast
furnace slag (GGBS). The replacement of cement by 90% GGBS
resulted in a decrease of 51% in slump properties, attributed to
the lower capillarity of GGBS mixes, a factor also responsible for
reducing water absorption by concrete. However, GGBS mixes
resulted in similar or slightly higher compression, since the curing
period is extended (28 and 90 days) compared to the control con-
crete. These results are associated with the higher volume of SiO2
(~35%) and Al2O3 (~13%) compared to Portland cement (Table 3).
These components increased hydration in late periods, leading to
higher formation of tricalcium silicate (C3S), dicalcium silicate
(C2S) and tricalcium aluminate (C3A) in the mixture. The late reac-
tion is also reported, associated with the pozzolanic reaction that is
slower and require more time for calcium hydroxide formation
[136]. In contrast, Javali et al. [134] studied the partial replacement
(5–20%) of cement by aluminum slag, obtaining similar properties
to control concrete at 5% replacement, and a marked loss of
mechanical strength with 10 to 20% replacement.
Rajasekar et al. [78] studied copper slag as a substitute of quartz
sand up to 100% of replacement in Ultra High Strength Concrete
(UHSC). The results demonstrated that the replacement of 100%
results in minimum acceptable compressive (150 MPa), flexural
(18 MPa) and splitting tensile strength (14 MPa). However, the
replacement of 60% by copper slag resulted in the optimum
mechanical properties of concrete, attributed by formation of
greater amount of C-S-H chain, owing to the rapid hydration of
cement. Nonetheless, strength reduction characteristics were
observed with replacement higher than 60%, which is associated
with an increase of free water present in the mix, resulting in more
quantity of pores in the cured concrete. A similar result with 40%
replacement of sand by foundry slag is related. An increase in the
compressive strength in comparison to control concrete was
observed, associated with the reactivity characteristic of foundry
slag, increasing the compactness and resistance of concrete [79].
Torres et al. [24] studied the effect of un-separated foundry slag
and sand waste in concrete, the content primarily being slag and
foundry sand waste. The mechanical properties were not affected
with replacement of coarse or fine aggregate by foundry slag up
to 30%. For both fine and coarse aggregates replacement by un-
separated waste, the same mechanical strength of the control is
achieved with a ratio of 20% of replacement. However, a decrease
of 15% and 20% in compressive strength was observed with
replacement of 40% and 60%, respectively.
Therefore, the foundry slag has been considered as an alterna-
tive in the replacement of cement, resulting in mortars with simi-
lar mechanical properties. However due to higher volume of SiO2
and Al2O3 present in FS, the pozzolanic reactions at the beginning
of hydration are slower, consequently more time is necessary to
obtain similar or better properties than the control concrete. More-
over, the chemical composition of foundry slag provides additional
formation of C-S-H when it substitutes natural sand, owing to the
rapid hydration of cement, as well as a homogeneous and a com-
pact microstructure, enabling replacements of up to 60% (Table 5).
3.6. Concrete waste (CoW)
Concrete and mortar are the cement matrix composites most
used in construction. Approximately 30 billion tonnes of concrete
are estimated to be produced per year worldwide [137]. In the civil
Fábio Friol Guedes de Paiva, Jacqueline Roberta Tamashiro, Lucas Henrique Pereira Silva et al.
construction industry, concrete waste (CoW) represents about 60%
of the total solid waste generated in renovation and demolition
activities [138].
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines that
recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) are granular materials, which
can be separated or removed from the solid waste stream in order
to be processed for use as a raw material or product. Several spec-
ifications for the use of RCA establish that they should contain, at
least 90% of their mass composed of Portland cement and natural
aggregates such as sand and rocks [139–141].
The utilization of CoW as a component of cementitious materi-
als presents several advantages such as reducing waste disposal in
landfills; reducing raw materials extraction; reducing energy con-
sumption. These minimize the environmental impact and also rep-
resent a sustainable circular economy in construction activities
[142–144].
Currently, several works have focused on concrete waste treat-
ments and processing before addition to cementitious composites
[45,46,145]. He et al. [5] utilized autoclaved aerated concrete
waste for cement replacement in pastes, improving the particle
fineness (~2.3 lm) using the wet-milling technique. The grinding
process facilitated the dissolution of alkali (Ca(OH)₂) and improved
the pH value, accelerating the hydration of clinker. Replacement up
to 30% produced paste with compressive strength similar to the
reference.
Abdel-Gawwad; Rashad; Heikal [45] treated concrete waste
with NaOH and added lead bearing sludge to produce alkali acti-
vated cement, getting good results. The NaOH to concrete waste
weight ratio amount was monitored, 2 wt% Na2O content resulted
in better performance in compressive strength. Similarly, Robayo-
Salazar; Riviera; Gutiérrez [145] treated the waste with NaOH and
found that the ratio of 6% of Na2O is better to produce alkali acti-
vated cement.
Kumar; Ananthan; Balaji conducted studies with utilization of
coarse and fine fractions of RCA in self compacting concrete
(SCC). The concrete was designed per ‘‘Modified Nan-su Method”
[43] 4 mixes (control, 20% fine RCA, 20% coarse RCA and 20%
fine + 20% coarse RCA) were submitted to mechanical testing. Also,
the durability tests with Na2SO4 and H2SO4 solutions were con-
ducted. Based on the results, the SCC with 20% fine RCA + 20%
coarse RCA resulted in better mechanical properties and durability
performance in comparison to the control concrete.
Other studies have reported on techniques that improve the
grain quality of CoW to use as aggregates [44,84,85]. Drissi; Ling;
Mo [84] used a pelletization process with Phase Change Material
on concrete waste powder (CWP) to produce aggregates with a
size of approximately 10 mm. The process enhanced the artificial
aggregates due to the formation of a less-permeable carbonate-
rich layer leading to a 29% water absorption reduction and
increased the density up 4% of artificial aggregates. They showed
the feasibility of use of this material as artificial aggregates for
concrete due to the increase of mechanical strength and less
water demand. Shi et al. [44] used CWP for production of artificial
carbonated aggregates with 6 to 15 mm in diameter. Two differ-
ent cures were tested (normal and in presence of CO2) to acceler-
ate the reaction with minerals containing calcium or magnesium
and two cement proportions (10 and 20%). The aggregate with
CWP with a size of 150 mm cured in CO2 presented higher com-
pressive strength in comparison with the smaller particle
(75 mm).
Pacheco et al. [85] determined the variability of the mechanical
properties (compressive strength, Young’s modulus and splitting
tensile strength) in several within-batch natural coarse aggregates
and RCA, on 5 concrete mixes with different replacement ratios.
They noticed that the mechanical properties were similar with
up to 25% replacement, however with 50 and 100% the mechanical
6
Construction and Building Materials 285 (2021) 122833
properties were reduced by 10%. In within-batch, concretes with
100% RCA did not present high variability, while the intermediate
ratios (25% and 50%) were slightly more variable.
In relation to recycled high performance concretes (RHPC),
Wang et al. [142] proposed a simplified method for mix proportion
of RHPC using 100% of recycled coarse aggregate, reducing the
extensive trial tests. The water absorption was used as a quality
parameter of the RCA and the mixtures were designed taking into
account this absorption and RHPC resistance to frost. Freeze resis-
tance was measured by the loss of compressive strength and by
relative dynamic modulus of elasticity after freeze cycles.
Other authors [146] studied the durability of self-compacting
high-performance concrete (SCHPC) with replacement of 25% and
50% of the coarse aggregate by RCA. All concretes with substitution
of aggregate by RCA had a slump similar to that of the control con-
crete. The compressive strength of concrete with 50% natural
aggregate replaced by RCA resulted in better mechanical properties
at 90 and 270 days. The SCHPC were also evaluated for chloride
migration, water penetration, absorption, resistance to freezing
and thawing up to 270 days and the results showed that the use
of up to 50% RCA did not influence these properties.
The compressive strength of concrete with 50% natural aggre-
gate replaced by RCA resulted in higher strength values after 90
and 270 days. Also, water absorption and freeze resistance have
been investigated up to 270 days and the results showed that using
RCA has no significant effect on the durability properties of RHPC
when used up to 50%.
As shown in Table 4, the high water absorption of RCA has been
reported by other authors [84,144,147]. The permeability of old
paste/mortar and the presence of voids in RCA can provide inter-
connectivity of pores, forming microcracks, allowing the penetra-
tion of water that affects the durability of new composites.
Rangel et al. [144]; classified and characterized concrete waste
from different origins (concrete-plant, demolition waste and labo-
ratory produced) to establish quality-control parameters. The old
binder adhered to the surface of RCA can establish a new quality
parameter in terms of water absorption. They concluded that the
ideal mortar percent adhered to the RCAs is from 20 to 70%.
New treatments, processes and technologies can provide the
application of concrete waste as constituents of cementitious com-
posites and even in structural concretes. As well as other waste, it
is essential that concrete wastes are categorized by different phys-
ical and chemical properties. In addition, their performance needs
to be tested through standardized tests prior to application in con-
struction materials [148–150]. The variability of the source
[144,151,152]; the type of cement used [153]; the age of the con-
crete [154]; and other components in the dosages [151,155] are
important parameters to guide the best use.
3.7. Ceramic waste (CW)
Ceramics are used as building materials as tiles, brick floors and
roofing tiles. Their main components are natural materials with a
high content of clay minerals, silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3)
and represent>80% of their composition [156,157]. These results
are summarized in Table 3. The global production of ceramic waste
exceeds 22 billion tons per year [157]. Approximately 30% of the
total ceramics produced is discarded as waste due to failures dur-
ing its production [157,158]. Ceramic wastes are usually classified
into two types, according to their source or raw material [159]. The
first type is the waste generated during the firing process, common
in pottery and ceramic industries, which produces parts for use in
roofs (bricks, tiles and roof tiles). The second type comprises cera-
mic waste with surface treatment, such as gres ceramics (tiles,
floors and sanitary wares).
Fábio Friol Guedes de Paiva, Jacqueline Roberta Tamashiro, Lucas Henrique Pereira Silva et al.
Several studies show the feasibility of replacing natural aggre-
gates, coarse [90,94,95] and fine [65,89,116,117], by ceramic resi-
dues in cementitious matrix composites. The partial replacement
of natural aggregates by ceramic waste (CW) can provide an
increase in compressive strength. Mohammadhosseini et al. [160]
observed better mechanical resistance performance when using
ceramic residue as fine aggregate and binder (substitution of
cement) in mortars. At 90 days of curing, the compressive and ten-
sile strengths of the samples with 40% CW replacing cement and
100% replacing fine aggregates obtained higher mechanical
strength values compared to conventional mortar. Similarly,
Awoyera et al. and others [6,65,88,89,91] found the same effect
and the results are shown in Table 5. The increase in the resistance
of the mortar can be attributed to the pozzolanic reaction between
the silicon oxide (SiO2) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) present in
high quantity in the CW and hydration products of the ordinary
Portland cement (OPC), such as calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2).
Pitarch et al. [69] studied ceramic waste as aggregates in the
production of structural concrete. Tile ceramic waste (TCW), red
clay bricks (RCB) and ceramic sanitary wares (CSW) were used as
a substitute for natural limestone aggregates at a ratio between
14 and 30% (by mass). Compared to conventional concrete, the first
with TCW showed higher compressive strength values, reaching 7%
higher than the reference after 28 days of curing. The concretes
containing 30% substitution of CSW presented compressive
strength similar to that of conventional concretes at the 28th
day. RCB concrete (30% replacement) presented the highest
strength loss percentages at the early curing period (up to 18.4%,
after 7 days of curing). These results demonstrate the feasibility
of using TCW and CSW as recycled aggregates in the production
of structural concrete.
In general, the replacement of fine aggregate and coarse aggre-
gate up to 100% by ceramic waste showed an improvement in
mechanical properties, because the ceramic particles provide the
dense matrix, pozzolanic potential and also higher hardness than
conventional coarse aggregate, with better bonding with the
cement paste. However, the replacement of cement by ceramic
waste decreases the mechanical strength, which may be associated
with the immature pozzolanic reaction, affected by non-hydraulic
ceramic powder, retarding the strength development, as related by
El-Dieb et al. and others [62,63,113]. These results are summarized
in Table 5.
3.8. Glass waste (GW)
Glass is an inorganic, amorphous and physically homogeneous
substance, [161]. It is formed by fusion and further cooling to a
rigid condition without crystallizing [8,9] (Table 3).
In general, glass waste (GW) from the construction industry
includes window components, crystals, light bulbs, neon tubes,
hollow bricks and others [162]. The reuse of GW from the con-
struction industry is an environmentally positive, well-
established practice [9,121]. Studies have been done on using
GW in cementitious composites production as supplementary
cementitious material [48,49,86] (Table 5).
Some authors have related that the partial replacement of
cement by glass powder (GP) can improve the rheology [163],
mechanical strength and durability of concretes [9,50]. Elaqra;
Haloub; Rustom [50] investigated the effects of GP as replacement
of cement in fresh and hardened concretes. Four percentages of GP
were studied: 0%, 10%, 20% and 30%. Two mixing methods were
used: conventional method (GP added to cement and aggregates)
and the second (GP dissolved in water before addition to cement
and aggregates). After 90 days, the concretes with 20% GP using
the second mixing method, showed higher compressive strength
than control samples (established at 25 MPa). The authors con-
7
Construction and Building Materials 285 (2021) 122833
firmed that the increase is related to hydrolysis of the GP into free
ions of SiO2, CaO and Na2O in the water solution, forming more C–
S–H than control samples. Similarly, Kamali and Ghahrema-
ninezhad [164] examined the effect of GP on the mechanical
strength, durability and behavior of cementitious materials modi-
fied with two types of GP and an addition of class F fly ash (FA)
to various levels of cement replacement. The mixes have the
water/cement ratio fixed at 0.50, with replacement of cement by
GP at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and also, another admixture with
replacement of 20% cement by fly ash (FA). Two glass powders
with 8.4 mm were used (GP 1 and 2). GP1 was a post-industrial
by-product from waste glass fiber and GP2 is a post-consumer
by-product derived from recycled glass. The compressive strength
tests were performed at 7, 28 and 91 days of curing and those of
flexural strength were carried at 28 and 91 days of curing. The
results showed that glass powder improved the compressive
strength in all mortars and concretes. Furthermore, the replace-
ment of cement by GP2 increased the flexural strength after
91 days. It formed a secondary hydration product (C–S–H) arising
from its pozzolanic property. The strength performance of concrete
and mortar made with admixtures with GP were better than
dosages with FA. Most of the studies related that glass waste can
be used for partial replacement of cement. There is potential for
the utilization of glass powder (GP) in matrix cement as an addi-
tion as well as silica fume and fly ash. GP used as partial replace-
ment of cement in concrete and mortar usually resulted in an
increase in compressive strength, when used as substitute up to
20%, due to pozzolanic reaction and alkali release by glass waste.
The pozzolanic properties of glass waste increased with particle
sizes < 90 mm. The replacement of up to 50% natural sand by glass
waste slightly improved mechanical properties, associated with its
amorphous characteristic that will eventually participate in the
reaction and develop a strong compact matrix. On the other hand,
when used as a replacement for coarse aggregate in concretes, the
mechanical strength generally decreases due to the smooth glass
surface and less water absorption compared with natural coarse
aggregates, resulting in a poor bond aggregate-matrix [86]. There-
fore, finding a percentage range of waste glass as aggregates, with-
out impacting properties of composites, is recommended since few
studies have investigated its use as a coarse aggregate.
3.9. Sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA)
Currently, sugarcane ethanol is a better alternative to non-
renewable fuels. Not just because of its sustainability, but also
for its low cost. The sugarcane bagasse (SBA) is the main residue
of this industry and its production is approximately 1.9 billion ton-
nes annually [16]. Its combustion to produce renewable energy
results in approximately 0.3% ash, with potential characteristics
to be incorporated in cementitious composites [165]. Brazil and
India are the biggest producers of sugarcane in the world; Brazil
produced approximately 706 million tonnes in 2016 [16].
Investigations regarding the feasibility of incorporating the sug-
arcane bagasse ash started in 1998 when positive results were
obtained, revealing the formation of hydrated silicates and the con-
sumption of calcium hydroxide in composites where the sugarcane
bagasse ash had been incorporated [166]. The replacement of
cement by SBA improved the physical and mechanical properties,
and the durability of cementitious materials [18]. Singh et al.
[167] also evaluated composites with added SBA and observed an
increase in compressive strength at all ages when the amount of
substitution was 10%. Ganesan et al. [168] analyzed concretes with
higher substitution levels, up to 30%, and concluded that SBA
improved the mechanical characteristics of concretes when
replaced with up to 20%. Other studies focused on replacement
with different quantities of cement, finding the same results.
Fábio Friol Guedes de Paiva, Jacqueline Roberta Tamashiro, Lucas Henrique Pereira Silva et al. Construction and Building Materials 285 (2021) 122833

Fig. 2. Future researches directions and possible applications for each waste studied in this work.

8
Fábio Friol Guedes de Paiva, Jacqueline Roberta Tamashiro, Lucas Henrique Pereira Silva et al.
Replacement up to 20% increases or preserves the compressive
strength compared to the reference concrete [165,169].
Other studies have reported additional mechanical resistance
benefits caused by the incorporation of SBA. One of them is the
higher durability [20,170] of mortars with the mineral addition
that, due to the filer effect, present less mass loss due to the attack
of external agents.
Thus, it can be usually observed that the partial replacement of
cement, up to 10%, by SBA increases the compressive strength.
However, the 20%wt replacement, shows compressive strength
values similar to those of the reference [19,37,103]. Due to ultra-
fine particle size, the packing density of the blend is improved
and high active silica enabled pozzolanic reactivity (Table 5). Stud-
ies with longer curing times indicate that after 28 days there is a
considerable increase in strength [38].
3.10. Bamboo Leaf ash (BLA)
Bamboo is a fast-growing plant and has the capability to grow
in degraded areas. It can be used in the riparian zone for reforesta-
tion and has a high carbon dioxide sequestration capacity [171].
Bamboo has been widely used worldwide in many economic sec-
tors. In 2010, a large area of 31.5 million hectares was produced;
Asia being the largest producer [17]. The greatest biodiversity
and native reserves are in Brazil with an area of 180,000 km2; how-
ever, only the cellulose industry uses bamboo.
ThepaperproductioninBrazilconsumes500milliontonnesayear,
consequentlygeneratingalargeresidualvolumeofleaves(190milton/
years). This waste is left on the planting area without interest from the
industry,buthasinterestingpropertiestobeusedinotherapplications
[172].Ithasthepotentialtobeusedasbiomassinenergyproduction,asit
isdonewithotheragroindustrialwastes.Theenergyproductionusing
agroindustrialwastesrepresentsaround35%ofallenergyproducedin
developingcountries[173].Theashproduced,mainlymadeupofSiO2,
has thepotentialtobeusedas amineraladditivein cementitiouscom-
posites. As a result, environmental damage is reduced, since this
replacementdecreasestheenergyconsumptionandemissionofharm-
ful gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), by cement production [171].
Colombia and Ecuador have been using this material in civil construc-
tion materialsand agribusinesshas used it muchmore [174].
Many studies have been carried out in order to transform bam-
boo leaf ash (BLA) into a product suitable for use as a binder in civil
construction material. The chemical characterization shows a
material with high silica concentration - values between 70.5%
80.2% (Table 3) - these values are excellent to use BLA as supple-
mentary cementitious material [17,18,42]. The differences in
chemical composition can be explained by the characteristics of
the soil, age, climatic conditions, etc. The calcination temperature
process was investigated in order to determine the temperature
range that resulted in the highest amount of amorphous silica.
Ash produced between 500 and 600 °C showed better results for
pozzolanic materials [175,176]. The use of pozzolanic materials
in cement is a normalized worldwide practice. In Brazil the stan-
dard is NBR 12653; in USA, ASTM D5370 and in Europe, standard
EN-197.
Mechanical tests in cementitious composites where ordinary
Portland cement was substituted by BLA showed that 30% of
replacement in mass is suitable. Higher percentages lead to a
reduction in strength when compared to regular composites
[42,167]. Frías et. al. [177], testing the pozzolanic activity method,
obtained a very reactive material, comparable to the silica fume. At
3 days of reaction, the ash had consumed practically all the avail-
able lime in dissolution. However, there is still a need for studies to
investigate the influence of the incorporation of BLA in cementi-
tious composites, especially in the long term. In addition, there is
a lack of studies about characterizing a wide range of BLA [17].
9
Construction and Building Materials 285 (2021) 122833
Villar Cociña et. al (2020) present the silica fume as the most per-
forming siliceous product among the pozzolanic materials, and
comparing the kinetic parameters with BLA conclude both have a
similar reactivity, demonstrating its potential for practical applica-
tion in civil construction [178].
3.11. Future researches directions
Based on the results of this literature review, the following sug-
gestions for future research and possible applications illustrated in
Fig. 2, using these wastes were suggested by the authors.
4. Conclusion
A systematic literature review on different inorganic solid
wastes for application in cementitious materials was conducted
in this study. Based on the published literature, the following con-
clusions can be derived.
1) Extensive research has been done, to date, for the replace-
ment of cement, fine and coarse aggregate by C&D, casting
industry and agroindustrial wastes in new alternative
cementitious materials.
2) Cementitious composites are a versatile material with high
potential to receive different inorganic solid wastes resulting
in environmentally friendly building materials.
3) The quality of wastes, such as their chemical and physical
properties, directly influences the quality of the final cemen-
titious material, affecting hydration rate, formation of C-S-H,
porosity, dense matrix and other characteristics.
4) The evaluated residues produce cementitious materials with
good mechanical properties, in specific replacement per-
centage. In cement replacement: sugarcane bagasse ash,
bamboo leaf ash, glass waste and concrete waste resulted
in satisfactory results at between 10 and 30% replacement.
Waste foundry sand, slag, ceramic and glass waste, can
replace up to 100% of fine aggregate. Only the ceramic resi-
due resulted in good mechanical properties when substitut-
ing coarse aggregates, at up to 100% replacement.
5) In general, presence of coal and clay in particles of WFS
increase the water absorption, reducing the workability
and mechanical strength of cementitious composites when
it replaces cement. In addition, replacement up to 35% of fine
aggregate by WFS increases the mechanical strength and the
treatment with calcination allowed total replacement due to
the removal of impurities on the residue surface.
6) Electric Arc Furnace Dust can be used in replacement of
cement, without impairing workability and mechanical
resistance in small proportions. However, EAFD is classified
as hazardous waste due to its high concentrations of Se,
Cd, Mp, Pb and Zn, needing further studies for efficient
encapsulation in cementitious materials.
7) Slag foundry results in decrease of workability when replace
fine aggregate due to higher water absorption. Moreover,
mechanical strength is generally slightly improved, attribu-
ted by formation of longer C-S-H chain, leading to homoge-
neous and packing density.
8) The replacement of cement by agroindustrial ash (sugarcane
and bamboo) resulted in a reduction in workability due to
the higher surface area of the waste particles and the pres-
ence of carbon which remained unburned. The improvement
in mechanical strength was due to the high concentration of
silica and calcium hydroxide that form additional C-S-H, as
well as increased pozzolanic reactivity and the packing
density.
Fábio Friol Guedes de Paiva, Jacqueline Roberta Tamashiro, Lucas Henrique Pereira Silva et al.
9) The replacement of cement by CoW results in decreases in
workability. That can be associated by the negative effect
of higher surface area of CoW particles, increasing the water
demand. Mechanical strength of recycled concrete was not
affected by the concrete waste.
10) Due to the porous characteristic, particle shape and clay
composition, cementitious materials with waste ceramics
resulted in decrease of workability. The non-hydraulic fea-
ture of ceramic waste result in decrease of mechanical
strength when replacing cement. However, in fine and
coarse aggregate replacements, the ceramic waste resulting
in higher mechanical strength due to its hardness and suit-
able adhesion with the cement paste.
11) In general, the replacement of cement and fine aggregate by
GW resulted in the greater workability of cementitious com-
posites, due to the water non-absorbing characteristic of the
glass residue and the increase in free water, promoting the
greatest formation of C-S-H and a compact matrix, increas-
ing the mechanical strength. However, replacing coarse
aggregate, workability decreased, due to elongated shape
GW and poor adhesion with the cementitious matrix, result-
ing in decrease of mechanical strength.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoa-
mento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – Brasil (CAPES) – Finance Code
001. Angela Kinoshita thanks the National Council for Scientific
and Technological Development – CNPq [grant 309186/2020-0].
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